CHARACTERISTICS of Instruments and

Measurement Systems
• The performance characteristics of an instrument are
mainly classified into two categories:
– Static Characteristics (do not vary with time)
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments,
which do not vary with time.
• All the static performance characteristics are
obtained in one form or another by a process called
calibration
– Dynamic Characteristics (vary with time)
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments varies
with respect to time.
• Governed by physical phenomena and differential
equations
 STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
The various static characteristics are
–Accuracy - Sensitivity
–Linearity - Reproducibility
–Repeatability - Resolution
–Threshold - Stability
–Static Error - Drift
–Tolerance, - Dead zone, etc.
The various dynamic characteristics are
–Speed of response
–Measuring lag
–Dynamic error
Some terminologies
 Some terminologies
▪ SCALE RANGE AND SCALE SPAN: is defined as the
difference between the largest and the smallest reading
of the instrument.
RANGE = 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 to 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑃𝐴𝑁 = 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛
E.g., Ammeter is calibrated between 0 to 20 A.
The range is 20A and the span is also 20A. whereas,
The voltmeter is calibrated between 200 to 500 V.
The range is 200 V to 500 V (500 V) and
the span is 500 − 200 V = 300 V.
 Some terminologies
• TRUE VALUE:
– Average of an infinite number of measured values
when the average deviation due to various
contributing factors tends to zero.
– Practically, it is impossible to achieve.
– Positive deviation may differ from negative deviation;
hence, they do not cancel each other.
– An approximation of “True value” is obtained by a
sufficiently extended series of measurements and
considering parameters and conditions to which
corrections may be applied.
• We obtain, what is called “Best Measured Value”
– Generally, decided by the result of “Examplar
Method,” i.e., the method agreed upon by experts.
 Static Characteristics
• Errors in Measurement: STATIC ERROR
– Measurements done using a measuring system always
involve errors.
– No measurement is free from errors.
• Accuracy:
– Degree of closeness of a measured (experimental value)
to a standard or true (accepted value).
– In practice, quoting the inaccuracy figure rather than the
accuracy figure for an instrument is more usual.
– Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong
and is often quoted as a percentage of an instrument's full-
scale (f.s.d) reading.
– Ex: An ammeter measuring current of range of 0–10 A has a
quoted inaccuracy of ±1.0% of the f.s.d., then the maximum
error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 A.
– This means that when the instrument reads 1.0A, the possible
error is 10% of this value.
 Static Characteristics
• Accuracy: contd…
– When instruments are chosen their range is
appropriate to the spread of values being measured.
–Ex: if we were measuring current with expected values
between 0 and 1 A, we would not use an instrument
with a range of 0–10 A.
–The term measurement uncertainty is frequently used
in place of inaccuracy.
 Static Characteristics
• Accuracy: can be expressed as
1. Point accuracy: Accuracy of the instrument at one point of scale.
o Does not give any information about the general accuracy of the instrument.
2. Accuracy as “Percentage of Scale Range”:
The accuracy of an ammeter, expressed as a percentage of the scale range, describes how closely
the measured value matches the true value within the full scale of the instrument. It is typically
represented as a percentage of the full-scale reading, not the actual reading, and is often
specified by the manufacturer. Generally specified for uniform scale instruments. Accuracy
calculation at the measured value is inversely proportional to the measured value.
As the readings get smaller, the % errors are larger.
Accuracy is better (relative error is smaller) when the ammeter operates near its full-scale range.
Choosing an ammeter with a suitable range is critical for maintaining acceptable measurement
accuracy.
Maximum Error is the maximum difference between the measured value and the true value.
Full-Scale Value is the maximum value the ammeter can measure

Ex: if an ammeter has a full-scale value of 10A range having ± 0.1 A accuracy
This means the ammeter is accurate within 1% of its full-scale reading.
It would have a maximum error of ± 0.1 A at any point on the scale.
Reads 1% over a 10 A measured value.
0.1
It has 5 % over a 2A measured value = 100 = 5%
2
These examples demonstrate how the accuracy percentage of the scale range defines the
allowable deviation from the true value across the instrument's entire measurement span
Thus, the specification of this type is highly misleading.
 Static Characteristics
• Accuracy: can be expressed as
3. Accuracy as “Percentage of True Value”:
oThe best way to express accuracy.
o Accuracy calculation at the measured value is
directly proportional to the measured value.
o As the readings get smaller, the % errors are
smaller.
Ex: measuring a voltage source with a multimeter. The true voltage
is 12.00 V, measured voltage = 11.76 V, full-scale range = 20 V, and
device accuracy specification = ±1% of fsd.
Error based on true value =11.76−12.00 = − 0.24V OR -2% OR 98%
Maximum possible error due to fsd = (1/100)×20 = 0.20V.
Implies that the measured error slightly exceeds the accuracy
expected based on the full-scale value.
 Static Characteristics
• Accuracy: Comparison
• Percentage of True Value: Tells you how accurate the
measurement is in relation to the actual value being
measured (98% accurate) OR (-2% error in this case).
• Full-Scale Accuracy: Relates to the maximum error
allowed based on the full range of the instrument
Ex: (±1% of 20 V = ±0.20 V).
• Both metrics provide complementary information, with
full-scale accuracy often used for device specifications
and true-value accuracy used for specific
measurements.
 Static Characteristics
▪ STATIC ERROR: is defined as the difference between the
measured value and the quantity’s true value.
• i.e. δ𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡
δA = error OR absolute static error, 𝜺0
𝐴𝑚 = the measured value of the quantity,
𝐴𝑡 = the true value of the quantity.
• The absolute value of δA does not precisely indicate
the measurements' accuracy.
Eg: ± 2A is negligible for 1000A, whereas,
± 2A may be regarded as huge when the current under
measurement is 10 A.
Hence , the quality of measurement can be decided
by the relative error 𝜺𝑟
 Static Characteristics
▪ Hence, when the absolute static error 𝜺𝟎 = δA is
large, it can be represented by error as a fraction of
true value i.e., 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝜀𝑟 =
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝛿𝐴 𝜀0
= =
𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑡
Percentage static error, % 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟 × 100
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝛿𝐴 OR
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 −𝜀0 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝜀𝑟 𝐴𝑡
i.e., true value, 𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑡 =
1 + 𝜀𝑟
 Static Characteristics
▪ When the absolute static error 𝜺𝟎 = δA is small, the
difference between the measured value and true
value is small,
i.e., 𝜀𝑟 ≪ 1
then
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 (1 − 𝜀𝑟 )

OR 𝐴𝑡 ~ 𝐴𝑚
▪ STATIC CORRECTION
δ𝐶 = 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐴𝑚
 Static Characteristics
• Static Sensitivity:
– the smallest change in the measured value to which
the instrument responds.
– In other words, it is the ratio of the changes in the
output signal of an instrument to a change in the
value of the quantity to be measured.
– Its units are milli-meters per micro-ampere,
counts/volt, etc., depending on input-output.
 Static Characteristics
• Sensitivity can be expressed by:

Sensitivity is constant Sensitivity varies with input

 Static Characteristics
• Static Sensitivity: Example

– The straight-line relationship between resistance

change and temperature change.
– For a change in temperature of 30 ᴏC, the change in
resistance is 7Ω.
– Hence the measurement sensitivity
= 7/30 =0.233 Ω/ᴏC.
• If Sensitivity is high, then the slope is higher
• Some margin is kept for accidental overloads
 Static Characteristics
• Deflection factor OR inverse Sensitivity:
– ratio of the magnitude of the measured quantity to
the magnitude of the response.
– Its units are micro-ampere per millimeter,
volt/count, etc., depending on input-output.
– Sensitivity can be expressed by:
Inverse Sensitivity = Δ𝑞𝑖 /Δ𝑞𝑜
 Static Characteristics
• Resolution:
– Smallest change in a measured variable (or measurand) to
which the instrument will respond
– When an instrument shows a particular output reading,
there is a lower limit on the magnitude of the change in
the input measured quantity that produces an
observable change in the instrument output.
– Specified either as an absolute value or as a percentage of
f.s. Deflection.
– The output scale is divided into subdivisions.
Ex: Suppose an ammeter has the following specifications:
Range: 0 to 10 A (Amperes)
Resolution: 0.01 A
This means the ammeter can measure and display
changes in current as small as 0.01 A (10 milliamperes).
 Static Characteristics
• Threshold:
– The minimum value of the input (reaches a certain level) for
which the change in the instrument output reading is large
enough to be detectable.
– This minimum input level is known as the threshold of the
instrument.
– Some quote absolute values, whereas others quote threshold
as a percentage of full-scale readings.
Ex: A digital ammeter has the following specifications:
Range: 0 to 10 A
Resolution: 0.01 A
Threshold: 0.005 A
This means:
• If the current is below 0.005 A (5 milliamperes), the ammeter
may display 0 A, as the current is below its detection
capability.
• If the current is 0.006 A, the ammeter might round it to 0.01A,
assuming the resolution allows it.
 Static Characteristics
• Reproducibility:
– degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured.
– It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given
period of time.
• Repeatability:
– Reproducibility and Repeatability are a measure of
closeness with which a given input may be measured over
and over again.
– Reproducibility is specified in
terms of scale readings over a
given period of time.
– Repeatability is defined as the
variation of scale reading and
is random in nature.
 Static Characteristics
– Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has
no drift.
– No drift means that with a given input, the measured
values do not vary with time.
– All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are
only valid under controlled conditions of temperature,
pressure, etc.
– As variations occur, certain static instrument
characteristics change.
– These standard ambient conditions are usually defined
in the instrument specification.
– Such environmental changes affect instruments in three
main ways.
 Static Characteristics
1. Zero Drift (OR bias):
– The whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage,
permanent set, or undue warming up of electronic
circuits.
– the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is
modified by a change in ambient conditions.
– This causes a constant error over the full range of
measurement of the instrument.

• Zero drift is normally

removable by calibration OR
zero setting.
 Static Characteristics
1. Zero Drift (OR bias):
– Commonly found in voltmeters affected by ambient
temperature changes.
– Typical units by which such zero drift is measured are
volts/ᴏC.
– This is often called the zero-drift coefficient related to
temperature changes.
– several zero drift coefficients
– stray electrostatic and
electromagnetic fields can be
prevented from affecting the
measurements by proper shielding.
– The effect of mechanical
vibrations can be minimized by
having proper mountings.
 Static Characteristics
2. Span Drift (OR Sensitivity Drift):
– also known as scale factor drift
– Proportional change in indication all along the
upward scale.

Zero-Drift with Span Drift

3. Zonal Drift:
– drift occurs only over a portion
of span of an instrument.
 Static Characteristics
• Drift – Example
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20 ᴏC
and has the following deflection/load characteristics.

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30 ᴏC, and the

following deflection/ load characteristic is measured.

Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per ᴏC change in ambient
temperature.
At 20°C, the deflection/load characteristic is a straight line.
Sensitivity = 20 mm/kg.
At 30°C, the deflection/load characteristic is still a straight line.
Sensitivity = 22 mm/kg.
Bias (zero drift) = 5mm (the no-load deflection)
Sensitivity drift = 2 mm/kg
Zero drift/°C =5/10 = 0.5 mm/°C
Sensitivity drift/°C = 2/10 = 0.2 (mm per kg)/°C
 Static Characteristics
• Linearity:
– the ability to reproduce the input characteristics
linearly. The curve shows the actual calibration curve
& idealized straight line.
 Thank You

Department of EEE/BSA CRESCENT IS & T