ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Mechanism of Hormone action

Hormones does not act on the target cell directly. It combine with receptor to form hormone receptor
complex. The complex executes the hormonal action by anyone of the following mechanism:
1. By altering permeability of cell membrane.
2. By activating intracellular enzyme.
3. By acting on genes.
By altering permeability of cell membrane:
 Neurotransmitters in synapse of neuromuscular junction act by changing the permeability of post
synaptic membrane.
 Example: Ach Released from the vesicle. increase the permeability of post synaptic membrane for
sodium , by opening channel ligand gated sodium channel.
By activating intracellular enzyme:
 The hormones act on target cell is called its first messenger.
 It copies the receptor and form hormone receptor complex.
 Second messager: HR complex activates the enzymes, of the cell and cost the formation of
another substance cold second messenger. And it produces the effects of the hormone inside the
cell.
 Example: protein hormones and catecholamine act by this mechanism.
Most common second messenger is camd.
Other second messenger:
 Calcium ions and calmodulin.
 many hormones act by increase the cation function and second messenger also carry another
protein called calmodulin d and Tropinin c
 Calcium calmodulin complex activates various enzyme in the cell and cause the
physiological response.
 Example: myosin kinase in smooth muscle and result in muscular contraction.
By acting on genes:
 Thyroid and steroid hormones execute their functions by acting on genes in the target
cell.
 Hormones enter the internal part of the cell and b in receptor in cytoplasm.
 This complex moves forwards the DNA and bind ćdna.
 This process of transcription of mri, ne ribosomes nucleus activates them.
 Activated ribosomes produce large quantity of protein.
  these proteins must produce physiological responses in target CeM

Pituitary Gland
It is present in hypophysal fossa of hypothalamus. It is about 500 mg weight.
It consists of 3 distinct parts.
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus:
Both act as unit, regulating the activity of most of the other glands.
 Anterior Pituitary
 External Pituitary
 Inter mediate lobe

Hypothalamus Anterior Pituitary Gland

Releases GHRH (Growth Hormone Releases GH (Growth Hormone)
Releasing Hormone)

GHRIH (Growth Hormone Releasing GHI (Growth Hormone Inhibition) is

Inhibiting Hormone) is released. released.

CRH (Cortico tropin Releasing TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) is released.

Hormone)is released.

PRH (Prolactin Releasing Hormone) is ACTH (Adrino CorticoTropic

released. Hormone) is released.

LHRH (Luteinizing Hormone FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) is

Releasing Hormone) is released released

GNRH (Gonado Tropin Releasing LH (Luteinizing Hormone) is released.

Hormone) is released

TRH is released TSH Inhibition is released

Hormones released by Anterior Pituitary Gland
Growth Hormone
 It is most abundant hormone by Anterior Pituitary Gland.
 It stimulates the growth and division of most of the body cells, especially in the bones and skeletal
muscles.
 Its release is stimulated by GHRH and inhibited by GHRIH
 The Secretion of growth hormone is greater during night while sleeping, hypoglycemia, exercise and
anxiety.
 Inhibition occurs by negative feedback mechanism. When the blood level rises and also, when
GHRH is released by hypothalamus.
Thyroid Stimulating hormone:
 It is stimulated by Anterior Pituitary Gland.
 Its release is stimulated by TRH from Hypothalamus.
 Its stimulates the growth and activity of thyroid gland, which secrete hormone T3 and T4.
 The secretion is regulated by negative feedback mechanism.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone:
 It is released from hypothalamus which promotes synthesis and release of ACTH by
Anterior Pituitary.
 This increase the concentration of cholesterol and steroids within the adrenal cortex and
the output of steroid hormone especially cortisol.
 It is associated with sleep pattern.
 Its secretion is regulated by negative feedback mechanism.
 Other factors that stimulates secretion includes: Hypoglycemia, exercise, emotional state
and fever.
Prolactin:
 This hormone stimulates lactation and direct effect on breast immediately after parturition.
 It is stimulated by prolactin releasing hormone by hypothalamus.
 The hormone is lowered by Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone.
 Prolactin together with estrogen, corticosteroids, insulin is involved in inhibiting and
maintaining lactation.
 Emotional states increase the production of prolactin.
Gonadotropin:

 After puberty, Two Gonadotropins are secreted by anterior pituitary in response to LHRH.
 Both in males and females there are production of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
 In both, male and female sex hormones are produced called as gamets (Ovum and sperm)
 In females, LH and FSH are involved in secretion of hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone
during menstrual cycle.
 When the levels of oestrogen and progesterone raises, the secretion of LH ad FSH is suppressed
 In males, the LH stimulate the secretion of hormone testosterone
 Hormones released by Posterior Pituitary Gland
Oxytocin:
 It stimulates, two target tissues during and after parturition
 Uterine smooth muscles and muscle cells of lactating breast is stimulated.
 During foetal birth, there is an increase in the amount of oxytocin into blood stream in response to
increasing distension of sensory stretch receptor in the uterine cervix by foetal head
 Sensory impulses are generated and travelled to control center in hypothalamus, stimulate posterior
pituitary to release more oxytocin
 Oxytocin which causes uterine contraction and greater stretching of
 cervix as foetal’s head is force downwards
 This is an example of positive feedback mechanism
 The process of milk ejection is also involves positive feedback mechanism
Vasopressin:
 Its main effect is to reduce urine output
 Vasopressin increases the permeability of water in distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of
nephron. As a result of re-absorption of water from glomerular filtrate is increased.
 Vasopressin secretion is influenced by osmotic pressure in blood
 When osmotic pressure of blood increases, the secretion of
vasopressin / ADH also increases.
 Adrenal Gland
 It is situated on the upper part of each kidney.
 It is about 4 meters long and 3 meters thick
 Adrenal gland is consists of two parts, Adrenal cortex and Adrenal Medulla
Adrenal Cortex:
 It produces 3 groups of hormones outer zona-glomerulosa, middle zona-fasciculata and inner zona-
reticularis.
 It secretes many steroid hormones commonly known as corticoids.
 The steroid hormones are produced through modification of cholesterol.
 Zona-glomerulosa, secretes mineralo corticoids and small amount of sex hormones, zona- fasciculate
secrets gluco corticoids and zona-reticularis secrets sex hormones.
Gluco Corticoids:
 They are involved in carbo-hydrate metabolism
 In our body, cortisol is the main gluco-corticoid, which stimulate gluco neo genesis, lypolyysis and
proteolysis and inhibit cellular uptake and utilization of amino acids
 Cortisol is also involved in maintaining the cardiovascular system as well as kidney functions
 Qualities of producers anti-inflammatory reactions and suppress the immune response it also
stimulates the RBC production.
Mineralocorticoids:
 Corticoids that regulate the balance of water and electrolytes in our body are called
mineralocorticoids.
 Aldosterone renin is the main mineralocorticoid in our body
 It acts at the renal tubules and stimulate the reabsorption of sodium and water and excretion of
potassium and phosphate ions
 Aldosterone helps in the maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure and blood
pressure.
Androgens:
 Small amount of androgenic Steroids are also secreted by adrenal cortex which play a role in growth
of axial hair, pubic hair and facial hair during puberty
Adrenal medulla:
 Adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion it has chromaffin cells that secrete to measure
hormones epinephrine or adrenaline and noradrenaline or norepinephrine.
 Adrenal medulla secretes hormones called adrenaline and noradrenaline these are commonly called
as catecholamines.
 Adrenaline and noradrenaline are rapidly secreted In response to stress of any kind or during
emergency situations and are called emergency hormones are hormones of flight or fight
 These hormones increased alertness pupillary hair piloerection sweating
 The increase in the rate of Heartbeat strength of heart contraction and the rate of respiration
 Catecholamine’s also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen resulting in an increased concentration of
glucose in body. In addition they also stimulate The breakdown of lipids and proteins
 Thyroid gland
 Thyroid gland is a butterfly shaped gland composed of two lobes which are located on either side of
the trachea.
 Both the lobes are interconnected with thin flap of connective tissue called as the isthamus
 The thyroid gland is composed of follicles and stromal tissues. Each follicle is composed of
follicular cells in closing a cavity.
 The cavities in these follicles are lined with the single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells this
follicular cells synthesise two hormones Tetra iodothyronine or thyroxin T4 and triiodothyronine or
T3
 Iodine and the amino acid tyrosine are used to synthesize these thyroid hormones. Tetra
iodothyronine includes four atoms of iodine while Tri iodothyronine includes three atoms of Iodine
 The level of TSH is depending on plasma level of T3 and T4
 Increased T3 and T4 causes decrease in TSH secretion and vice versa
 The creation of T3 and T4 while beginning at third month of fetal life and during it is also increased
in puberty and also in women during reproductive years especially during pregnancy otherwise it
remains constant throughout our life
 Thyroid hormones increase or decrease the synthesis of some proteins including enzymes
 The combined with specific receptor sites and increase effect of the Other hormones for example
adrenaline and noradrenaline
 The effect most cells of the body by: increasing basal metabolic rate. Production of heat and
regulate metabolism of Carbohydrates proteins and fats. They are essential for normal growth and
development of Skeleton and nervous system. Most of the Other organs and system are also
influenced by thyroid hormones heart, skeletal muscles, skin, reproductive system, digestive
system.
Difference between hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism:

Hyperthyroidism Hypothyroidism
Increase basal metabolic rate. Anxiety, physical Decrease weight basal metabolic rate. Depression,
restless, mental excitability, hair loss, tachycardia. psychosis, lethargy dry skin, brittle hair,
Palpitations. Warm wet skin, Diarrhea, bradycardia. Dry cold skin. Constipation. Weight
Weight loss. gain.
Calcitonin:
 Secreted by C cells or parafollicular cells in thyroid gland. Acts on bone and kidney to reduce their
blood calcium level when it raises.
 It reduces reabsorption of Calcium from bones and inhibit reabsorption of calcium by renal tubules.
It affects are opposite to parathyroid hormone. It is important in children when bones undergo
considerable changes in size and shape.
Parathyroid gland
 For small parathyroid glands to present in posterior surface of each lobe of thyroid gland. They
secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Functions of parathyroid gland:
 Regulated by blood levels of calcium. PTH secretion increases then there is a decrease in calcium
level or vice-versa. Main function is to increase calcium level when it is low by means of increasing
the amount of calcium absorbed from intestine.
Pineal gland
 Small endocrine located in in every thalamus near center of brain between two hemispheres in a
groove where two halves of thalamus join. It is about 10 mm long and is reddish brown in color it is
small P-shaped gland. Function of pineal gland are; they produce and regulate hormones melatonin.
It has ability of sleep-wake cycle that is also called biological cycle.
 Thymus gland
Upper part of media sternum behind sternum and extends up to neck where about 10 to 15 grams at birth
their two lobes which secrete thymosin hormone. Function of thymus gland are: there required for
development of T- Lymphocytes for cell mediated immunity.
DISORDERS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hypothyroidism:
 Develops when thyroid gland fails to produce as much thyroxin that is T4.
 Symptoms are fatigue, weakness, wetness, dry hair, rough pale skin, constipation, depression. Causes:
are inflammation in thyroid gland immune system fails to recognize that thyroid gland is a part of its
own tissue.
Hyperthyroidism:
 Condition that occurs due to excessive production of thyroid hormones. Symptoms are: they vary
between people like irritability, muscle weakness, sleeping problem, tachycardia, and diarrhea weight
loss warm wet skin.
 Causes are excess of iodine and inflammation of thyroid gland.
Cushing syndrome:
 Prolonged exposure to cortisol from adrenal cortex.
 Symptoms are: high blood pressure, abdominal obesity, with thin arms and legs, reddish stretch
marks, round and fluffy face with red colour from skin, along with weight gain.
Addison's disease:
 Long-term endocrine disorder in which adrenal gland do not produce enough steroid hormones.
 Symptoms are: extremely fragile, weight loss, decrease in the appetite, low blood sugar or
hypoglycemia, darkening of skin in certain areas, or abdominal pain.
Pheochromocytoma:
 It is neuroendocrine tumor of modular and adrenal gland secrete high amount of catecholamines.
Symptoms are: excess sweating, skin sensation, weight loss, and headache.
Gigantism:
 Characterized by excessive growth and height significant above the average. It is overproduction of
growth hormone causes are tumor of pituitary gland
Dwarfism:
 Characterized by Les growth and height significant below average it is the lower production of
growth hormone. Causes are; it could be many other medical conditions also that causes dwarfism.
Symptoms: short arms and legs, Limited mobility at elbow, vision and hearing problem, broad and
round chest.