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Thomas Aquinas’
Mathematical
Realism
j e a n w. r iou x
Thomas Aquinas’ Mathematical Realism
Jean W. Rioux
Thomas Aquinas’
Mathematical Realism
Jean W. Rioux
Benedictine College
Atchison, KS, USA
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
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To Maria
“Da mihi basia mille, deinde centum.”
Preface
vii
viii PREFACE
instilled in me a love for the great works and the truths which can be
found within, especially my mentor and friend, Thomas Aquinas
McGovern, S.J., who showed me more clearly than anyone how brilliant
his namesake—albeit a Dominican—could be, and Dr. Ronald Richard,
who introduced me to the wonders of modern mathematics. I wish also to
thank Dr. Patrick Lee, who directed me through the writing of my dis-
sertation at the Center for Thomistic Studies—a man who well knew the
enduring universality of Thomas Aquinas’ thought. Among my colleagues
in the philosophy department here at Benedictine College I would be
remiss not to mention Dr. Donald Scholz, whose love for mathematical
philosophy was and has been an inspiration, and Dr. James Madden, who
persuaded me that a lingua franca does indeed exist between traditional
Thomism and the analytic school. To my family and departmental col-
leagues generally I also wish to convey my gratitude. Though I would not
go so far as to call it distracted, my work on this book over the years has
meant some sacrifice on their part, from a father whose grapplings with a
subtle problem or distinction did not wait, to late reports and recommen-
dations from a department chair. Thank you all.
1 Introduction 1
Bibliography 5
2 Plato
on Mathematics and the Mathematicals 9
Platonism as Mathematical Realism 9
The Justification for, and Place of, Plato’s Mathematicals 13
Why Is Platonism Attractive to Some Philosophies of
Mathematics? 17
Bibliography 19
3 Aristotle
on the Objects of Mathematics 21
Where Do the Mathematicals Exist? 21
Idealizing the Mathematicals 36
How Do the Mathematicals Exist Materially? 37
Realist or Non-Realist? 38
Bibliography 39
4 Aristotle
on the Speculative and Middle Sciences 41
The Practical and Speculative Sciences 41
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Episteme 45
Pure Mathematics Is Episteme 47
ix
x Contents
5 Aristotle
on Abstraction and Intelligible Matter 55
Formal Abstraction: A Middle Way Between Platonism and
Nominalism 55
Intelligible Matter 61
Intelligible Matter and the Reality of Mathematicals 66
Intelligible Matter and Access 70
Bibliography 77
6 Objects,
Freedom, and Art 81
Mathematics and Existence 81
Mathematical Ideals 87
Mathematical Freedom 88
Mathematical Legitimacy 94
Mathematical Illegitimacy 100
The Art of the Fiction 106
Bibliography 108
7 To Be Virtually109
Virtual Reality 109
Intuitionism and the Excluded Middle 110
Remote and Proximate Objects 114
Bibliography 123
8 Mathematics
and the Liberal Arts125
Episteme and Art 125
The Mathematical Arts 129
Bibliography 132
9 The
Place of the Imagination133
Imagination: A Thomistic Development 133
What About Mathematics? 139
Contents xi
Aristotelian Hints 141
The Representative and Creative Imagination 142
Imagination and the Truth 144
Bibliography 146
10 Going Beyond149
Numerical Extensions 149
Geometrical Extensions 150
Non-Euclidean Geometries 158
Bibliography 162
11 Cantor,
Finitism, and Twentieth-Century Controversies165
Finitism and Infinitism 165
The Big Three 187
Bibliography 215
12 Mathematical
Realism and Anti-Realism217
The Controversy 217
Anti-Realisms 219
Realisms 222
Bibliography 230
13 Modern
Aristotelian and Thomistic Accounts231
The Aristotelians 231
The Thomists 248
Bibliography 263
Part IV Conclusion 265
14 Mathematics
Is a Mixed Bag267
Bibliography 276
Index277
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1
Henry Babcock Veatch, “Philosophy, thou art in a parlous state!” in Thomistic Papers 1,
ed. Victor B. Brezik, C.S.B. (Houston: Center for Thomistic Studies, 1984), 9–44.
2
Platonism is among the oldest and most hotly debated philosophies of mathematics.
3
One source of this view is Morris Kline, for whom “no more cataclysmic event has ever
taken place in the history of all thought.” Morris Kline, Mathematics in Western Culture
(London: George Allen and Unwin, 1956) 428. To be fair, others, for example, Hillary
Putnam, are not so sure the crisis is real. Still, real or not, the perception of one occasioned a
great deal of foundational work by mathematicians and philosophers alike and a splintering
of that part of philosophy into a dozen or more schools of thought. See the excellent and
varied selection of readings in modern mathematical philosophy compiled by Benacerraf and
Putnam. Paul Benacerraf and Hillary Putnam, eds., Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected
Readings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
4
Morris Kline observes that the work of the later non-Euclideans, Bolyai and Lobachevsky,
did not begin to receive attention until posthumously published accounts defending non-
Euclidean systems, from the hand of the better-known and already-respected Gauss, came to
light. Kline, Mathematics in Western Culture, 441–515.
5
“This argument [against an actual infinite] does not deprive mathematicians of their
study … for, in fact, they do not need the [actual] infinite (since they do not use it).”
Aristotle, Physica (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), III 7207b27–30. οὐκ ἀφαιρεῖται
δ’ ὁ λόγος οὐδὲ τοὺς μαθηματικοὺς τὴν θεωρίαν … οὐδὲ γὰρ νῦν δέονται τοῦ ἀπείρου (οὐ γὰρ
χρῶνται). [This translation and all subsequent translations of Greek passages from Aristotle
and Latin passages from Thomas Aquinas are my own.]
6
One clear example of this divide is found in Heyting’s account of a discussion between a
classical mathematician and an intuitionist regarding the twin primes problem. Arend
Heyting, “Disputation,” in Benacerraf and Putnam, Philosophy of Mathematics, 66–76.
1 INTRODUCTION 3
solving real problems which the idea of such spaces made possible. In a
similar vein, the development of transfinite numbers made it possible for
mathematicians to imagine fruitful comparisons between and distinctions
among infinite sets, despite the opposition thinkers like Georg Cantor met
from neo-scholastic philosophers and even some of his own colleagues.
What we propose in this volume is a reconsideration of one mathemati-
cal philosophy which seems to have been marginalized or even severely
misunderstood along the way: that of the medieval philosopher Thomas
Aquinas. We think some of the confusion confronting modern discussions
of the crisis in mathematical foundations can be averted by a careful review
and application of Aquinas’ account of human knowledge in general and
of the sciences of mathematics in particular.7 We plan to show that this
account supplies possible avenues for decisive solutions to the difficulties
which have dogged modern philosophies of mathematics just as they
began to develop.
Aquinas’ own mathematical education was apparently unremarkable.8
It is his reflections upon the nature of mathematics itself which begin to
distinguish him—reflections taking us directly back to the man he named
The Philosopher. It behooves us, then, to begin our forward-looking review
with a careful account of the key features of Aristotle’s own philosophy of
mathematics. This, in turn, requires that we begin with a brief account of
Plato, whose own school was reputed to have displayed a Dante-esque
warning to the uneducated: μηδείς ἀγεωμέτρητος εἰσίτω μου τὴν στέγην.9
The crisis in mathematical foundations has two facets: the nature of
mathematical reasoning and the classification of mathematical objects.10 We
7
Of course, even his use of the word sciences will need to be qualified, given the view of
science dominating the minds of mathematical and philosophical thinkers of the last two or
so centuries.
8
His biographers barely mention what mathematics the teenage Aquinas would have
learned in the studium generale at Naples, except to say that he learned quickly and well.
Weisheipl suggests that he would have read Boethius’ De Arithmetica, Euclid’s Elements I–
VI, the Almagest of Ptolemy, and Boethius’ De Musica. James Weisheipl, O.P., Friar Thomas
D’Aquino (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1974) 13–7.
9
“Let no one ignorant of geometry enter within.”
10
Analytical vs. synthetic would be a way to divide the first, for example, while the various
realisms and anti-realisms is a possible division of the second. Of note, in his articles “What
Numbers Could Not Be” and “Mathematical Truth,” Paul Benacerraf presents realist math-
ematicians with a dilemma patterned after this same distinction, a dilemma which became the
focal point for a further splintering of views in the last twenty-five years or so. In Benacerraf
and Putnam, Philosophy of Mathematics, 272–94 and 403–20, respectively.
4 J. W. RIOUX
will begin our review of Aristotle with his account of the speculative and
middle sciences (mathematics occupies a place within each grouping), fol-
lowed by his account of mathematical objects. As these two considerations
form the stable points of an organic account, we will also investigate
Aristotle’s understanding of how one arrives from object to science, here
as elsewhere, which consideration brings us foursquare into questions of
mathematical abstraction.
While Aquinas’ own mathematical account is fundamentally Aristotelian,
there are developments and qualifications which he himself brings to the
question. One of these is his insistence upon mathematics as both science
(one of three) and an art. Furthermore, Aquinas sees specifically mathe-
matical abstraction as bearing upon what the human imagination brings to
the picture. Finally, while Aristotle finds in his distinction between potency
and act a solution to the precision problem of his day and ours, Aquinas
gives us both the language and distinctions necessary to develop that into
a full-blown solution. The key is his notion of virtual existence.
While sufficient for a historical account of mathematics in the peripa-
tetic tradition, we bring a reconsideration of Aristotle and Aquinas to the
modern mathematical view in order to fruitfully address the parlous state
we mentioned earlier. If the confusion inherent in the differing and diverg-
ing accounts we face is to be at least diminished, perhaps it would be help-
ful to see what these men would have said about such difficulties as we face
today. No doubt, some will think the introduction of such an account as
this might only worsen the situation. We disagree and offer in its place a
Thomistically based solution to problems arising in number theory, Kline’s
revolution in geometry, the difficulties inherent in a mathematics of the
infinite, and the more recent controversies between realists and anti-
realists. We think there is something to be gained in rejecting the type of
all or nothing reasoning we see prevailing in the mathematical thought of
our day. On the other hand, philosophy of mathematics is not the same as
mathematics (both Aristotle and Aquinas would have included it under
metaphysics) and we know that the present volume will not end the
debate. Still, we think it is an important step in bringing the philosophy of
mathematics back to a reasonable state of health, and if it achieves some
part of that outcome, it will have been worth the writing of it.
1 INTRODUCTION 5
Bibliography
Aristotle, Physica. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.
Benacerraf, Paul and Hilary Putnam, eds. Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected
Readings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Benacerraf, Paul. “Mathematical Truth.” In Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected
Readings, edited by Paul Benacerraf and Hilary Putnam, 403–20. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1983a.
Benacerraf, Paul. “What Numbers Could Not Be.” In Philosophy of Mathematics:
Selected Readings, edited by Paul Benacerraf and Hilary Putnam, 272–94.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983b.
Heyting, Arend. “Disputation.” In Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings,
edited by Paul Benacerraf and Hilary Putnam, 66–76. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1983.
Kline, Morris. Mathematics in Western Culture. London: George Allen and
Unwin, 1956.
Veatch, Henry Babcock. “Philosophy, thou art in a parlous state!” In Thomistic
Papers 1, edited by Victor B. Brezik, C.S.B., 9–44. Houston: Center for
Thomistic Studies, 1984.
Weisheipl, James O.P. Friar Thomas D’Aquino. Garden City, New York:
Doubleday. 1974.
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VIII.
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