L IG H TIN G

BLD61303
Introduction to Artificial Lighting

Lecture Notes by Azim Sulaiman & Edwin Chan

Presented by Edwin Chan
April 2024
LIGHT is a form of energy manifesting
itself as electromagnetic radiation and is
closely related to other forms of
electromagnetic radiation such as radio
waves, radar, microwaves, infrared and
ultraviolet radiation and X-rays
(www.lighting.philips.com, 2008)
OR
EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
 EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
• SUN was the only prime source of light for the inhabitants
of the Earth.
 EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
• 40,000 years ago oil lamps were being used to provide
light by which to make cave paintings.
• Oil lamps, torches and candles were in common use right
up to the 19th century.

• Then came lamps that burned oils or gases to provide light.

The smell was extremely unpleasant, and the smoke and
open flames were extremely dangerous.
• End of the 19th century – leading to the tungsten filament
lamp.
• A short time later came the first discharge lamps.
 EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
• RUSHLIGHTS
• a type of candle or miniature torch formed by soaking the
dried pith of the rush plant in fat or grease.
• CANDLES
• A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax that
provides light.
 EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
• INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE
• GAS LAMPS introduced.
Gas lighting is production of artificial light from combustion
of a gaseous fuel, such as hydrogen, methane, carbon
monoxide, propane, butane, acetylene, ethylene,
or natural gas.

The light is produced either directly by the flame, generally

by using special mixes of illuminating gas to increase
brightness, or indirectly with other components such as
the gas mantle or the limelight, with the gas primarily
functioning as a heat source.
 EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
• INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE
• GAS LAMPS
• London is well known for gas lamps.
• Existed until now in London; partly a tribute to the English
Heritage.
 EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
• IN MALAYSIA?
• Oil lamps – Malaysian heritage
 EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
• ELECTRIC LAMPS
• The first electric lamp was the CARBON-ARC LAMP,
demonstrated in 1801 by Sir Humphrey Davy, an English
chemist. Electric lights became popular only after the
incandescent lamp was developed independently by Sir
Joseph Swan in England and Thomas Edison in the United
States. The latter patented his invention in 1880 and
subsequently made it the commercial success that it is today.
 EARLY DAYS LIGHTING
• ANCIENT
ARCHITECTURE
• PANTHEON
• An excellent example of the
marriage of daylighting with
architecture is the Pantheon,
which was reconstructed
under the Roman Emperor
Hadrian's reign during the
second century AD. This
building, which is still in use
today, has an oculus (eye) in
the ceiling that provides the
only natural daylight into the
structure.
SEEING THE LIGHT
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Used by scientist to describe the entire range of light that exists.

VISIBLE LIGHT

-Very small region of the EM Spectrum

- Wavelength range of 400 – 700nm
-Visible colors from longest to shortest
wavelength are: red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, violet.
 TERMINOLOGIES & BASIC UNITS
• LUMINIOUS INTENSITY
• Is the power of a light source or illuminated
surface to emit light in a particular direction.
• A measure of the amount of light output
by a source, the unit of which is
the candela (cd).
 TERMINOLOGIES & BASIC UNITS
• LUMINIOUS FLUX (F)
• The amount of light or the rate of flow light energy
travelling in a certain direction.
• Unit: Lumens (lm)
• One lumen is the luminous flux emitted within one
steradian by a point source of light of one candela.

Intensity of
1 candela Flux of 1 lumen

Solid angle
of 1 Steradian | Solid Angle | Steradian physics
steradian class 11 (youtube.com)
TERMINOLOGIES & BASIC UNITS
In general, solid angle, luminous flux and luminous
intensity are related by the formula:
Where,
I = F/ω I=mean spherical intensity of the source (cd)
F =luminous flux emitted by the source (lm)
ω =solid angle containing the flux (steradian)

In the common case of point source emitting flux in all

directions (complete sphere), the total solid angle around the
point is 4π steradians.

Using I = F/ω
F= Ix ω
Gives the following useful formula; F = Ix 4π
TERMINOLOGIES & BASIC UNITS
EFFICACY
The ratio of light output to energy input is called efficacy.
Light out = lumens = efficacy
Energy in watts

Thus, the efficacy of the lamps in the above figure is:

Incandescent: 1740 lm/100 W =17.4
Fluorescent: 7800 lm /100W =78
High pressure sodium: 9500 lm/100W =95
TERMINOLOGIES & BASIC UNITS
• ILLUMINANCE (E)
- Is the density of luminous flux reaching a surface

Unit : lux (lx) where 1 lux = 1 lumen/(meter)

TERMINOLOGIES & BASIC UNITS
If light is falling onto a surface at right angles to the
surface then illuminance is given by the formula:

E =F/A
Where,
E =illuminance on the surface (lx)
F =total flux reaching the surface (lm)
A =area of the surface (m2)
TERMINOLOGIES & BASIC UNITS
The illuminance produced by a point source of light decreases
in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the
source.
E =I/d2
Where,
I = intensity of a point source (cd)
d = distance between source and surface (m)
E = illuminance on that surface (lx)
CALCULATION
 WORK EXAMPLE #1
A small source of light has a spherical intensity of 100cd.
One quarter of the total flux emitted from the source falls
at the right angles onto a surface measuring 3m by 0.7m.
Calculate:

(a) The total luminous flux given out by the source; and

(b) The illuminance produces on the surface.

WORK EXAMPLE #1
 WORK EXAMPLE #2
A lamp has a luminous intensity of 1200 CD and acts as a point
source. Calculate the illuminance produced on surfaces at the
following positions:

(a) At 2m distance from the lamp, and

(b) At 6m distance from the lamp

WORK EXAMPLE #2
HOW DOES LIGHT PROPAGATE?
 absorption

LIGHT
reflection

transmission

refraction
ABSORPTION
Absorption describes how the light falling on a
surface is totally or partially absorbed depending
on the absorption factor of the given material.
Reflection happens when light reaches
an object and it bounces or is reflected,
partially or totally, from this object.
 REFLECTION
Specular reflection: it is produced
when light is reflected from a flat or
smooth surface such as, for example, a
mirror. Light will be reflected in the
same angle as it reached this surface
(law of reflection).

Diffuse reflection: it is produced when

light reaches a surface or object
which has texture such as, for
example, a wall with texture.
• CONCAVE mirror
• CONVEX mirror
TRANSMISSION
Direct Transmission - This occur when light passes through
clear, transparent materials. The angle at which the light
leaves is the same as that at which it enters.

Diffuse Transmission - the transmitted light is scattered

evenly in all directions, appearing equally bright from
any angle of view. Light, but no image is transmitted.
Materials that transmit light in a diffuse pattern are known as
translucent materials.
• CONCAVE lens / prism
• CONVEX lens / prism
REFRACTION
Refraction is the bending of light (happens with
sound, water and other waves) as it passes
from one transparent substance into another.
HOW LIGHT PROPAGATES
PROBLEMS IN LIGHTING
 PROBLEMS IN LIGHTING
• GLARE
Negative sensation produced by luminance in the visual
field that is so much greater than the luminance to which
the eyes are adapted that they cause discomfort,
reduced visibility or both.
What caused G L A R E ?
 Disability
Forms of
Glare
Discomfort
i. Disability Glare
This is glare which results in a direct reduction in the person -
disability to see detail objects in the field of view e.g. car
headlamps at night.

ii. Discomfort Glare

Glare in which there is no significant reduction in the ability
to see, although discomfort still persists e.g. the view of an
excessively bright sky.
 Direct
Types of
Glare
Indirect
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCES
 Qualitative Basics of Light Colors
from Lamps
Color Temperature (TF)
Color Rendering Index(Ra)
• These values define Value Symbol Unit
the
quality of the light
from a lamp. Color Temperature TF [K]

Color Rendering Ra [1]

Index
 Color Temperature (TF)
• Color Temperature is used to describe the color content of a light
source in terms of “coolness” or “warmness” of color
• Warm (yellowish) or cool (bluish) color temperature is depicted in
degrees of Kelvin (K).

• The higher the (K), the whiter the color temperature.

Color Temperature in Imaging

 Color temperature
of light bulbs

Soft white Cool white Daylight

2700k – 3000k 3500k – 4100k 5000k – 6500k
 Color Rendering Index (Ra)
• The Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the
quality of the color rendering of a light source*.
• It indicates how accurately a light source can reveal the
colors of objects when compared to a reference light
source
• The CRI scale ranges from 0 to 100 percent, with higher
values indicating better color rendering.
*The reference light source can be incandescent or daylight , depending on the
color temperature of the light source

WHICH OF THESE COLORS ARE MORE VIBRANT

Examples of some common sources
Color Temperature and CRI values:

• Candle: 1700k 100 CR

• High Pressure Sodium: 2100k 25 CRI
• Incandescent: 2700k 100 CRI
• Tungsten Halogen: 3200k 95 CRI
• Clear Metal Halide: 5500k 60 CRI
• Natural Sunlight: 5000-6000k 100 CRI
Color Color Rendering Color Typical Lamp
Rendering group Rendering
property Index (Ra)
Tungsten halogen lamps,
LUMILUX DE LUXE
Excellent 1A 90 Fluorescent
lampsHQI.../D

LUMILUX Fluorescent
Very good 1B 80 – 89 lamps
HQI.../NDL or WDL

Good 2A 70 – 79 Basic Fluorescent lamps

(25)

Satisfactory 2B 60 - 69 Basic
Fluorescentlamp
s (20,23,30)

Fair 3 40 – 59 HQL

High-pressure and
Poor 4 39 low- pressure
sodium discharge
lamps
Types of
Lighting
 Artificial Lighting
Artificial light sources are other sources of light which
developed to compensate for or assist the natural light. It will
have different frequencies and wavelengths that determine the
light color.

Incandescent lamp

Artificial Lighting
Fluorescent lamp

Compact fluorescent
lamp (CFL)

Discharged lamp

Light Emitting Diode

(LED)
 Incandescent Lamps
Until recently the most common electric light source was the
incandescent lamp. This is still widely used, although its relatively
low energy efficiency is leading to its replacement by other more
efficient lamps such as the CFL.

Light in an incandescent lamp is produced by a tungsten filament

heated by electric current until it is red hot ( about 2800K).
The bulb is filled with a noble gas.

The connection to a light fitting is either by screw thread or

bayonet.

A large variety of shapes, sizes , power and color

ranges are available .

Wattage: 40 to 150 W
Light Output: 420 to 1360 lm
Luminous efficacy: 6-20lm/W
Lighting Efficiency: about 7.5% TF : 2500-3000K (warm)
Ra : 1a (excellent)
Fluorescent Lamps
The tube contains mercury vapour at low pressure, and the inner wall of the
glass is coated with a fluorescent powder phosphor that reacts to ultra-violet
radiation. When electricity is passed through the vapour it emits UV radiation
that is transformed by the phosphor to visible light.
The quality of light may vary depending on the composition and quality of the
fluorescent powder. Consequently the spectral distribution of their light may
also vary.

The most efficient fluorescent tubes are the T5 and can achieve a luminous
efficacy of up to 104lm/W . Fluorescent lamps can only operate with the help
of auxiliaries (starter, ballast, capacitor, electronic control gear, etc.)
Wattage: 5 to 36 W

Wattage:36W
Light Output: 2600 lm
Luminous efficacy: 16-100lm/W
Lighting Efficiency: 10-25%
TF : 2900-6500K
(warm, neutral or cool)
Ra : 1a, 1b,2a,2b or 3 (excellent to fair)
 Compact Fluorescent Lamps
The compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) was designed as a
more efficient replacement for incandescent lamp. It is
supplied with the same fixing system (screw or bayonet)
as for incandescent lamps.

They are built together with starter and capacitor, and

also with a ballast (fully compact)

Compact fluorescent lamps produce total luminous flux

ina few seconds after they have been switched on.

The quality of the light of compact fluorescent lamps

depends on the composition of the fluorescent powder.
Consequently, the spectral distribution of their light
could vary.

Wattage: 5 to 36 W
Light Output: 250 to 2900 lm
Luminous efficacy:36-90lm/W
Lighting Efficiency: about 12-20%
TF : 2900-6500K (warm, neutral or cool) Ra : 1a, 1b
(excellent to good)
Discharge Lamps
Discharge lamps work by striking an electrical arc
between two electrodes, causing a filler gas to give
off light.

Different metals and filler gasses can be used to

provide a range of colour and brightness.

Discharge lamps provide high luminous efficacy

combined with long life, resulting in the most
economical light source available.

There are three types of gas discharge lamps:

A.Low pressure discharge lamps

B.High pressure discharge lamps
C.High intensity discharge lamps
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Light Source: LEDs are basically semiconductors that emit light. A mix of
red, green, and blue LEDs is typically used to make white light.
Direction: LEDs emit light in a specific direction,
reducing the need for reflectors and diffusers to
direct light. This feature makes LEDs more efficient
for many uses such
as recessed downlights and task lighting.

Heat: LEDs emit very little heat. A modern white LED

lightblub converts more than 50 percent of the
electricity it uses into light. In comparison,
incandescent bulbs release 90% of their energy as
heat and CFLs release about 80% of their energy as
heat.

Life time: LEDs also last up to 100,000 hours,

compared to 10,000 hours for fluorescent lights and
1,000 hours for incandescent bulbs. Switching more
houses and buildings over to LEDs could significantly
reduce the world's electricity and materials
consumption for lighting.
LIGHTINGFUNCTION
Ambient

Task

Accent
‘..A good lighting plan
combines ATA to light
an area according the
function and style..’
 Ambient Lighting
- General lighting.
- Provide overall illumination.
- Radiates a comfortable level of brightness
without glare and allows us to see and walk
safely.
- e.g.: chandeliers, ceiling or wall-mounted fixtures
etc.
 TaskLighting
- Helps to perform specific task.
- Should be free of distracting glare and
shadows.
- should be bright enough to prevent eye
strain.
- e.g.: recessed and track lighting, pendant,
portable floor and desk lamp.
 Accent Lighting
- Focuses light on a particular area or object.
- Often used to highlight art or other artifacts.
- Adds ‘drama’ to a room by creating visual
interest and also can be used outdoors as
guides for pathways.
- e.g.: wall sconces, floodlights, track lighting,
recessed lights.
Other types of
lighting??
Signage Lighting
LIGHTING DESIGN
 LIGHTING DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
50 lux 100 lux 200 lux
Car Parks Corridors and passageways Lifts and lift lobbies Waiting
Main Entrances and exits Stairs and escalators rooms Medical stores
Store rooms Entrance gates Machine assembly rooms
Outdoor platforms Changing rooms Finished goods stores
Stables Rest rooms Vaults and strong-rooms
Hotel bedrooms Garages Raw material stores Print rooms
Machine rooms Loading Shopping centre circulation
bays Foyers areas
Domestic living rooms Airport lounges Museum
areas (general) School
assembly halls Lecture
theatres Gymnasiums
Sports spectator areas
400 lux 600 lux 900 lux 1200+ lux
Enquiry desks and Engine testing rooms Electronics assembly Sorting and grading
counters Cutting and assembly areas Instrumentation areas
Food preparation areas rooms workbenches Clothing inspection
Consulting and Inspection and product Supermarket displays areas
treatment rooms testing benches Hand engraving
General clerical offices Computer rooms workbenches Jewellery
Library reading tables Drawing board task workbenches Boxing
Assembly hall platforms lighting rings
Classroom white- boards Food sales counters
Laboratories Hospital Cashier counters
dispensing rooms Supermarkets School art
Workshop benches rooms
Vision testing rooms
Sewing rooms
 P S A L I Concept
Permanent Supplementary Artificial Lighting of the Interior (PSALI )

• Since most of the workday was during

the light of day, why not utilize daylight
for the work tasks at hand?

• Utilize daylight to its maximum and

supplement that with artificial light only
as needed.

26
 PSALI
'permanent supplementary artificial lighting of the interior‘
(PSALI) (See Figure 5 & 6) is based on three principles:

1) Utilisation of daylight as far as practicable,

2) Use of electric lighting to supplement the daylight in the

interior parts of the room,

3) Installation of the electric lighting in such a way that the

daylight character of the room is retained
 PSALI SCHEME
-
Lumen Method

What & Why?

- Quantity of light (illuminance – lux) reaching
a certain surface: main consideration in
designing lighting system.
To determine the number of lamps that
should be installed for a given area or room.
 Calculating Lumen Method
- Only ‘valid’ if the light fitting (luminaires) are to be
mounted overhead in a regular pattern.
- The luminous flux output (lumens) of each lamp
needs to be known as well as details of luminaires
and the room surface.
- Usually the illuminance is already specified.
E.g.: office (500 lux), kitchen (300 lux).
- The number of lamps required can be determine
by a given ‘formula’.
where,
• N = number of lamps required. illuminance level
• E = illuminence level required (lux)
• A = area at working plane height (m2)
• F = initial luminous flux from each lamp (lm)
• UF = utilization factor, an allowance for the light
distribution of the luminaire and the room surfaces.
• MF = maintenance factor, an allowance for reduced light output
because of deterioration and dirt

*MF = LLF (light loss factor)

 Utilization Factor(UF)
• The value is always less than 1
• How to obtain?
• - from Tables which combine the
distribution properties of the luminaire
with the room index and with the
reflectance of the room surface.
 Reflectance (%) for ceiling, walls and working plane

0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.50 0.50 0.30 0.30 0.00
Ceiling
Wall 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.30 0.30 0.10 0.30 0.10 0.00
Floor 0.30 0.10 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.00

R Index
0.60 0.370.35 0.36 0.36 0.350.30 0.300.27 0.300.27 0.26
0.80 0.44 0.42 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.37 0.37 0.34 0.36 0.33 0.32
1.00 0.51 0.47 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.42 0.42 0.39 0.41 0.39 0.37
1.25 0.56 0.52 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.47 0.47 0.44 0.46 0.43 0.42
1.50 0.60 0.55 0.59 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.50 0.47 0.49 0.47 0.46
2.00 0.67 0.59 0.65 0.62 0.59 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.54 0.52 0.51
2.50 0.71 0.62 0.69 0.65 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.57 0.56 0.54
3.00 0.73 0.64 0.71 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.60 0.58 0.57
4.00 0.77 0.66 0.74 0.70 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.59
5.00 0.79 0.68 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.61

Utilization factors (UF) for some luminaires

 UFdepends on thefollowings:
• The luminaireproperties
• Light output ratio
• Reflection factors of ceiling and walls
Colour Reflectance

White, off-white, light shades of 75% - 90%

gray, brown, blue
Medium green, yellow, brown, 30% - 60%
gray
Dark gray, medium blue 10% - 20%
Dark blue, green, wood panelling 5% - 10%
• The reflectance of the ceiling the
highest, walls slightly lower and floor
darkest
Typically recommends in offices

Ceiling 70 % - 90%

Wall 50% – 70%

Floor 10% - 50%

 Room index (K)

L = length
W = width
Hm = mounted height of fitting above
the working plane
 Maintenance Factor
• Gives an estimation of how lighting
conditions will deteriorate through
usage.
• Factors; dust and dirt on luminaire
surfaces, aging light bulbs.
• MF can be assumed O.8O if it is not
given.
• Also known as Light Loss Factor.
 12-month LLF@MF Direct Lighting Indirect Lighting

Air-conditioned building 0.95 0.9

Dirty Industrial area 0.7 0.35

Typical Light Loss Factors

@Maintenance Factor
 Lighting Layoutand Spacing
• Numbers of light needed (calculated by the
lumen formula) needs to be rounded up to
a convenient figure.
• In order to ensure illuminance does not fall
below a minimum value, the fittings must be
placed in a regular grid pattern and their
spacing must not exceed certain distances.
• Maximum distance of spacing depends on
the type of luminaire and the height at which
they are set.
How to measure the spacing
between fittings?
 Typical values are as follows:
- For fluorescent tubes in diffusing luminaires:
S max = 1.5 x H m
- For filament lamps in direct luminaires:
S max = 1.0 x H m
S max = maximum horizontal spacing between fittings.
H m = mounted height of fitting above the working plane.
 Worked Example1
• A production area in a factory measures 60m x 24m.
• Find the number of lamps required if each lamp has a
Lighting Design Lumen (LDL)output of 18,000 lumens.

• The illumination required for the factory area is 200 lux.

• Utilization factor = 0.4
• Maintenance Factor = 0.75
N = 200 lux (60m x 24m)
18000 x 0.4 x 0.75
N = 53.33
N= 54 lamps.
 Worked Example2
A work space measuring 40m x 12m x 4m in height
requires a service illuminance of 500 lux on the
workbenches which are 1m above the floor. The 22 W
tubular fluorescent lamps chosen have a luminous efficacy
of 1900 lm/W.
They are to be mounted on the ceiling. The room
reflectance are 0.5 for ceiling and 0.3 for the walls; the
initial light loss factor is 0.8.
1. Calculate the number of lamps required.
2. Suggest a suitable layout for the lamp fittings.
• E= 500lx, F= 22 x 450= 9900lm
• L = 40m W = 10m, Hm = 4- 1 = 3m
• A = 40 x 12 = 400m2
• LLF = 0.8

Use RI formula: RI = L X W
Hm (L+W)
= 40 x 10
3 (40 +10) = 2.66
Reflectance: ceiling 0.5; walls 0.3
UF = 0.58 (refer to table…)
= 500 x 400
9900 x 0.58 x 0.8 = 43.54
Lamps required : 45 lamps
Suggested layout : 3 rows of 15 luminaires
Spacing: S max = 1.5 x Hm
= 1.5 x 3 = 4.5m
Distance between lamps is not greater than
4.5m
The total array of fittings:

40
metres 2.66 m

3.33 m

10
metres

Spacing not more than 4.5 metres

THE END