Chapter 6: FIRST-ORDER CIRCUITS

Introduction
In this chapter, we shall examine two types of simple circuits: a circuit comprising a resistor and capacitor
and a circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor. These are called RC and RL circuits, respectively. As
simple as these circuits are, they find continual applications in electronics, communications, and control
systems.
We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as we did for resistive
circuits. The only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuits results in
algebraic equations, while applying the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential equations, which
are more difficult to solve than algebraic equations. The differential equations resulting from analyzing
RC and RL circuits are of the first order. Hence, the circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.
A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.

THE SOURCE-FREE RC CIRCUIT

A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected. The energy already stored in
the capacitor is released to the resistors. Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially
charged capacitor, as shown in Fig below.

Our objective is to determine the circuit response, which, for pedagogic reasons, we assume to be the
voltage v(t) across the capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at time t = 0,
the initial voltage is
This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative of v is involved. To solve it, we
rearrange the terms as

This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage. Since
the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical characteristics of the circuit and not due to
some external voltage or current source, it is called the natural response of the circuit.
The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of the
circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.
The natural response is illustrated graphically

This implies that at t = τ,

The Key to Working with a Source-free RC Circuit is

Finding:
1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor.
2. The time constant τ.
Example 1.
Consider the figure below, let vC(0) = 15 V. Find vC, vx, and ix for t > 0.

solution
We first need to make the circuit to be conform with the standard RC circuit seen previously. We find the
equivalent resistance or the Thevenin resistance at the capacitor terminals. Our objective is always to first
obtain capacitor voltage vC. From this, we can determine vx and ix.
The 8 Ω and 12 Ω resistors in series can be combined to give a 20 Ω resistor. This 20 Ω resistor in
parallel with the 5 Ω resistor can be combined so that the equivalent resistance is

Hence, the equivalent circuit is as shown in above. The time constant is

From initial, we can use voltage division to get vx; so

Example 2
The switch in the circuit in Fig. below has been closed for a long time, and it is opened at t = 0. Find v(t)
for t ≥ 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor.
Solution:
For t < 0, the switch is closed; the capacitor is an open circuit to dc, as represented in Fig.(a). Using
voltage division

For t > 0, the switch is opened, and we have the RC circuit shown in Fig. (b). [Notice that the RC circuit
in Fig.(b) is source free; the independent source in Fig. 7.8 is needed to provide V0 or the initial energy in
the capacitor. The 1Ω and 9Ω resistors in series give
EXERCISES
Exercise 1

Exercise 2

THE SOURCE-FREE RL CIRCUIT

Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in Fig. below. Our goal is to
determine the circuit response, which we will assume to be the current i(t) through the inductor. We select
the inductor current as the response in order to take advantage of the idea that the inductor current cannot
change instantaneously. At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has an initial current I0,

Applying KVL around the loop in Fig

the time constant for the RL circuit is

Example1
The switch in the circuit of Fig. below has been closed for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is opened.
Calculate i(t) for t > 0.

When t < 0, the switch is closed, and the inductor acts as a short circuit to dc. The 16Ω resistor is short-
circuited; the resulting circuit is shown
in Fig. (a). To get i1 in Fig. (a),
we combine the 4Ω and 12Ω resistors in parallel to get

We obtain i(t) from i1 in Fig. (a) using current division, by writing

When t > 0, the switch is open and the voltage source is disconnected. We now have the RL circuit in
Fig.(b). Combining the resistors, we have

Exercise 1
In the circuit shown in Fig. , find io, vo, and i for all time, assuming that the switch was open for a long
time.

STEP RESPONSE OF AN RC CIRCUIT

When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied, the voltage or current source can be modeled as
a step function, and the response is known as a step response
The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the step function, which may be
a voltage or a current source.
Consider the RC circuit in Fig. (a) which can be replaced by the circuit in Fig. (b), where Vs is a constant,
dc voltage source. Again, we select the capacitor voltage as the circuit response to be determined.
We assume an initial voltage V0 on the capacitor, although this is not necessary for the step response.
Since the voltage of a capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
This is known as the complete response of the RC circuit to a sudden application of a dc voltage source,
assuming the capacitor is initially charged.
If we assume that the capacitor is uncharged initially, we set V0 = 0

Example 1
The switch in Fig. below has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the switch moves to B.
Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1 s and 4 s.

Solution:
For t < 0, the switch is at position A. Since v is the same as the voltage across the 5-kΩ resistor, the
voltage across the capacitor just before t = 0 is obtained by voltage division as
Exercise1

Exercise2

STEP RESPONSE OF AN RL CIRCUIT

Consider the RL circuit in Fig. (a), which may be replaced by the circuit in Fig. (b). Again, our goal is to
find the inductor current i as the circuit response.
Let the response be the sum of the natural current and the forced current,

We know that the natural response is always a decaying exponential, that is,

The forced response is the value of the current a long time after the switch in Fig.(a) is closed. At that
time, the inductor becomes a short circuit, and the voltage across it is zero. The entire source voltage Vs
appears across R. Thus, the forced response is

After substituting, we obtain

We now determine the constant A from the initial value of i. Let I0 be the initial current through the
inductor, which may come from a source other than Vs. Since the current through the inductor cannot
change instantaneously,
The response can be written as

Example 1
Find i(t) in the circuit in Fig. below for t > 0. Assume that the switch has been closed for a long time.