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Structure and Anti-Structure VICTOR TURNER

The Lew/s Hen/y Morgan Lectures | 7966 presented at The University of Rochester, Rochester, New York

Cornell Paperbacks Cornell University Press

ITHACA, NEW YORK

lite.*..-

SYMBOL, MYTH, AND RITUAL SERIES General Editor: Victor Turner

Raymond Firth, Symbols: Public and Private* Eva Hunt, The Transformation of the Hummingbird: Cultural Roots of a Zinacanlecan Mythical Poem Bennetta Jules-Rosette, African Apostles: Ritual and Conversion in the Church ofJohn Maranke* Sally Falk Moore and Barbara G. Myerhoff, eds., Symbol and Politics in Communal Ideology: Cases and Questions^ Barbara G. Myerhoff, Peyote Hunt: The Sacred Journey of the Huicho'l Indiansj Victor Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Socielyj Victor Turner, Revelation and Divination in Ndembu Ritual^ Victor Turner, The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structurej Roy Wagner, Lethal Speech: Daribi Myth as Symbolic Obviation
*Also available in a Cornell Paperbacks edition. tAvailable from Cornell University Press only in a Cornell Paperbacks edition.

To the memory of Allan Holmberg this book is respectfully dedicated.

Copyright ig6g by Victor W . T u r n e r Foreword to Cornell Paperbacks edition copyright 1 9 7 7 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information address Cornell University Press, 1 2 4 Roberts Place, Ithaca, New Y o r k 1 4 8 5 0 . First published ig6g by Aldine Publishing Company. First published, Cornell Paperbacks, 1 9 7 7 . Seventh printing 1 9 9 1 .

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data (For library cataloging purposes only) Turner, Victor Witter. T h e ritual process. (Symbol, myth, and ritual series) (Cornell paperbacks ; C P - 1 6 3 ) Reprint of the ed. published by Aldine Pub. Co., Chicago, in series: T h e Lewis Henry Morgan lectures, i g 6 6 . Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Rites and ceremonies. I. Tide. I I . Series: T h e Lewis Henry Morgan lectures ; 1 9 6 6 . [GN473.T82 1977] 301.2'1 76-56627 ISBN 0-8014-9163-0

Printed in the United States of America T h e paper in this book meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, A N S I Z 3 9 . 4 8 - 1 9 8 4 .

Foreword to the Cornell Paperbacks Edition

Recently b o t h the r e s e a r c h a n d theoretical c o n c e r n s of m a n y anthropologists h a v e o n c e again b e e n directed t o w a r d t h e role of symbolsreligious, mythic, aesthetic, political, a n d even economicin social a n d cultural processes. W h e t h e r this r e vival is a belated r e s p o n s e to d e v e l o p m e n t s in o t h e r disciplines (psychology, ethology, philosophy, linguistics, to n a m e only a few), o r w h e t h e r it reflects a r e t u r n to a central c o n c e r n after a period of neglect, is difficult to say. I n r e c e n t field studies, an thropologists have b e e n collecting m y t h s a n d rituals in the con text of social action, a n d i m p r o v e m e n t s in anthropological field t e c h n i q u e h a v e p r o d u c e d d a t a that a r e richer a n d m o r e refined t h a n h e r e t o f o r e ; these new d a t a have probably challenged theoreticians to p r o v i d e m o r e a d e q u a t e e x p l a n a t o r y frames. W h a t e v e r m a y have b e e n the causes, t h e r e is n o d e n y i n g a r e newed curiosity a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of t h e connections between culture, cognition, a n d p e r c e p t i o n , as these connections a r e revealed in symbolic forms. A l t h o u g h excellent individual m o n o g r a p h s a n d articles in symbolic a n t h r o p o l o g y o r c o m p a r a t i v e symbology have recently a p p e a r e d , a c o m m o n focus o r f o r u m t h a t can be p r o v i d e d by a topically o r g a n i z e d series of books has not b e e n available. T h e v

vi

FOREWORD

p r e s e n t series is i n t e n d e d to fill this lacuna. It is d e s i g n e d to i n c l u d e n o t only field m o n o g r a p h s a n d theoretical a n d c o m p a r ative studies by a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , but also work by scholars in o t h e r disciplines, b o t h scientific a n d humanistic. T h e a p p e a r a n c e of studies in such a f o r u m e n c o u r a g e s e m u l a t i o n , a n d e m ulation can p r o d u c e fruitful new theories. It is t h e r e f o r e o u r h o p e t h a t t h e series will serve as a h o u s e of m a n y mansions, p r o v i d i n g hospitality for t h e practitioners of any discipline that has a serious a n d creative c o n c e r n with c o m p a r a t i v e symbology. T o o often, disciplines a r e sealed off, in sterile p e d a n t r y , from significant intellectual influences. Nevertheless, o u r p r i m a r y aim is to b r i n g to public attention works on ritual a n d m y t h written by a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , a n d o u r r e a d e r s will find a variety of strictly a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s r a n g i n g from formal analyses of systems of symbols to e m p a t h e t i c accounts of divinatory a n d initiatory rituals. T h i s book is based o n t h e Lewis H e n r y M o r g a n Lectures at t h e University of R o c h e s t e r which I d e l i v e r e d in 1966. It was in t h e c o u r s e of t h e s e l e c t u r e s t h a t I crossed t h e t h r e s h o l d be tween t h e study of ritual in an African tribal context a n d the analysis of processual symbols in cross-cultural a n d t r a n s t e m p o r a l t e r m s . The Ritual Process a n d s u b s e q u e n t books of m i n e h a v e p r o d u c e d t h e i r s h a r e of c o n t r o v e r s y over t h e years. M o r e t h a n o n c e I h a v e b e e n accused of o v e r g e n e r a l i z i n g a n d of mis a p p l y i n g concepts like "liminality" a n d " c o m m u n i t a s . " T h e s e t e r m s , it is a r g u e d , m a y a d e q u a t e l y describe o r account for social a n d cultural processes a n d p h e n o m e n a f o u n d in prelite r a t e societies, b u t h a v e limited use in e x p l a i n i n g sociocultural systems of m u c h g r e a t e r scale a n d complexity. T o a t t e m p t to a n s w e r such criticisms is probably a futile e x e r cise. I a m u n a b l e , however, to resist q u o t i n g t h e a d a g e " T h e p r o o f of t h e p u d d i n g is in t h e e a t i n g . " T h i s book has b e e n cited r e p e a t e d l y by scholars in such d i v e r s e fields as history, t h e his tory of religions, English l i t e r a t u r e , political science, theology, a n d d r a m a , as well as in a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n d sociological books a n d articles c o n c e r n e d with ritual a n d semiotics, particularly in African contexts; its r e c e p t i o n e n c o u r a g e d m e to e x t e n d t h e

FOREWORD

Vll

c o m p a r a t i v e e n t e r p r i s e . In Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors, an o t h e r work in the Symbol, Myth, a n d Ritual series, several case studies a r e based o n the a s s u m p t i o n , first d e v e l o p e d h e r e , that society is a process r a t h e r t h a n an abstract system, w h e t h e r of social structural relations o r of symbols a n d m e a n i n g s . Society, m o r e o v e r , is a process in which any living, relatively well-bonded h u m a n g r o u p alternates between fixed a n d t o b o r r o w a t e r m from o u r J a p a n e s e friends"floating worlds." JBy^erbaLand_jipnvr^al_means of d a s s m ^ c a d o n ^ ^ e ^ i m p o s e xupjpn.purselyes i n n u m e r a b l e constraints a n d b o u n d a r i e s to k e e p chaos at bay, but often at t h e cost of failing to m a k e j i i s ,_cpveries a n d i n v e n t i o n s : t h a t is -to say ..noLall instances. of s u b - , version of t h e n o r m a t i v e a r e deviant or criminous. Yet-in-order jto live, to b r e a t h e , a n d j p . g e n e r a t e . n o v e l t y , h u m a n beings h a v e h a d to createby structural meansspaces a n d times in t h e c a l e n d a r or, in t h e cultural cycles of their m o s t c h e r i s h e d g r o u p s which cannot b e c a p t u r e d in t h e classificatory nets of .their q u o t i d i a n , routinized s p h e r e s . o L a c t i o n . . These_Jmiinal areas.pf time a n d spacerituals, carnivals, d r a m a s , a n d latterly filmsare o p e n to t h e play of t h o u g h t , feelings a n d _ w j l l ; J n t h e m a r e g e n e r a t e d new models, often fantastic, s o m e of which may h a v e sufficient p o w e r a n d plausibility to replace eventually the force-backed political a n d j u r a l m o d e l s that control the cen ters of a society's o n g o i n g life. T h e antistructural liminality p r o v i d e d in the cores of ritual a n d a e s t h e d c forms r e p r e s e n t s t h e reflexivity of t h e social p r o cess, w h e r e i n society becomes at o n c e subject a n d direct object; it r e p r e s e n t s also its subjunctive m o o d , w h e r e suppositions, de sires, h y p o t h e s e s , possibilities, a n d so forth, all b e c o m e legiti m a t e . W e h a v e b e e n too p r o n e to think, in static t e r m s , that cul tural s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s a r e passive m i r r o r s , m e r e reflections of s u b s t r u c t u r a l p r o d u c t i v e m o d e s a n d relations o r of the political processes t h a t enforce t h e d o m i n a n c e of the productively privi leged. If we w e r e as dialectical as we claim to b e , we would see that it is m o r e a m a t t e r of a n existential b e n d i n g back u p o n ourselves: t h e s a m e plural subject is t h e active s u p e r s t r u c t u r e that assesses the s u b s t r u c t u r a l a n d structural modalities t h a t we also are. O u r concreteness, o u r substantiality is with u s in o u r

vm

FOREWORD

reflexivity, e v e n in t h e ludic play d o m a i n of certain of o u r liminal m o m e n t s : play is m o r e serious t h a n we, the i n h e r i t o r s of W e s t e r n P u r i t a n i s m , have t h o u g h t . The Ritual Process r e p r e s e n t s an a t t e m p t to free my o w n t h o u g h t , a n d I h o p e t h a t of o t h e r s in my field as well, from g r o o v e d d e p e n d e n c e o n " s t r u c t u r e " as the sole sociological di m e n s i o n . A g o o d d e a l of the philistinism p e r h a p s rightly ascribed to o u r discipline has b e e n d u e to this "single vision," as William Blake w o u l d h a v e called itthis o b d u r a t e evasion of t h e rich complexities of cultural creation. O u r goal s h o u l d be to s t u d y m a n alive a n d w o m a n alive, in t h e m a n y levels of t h e i r m u t u a l dealings. T h i s book is, if n o t h i n g m o r e , a m o d e s t step t o w a r d realizing t h a t goal.
VICTOR TURNER

University of Chicago

Contents

Planes of Classification in a Ritual of Life and Death Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual 44 Liminality and Communitas 94 Communitas: Model and Process 1 3 1 Humility and Hierarchy: The Liminality of Status Elevation and Reversal 166 Bibliography 204 Index 209

1
Planes of Classification in a Ritual of Life and Death

MORGAN AND RELIGION

It must first be said that for me, as for many others, Lewis Henry Morgan was one of the lodestars of my student days. Everything he wrote bore the stamp of a fervent yet pellucid spirit. But, in under taking to deliver the Morgan Lectures for 1966, I was immediately conscious of one profound, and it might seem crippling, disadvan tage. Morgan, though he faithfully recorded many religious cere monies, had a marked^ disinclination to give the study of religion, the same piercing attention he devoted to kinship and politics. Yet religious beliefs~and pracfices~weie t h e m a i n subject matter of my talks. T w o quotations especially emphasize Morgan's attitude. T h e first is taken from his seminal classic Ancient Society (1877): " T h e growth of religious ideas is environed with such intrinsic difficulties that it may never receive a perfectly satisfactory exposition. Religion deals so largely with the imaginative and emotional nature, and consequently with such uncertain elements of knowledge, that all primitive religions are grotesque and to some extent unintelligible" (p. 5). T h e second consists of a passage from Merle H . Deardorff's (1951) scholarly study of the religion of Handsome Lake. Morgan's account of Handsome Lake's syncretic gospel in his book League of the
I

The Ritual Process

Ho-de-no-sau-nee or Iroquois was based on a set of notes made by young Ely S. Parker (a Seneca Indian, who was later to become General Ulysses S. Grant's military secretary), consisting of the texts and translations of Handsome Lake's grandson's Good Message recitals at Tonawanda. According to Deardorff, " M o r g a n followed Ely's notes faithfully in reporting what J i m m y Johnson, the prophet's grandson, said, but he departed widely from Ely's glosses on it and itsceremonialaccompaniment" (p. 98; see also WilliamFenton, 1941,
PP- I 5 I - I 5 7 ) -

T h e correspondence between Morgan and Parker shows that if Morgan had listened more carefully to Ely, he might have avoided the general criticism of his " L e a g u e " made by Seneca who read it: " T h e r e ' s nothing actually wrong in what he says, but it isn't right either. H e doesn't really understand what he is talking about." Now, what did these Seneca " r e a l l y " mean by these extraordinary re marks, which seem to be addressed to Morgan's work on the religious, rather than the political, aspects of Iroquois culture. T o my mind, the Seneca comments are related to Morgan^s_djsiciisLoLthe_llimag--. inative and.emotional." his reluctance to concede that religion has an important rational aspect, and his belief that what appears " g r o t e s q u e " to the highly "evolved" consciousness of a nineteenthcentury savant must be, ipso facto, largely "unintelligible." They also betray in him a related unwillingness, if not incapacity, to make that empathetic exploration of Iroquois religious life, that attempt to grasp and exhibit what Charles Hockett has called " t h e inside v i e w " of an alien culture, which might well have m a d e compre hensible many of its seemingly bizarre components a n d interrela tions. Indeed, Morgan might have pondered with salutary effect Bachofen's (1960) words to him in a letter: " G e r m a n scholars pro pose to make antiquity intelligible by measuring it according to popular ideas of the present day. They only see themselves in the creation of the past. T o penetrate to the structure of a mind different from our own, is hardy w o r k " (p. 136). Upon this remark, Professor Evans-Pritchard (1965b) has recently commented t h a t " i t is indeed hardy work, especially when we are dealing with such difficult

Planes of Classification

subjects as primitive magic and religion, in which it is all too easy, when translating the conceptions of the simpler peoples into our own, to transplant our thought into t h e i r s " (p. 109). I would like to add as a proviso here that in matters of religion, as of art, there are no " s i m p l e r " peoples, only some peoples with simpler tech nologies than our own. M a n ' s " i m a g i n a t i v e " and " e m o t i o n a l " life is always and everywhere rich and complex. Just how rich and com plex the symbolism of tribal ritual can be, it will be part of my task to show. Nor is it entirely accurate to speak of the " structure of a mind different from our own." It is not a matter of different cognitive structures, but of an identical cognitive structure articulating wide diversities of cultural experience. With the development of clinical depth-psychology, on the one hand, and of professional anthropological field work, on the other, many products of what Morgan called " t h e imaginative and emo tional n a t u r e " have come to be regarded with respect and attention and investigated with scientific rigor. Freud has found in the fanta sies of neurotics, in the ambiguities of dream imagery, in wit a n d punning, and in the enigmatic utterances of psychotics clues to the structure of the normal psyche. Levi-Strauss, in his studies of the myths and rituals of preliterate societies, has detected, so he assever ates, in their underlying intellectual structure similar properties to those found in the systems of certain modern philosophers. M a n y other scholars and scientists of the most impeccable rationalist pedigree have thought it well worth their while, since Morgan's day, to devote whole decades of their professional lives to the study of religion. I need only instance Tylor, Robertson-Smith, Frazer, and Herbert Spencer; Durkheim, Mauss, Levy-Bruhl, Hubert, and Herz; van Gennep, W u n d t , and M a x Weber to make this point. Anthropological field workers, including Boas and Lowie, Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown, Griaule and Dieterlen, and a host of their coevals and successors, have labored mightily in the vineyard of preliterate ritual, making meticulous and exacting observations of hundreds of performances and recording vernacular texts of myths and prayers from religious specialists with loving care.

Silken- Univer Library

The Ritual Process

Most of these thinkers have taken up the implicitly theological position of trying to explain, or_explain away, religious phenomena as the product ofjr^sycho]ogical or sociological causes of the most diverse and even_com^icjMg^tyjp^ *h Y preterhuman SQgilLL but none of them has_denied the extreme importance of religious beliefs and practices, for both the maintenance and radi cal t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ^ human social and psychical structures. T h e reader will perhaps be relieved to hear that I have no intention of entering the theological lists but will endeavor, as far as possible, to confine myself to an empirical investigation of aspects of religion and, in particular, to elicit some of the properties oi^Jncan~rituaI7~ R a t h e r will I try, in fear and trembling, owing to my high regard . /'for his great scholarship and standing in our discipline, to witlv" stand M o r g a n ^ casual challenge to posterity, and demonstrate that modern anthropologists, working with _the best of the conceptual tools bequeathed to them, can...now make intelligible many of the |^ cryptic phenomena of religion in preliterate societies. < *
m a n

R I T U A L S T U D I E S IN C E N T R A L A F R I C A

Let us begin with a close look at some ritual performed by the people among whom I did two and a half years' field work, the N d e m b u of northwestern Zambia. Like Morgan's Iroquois, the Ndembu a r e j n a t r i h n g a l j m c y ^ withJb-unting,^ to which they a t t a c h a high ritual value. T h e N d e m b u belong to a great congeries of West and Central African cultures, which conjoin with considerable skill in wood-carving and the plastic arts an elab orate development of ritual symbolism. Many of these peoples have complex initiation rites with long periods of seclusion in the bush for the training of novices in esoteric lore, often associated with the presence of masked dancers, who portray ancestral spirits or deities. T h e Ndembu, together with their northern and western neighbors, the L u n d a of the Katanga, the Luvale, the Chokwe, and the Luchazi, attach great importance to ritual; their eastern neighbors, the

Planes of Classification

Kaonde, the Lamba, and the Ila, although they practice much ritual, appear to have had fewer distinct kinds of rites, a less exuberant symbolism, and no boys' circumcision ceremonies; and their diverse religious practices are less closely articulated with one another. When I began field work among the Ndembu, I worked in the tradition established by my predecessors in the employment of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute for Sociological Research, located at Lusaka, the administrative capital of Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). This was the earliest established research institute in British Africa, founded in 1 9 3 8 , and was intended to be a center where the problem of establishing permanent and satisfactory rela tions between natives and non-natives might form the subject of special study. U n d e r the directorship of Godfrey Wilson and M a x Gluckman, and later of Elizabeth Colson and Clyde Mitchell, research officers of the institute had m a d e field studies of tribal political and jural systems, of marriage and family relationships, of aspects of urbanization and labor migration, of comparative village structure, and of tribal ecological and economic systems. They had also done a good deal of mapping work and had classified all the tribes of w h a t was then Northern Rhodesia into six groups in terms of their descent systems. As Lucy Mair (1960) has pointed out, the contribution of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute to the shaping of policy, like that of the other research institutes in British Africa, lay not in " prescribing the action appropriate to specific situations " but " rather in the analysis of situations in such a way that the policy makers (could) see more clearly the forces with which they were dealing." (pp. g 8 - i o 6 ) . Among these " f o r c e s / ' ritual had_a_very low priority at the time I began field work. Indeed, interest in ritual has never been strong among Rhodes-Livingstone researchers: Professor R a y m o n d Apthorpe (1961) pointed out that of the 99 publications of the institute until that time dealing with various aspects of African life during the last thirty or so years, only three had taken ritual for their subject (p. ix). Even now, five years later, of the 3 1 RhodesLivingstone Papersshort monographs on aspects of Central

The Ritual Process

African tribal lifeonly four have m a d e ritual their m a i n topic, two of them by the present author. Evidently, Morgan's a t t i t u d e to "primitive religions" still persists in m a n y quarters. Yet t h e insti tute's first director, Godfrey Wilson, took a lively interest in the study of African ritual. His wife, Monica Wilson (1954), w i t h w h o m he did intensive field research into the religion of the Nyakyusa people of Tanzania, and who has, herself, published o u t s t a n d i n g studies of_citual, has pertinently w r i t t e n : " Rituals reveal values a t their(jdeepest J g v e l . . . m e n e x p j ^ s s ^ r i t u a l j v h a t moves t h e m most, a n d since the form of expressiojiJs_conventionalized a n d obligatory, I t is~tEe~values of the_group that are revealed. I see in t h e study of rituals the key to an understanding of the essejuialconstitution of h u m a n societies" (p. 2 4 1 ) . IfWIIsor?s view is correct, as I believe it is, the study of tribal ritual would certainly have been m j d i e j [ p j n t ^ f j ^ ^ aspiration " to study . . . the problem of_estabJisJy^gj3^^ satisfactory relations between natives a n d non-native.s," for " s a t i s fa^t5ryre1a"tiSn"s""llep^nd on a deep m u t u a l understanding. I n cont r a s V ^ e l t u d ^ o f religion has been prominent in the work of research institutes in East and West Africa, especially in the period j u s t before a n d after the attainment of political independence. I n the social sciences generally, it is, I think, becoming widely recognized that religious beliefs and practices_are_spmething more t h a n " g r o t esque " reflections or expressions of economic, p o H t i c a l , a n d social relajdonshigsj_rather are they coming to be seen as d e a s i y e Jcevs^to the understanding of how_p^ojjIe7thmk^andfeel about those relationshirjs, and about the n a t u r a l j m d social e n v i r o n m e ^ s ^ n j w h i c h they operate.

P R E L I M I N A R Y F I E L D W O R K ON N D E M B U R I T U A L

I have dwelt on this "religious unmusicality" (to use the t e r m M a x Weber quite unjustifiably applied to himself) of social scientists of my generation with regard to religious studies mainly to u n d e r l i n e

Planes of Classification

the reluctance I felt at first to collect ritual data. For the first nine months of field work, I amassed considerable guanntie^ofjdatajpn kinship, village^trurture, marriage and divorce, family and indivjdualbudgets, tribal and village politics, and the agricultura]j:ycle. I filled my notebooks with genealogies; I m a d e village hut-plans and collected census material; I prowled around to catch the rare and unwary kinship term. Yet I felt uneasily that I was always on the outside looking in, even when I became comfortable in my use of the vernacular. F o r i was onstandy_aware of the thudding of ntuaLjirums-UL-the vicinity of my camp, and the people I knew would oftenjake their l e a y g o f m e to spend days at a time attending such exotically named r i t e s a s Nkula, Wubwane'u, and Wubinda. Eventually, I was forced to recognize that if I wanted to know what even a segment of N d e m b u culture was really about, I would have to overcome my preiudice_agajnst ritual and start to investigatejl^ It is true that almost from the beginning of my stay among the N d e m b u I had, on invitation, attended the frequent performances of the girls' puberty rites (Nkang'a) and had tried to describe what I had s e e n a s accurately j a s j o s s i b l e . But it is one thing to observe people_performing the stylized gestures a n ? s i n g i n g the c n ^ i F s o n g T of ritualjperformances and quite anoAeijQxeaclLan adequate under standing of w h a t the movements and words mean to them. T o obtain enughtenment, I had recourse at first to the District Notebook, a com pilation of random jottings by officers of the Colonial Administration on events and customs that struck them as interesting. Here I found short accounts of N d e m b u beliefs in a High God, in ancestral spirits, and of different kinds of rites. Some were accounts of observed cere monies, b u t most of them were based on the reports of N d e m b u local government employees, such as messengers and clerks. At all events, they hardly rjrp3dd_ejd_satisfactory explanations of the long, compli cated puberty rites I had seen, though they gave m e some prelimi nary information about the kinds of rites I had not seen. M y next move was to set u p a series of interviews with an excep tionally capable chief, entitled Ikdenge^who had a soundknowledge

The Ritual Process

of English. Chief Ikelenge at once grasped w h a t I wanted a n d gave m e an inventory of the names of the principal N d e m b u rituals, with brief accounts of the main features of each. I soon discovered that the N d e m b u were not at all resentful of a stranger's interest in their ritual system and were perfectly prepared to admit to its perform ances anyone who treated their beliefs with respect. I t was not long before Chief Ikelenge invited m e to attend a performance of a ritual belonging to the gun-hunters' cult, Wuyang'a. It was at this perform ance that I became aware that at least one set of economic activities, namely hunting, could hardly b e understood without a grasp of the ritual idiom pertaining to the chase. T h e accumulation of symbols in dicative at once of hunting power a n d virility gave m e a n insight as well into several features of N d e m b u social organization, n o t a b l y the stress on the importance of contemporaneous links between m a l e kin in a matrilineal society whose structural continuity was t h r o u g h women. I do not want to dwell upon this problem of the ritualization of sex roles at the moment, b u t merely wish to stress h o w certain regularities that emerged from the analysis of numerical d a t a , such as village genealogies and censuses a n d records of succession to office a n d inheritance of property, became fully intelligible only in the light of values embodied and expressed in symbols a t ritual performances. T h e r e were limits, however, to the assistance Chief Ikelenge was able to offer m e . I n the first place, his position and its manifold roles prevented him from leaving his capital village for long, a n d his relations with the local mission, which were of political i m p o r t a n c e to him, were too delicate, in a situation where gossip carries n e w s fast, to permit him the luxury of attending many pagan ceremonies. Moreover, my own research was rapidly becoming a microsociological investigation of the ongoing process of village life. I m o v e d my camp from the chief's capital to a cluster of commoner villagers. There, in time, my family came to be accepted as more or less a part of the local community, and, with eyes just opened to the i m p o r t a n c e of ritual in the lives of the N d e m b u , m y wife and I began to perceive m a n y aspects of N d e m b u culture that h a d previously been invisible

Planes of Classification

to us because of our theoretical blinkers. As Nadel has said, facts change with theories and new facts make new theories. It was about this time that I read some remarks in the second Rhodes-Livingstone Paper to be published, The Study of African Society, by Godfrey and Monica Wilson (1939), to the effect that in many African societies where ritual is still a going concern, there are a number of religious specialists who are prepared to offer inter pretations of it. Later, Monica Wilson (1957) was to write that " a n y analysis not based on some translation of the symbols used by people of that culture is open to suspicion" (p. 6). I then began to seek out Ndembu ritual specialists to record interpretative texts from them about rites I had observed. O u r entree to performances, and access to exegesis, was no doubt helped by the fact that, like most anthro pological field workers, we distributed medicines, bandaged wounds, and, in the case of my wife (who is a doctor's daughter and bolder in these matters than I), injected with serum persons bitten by snakes. Since many of the N d e m b u cult rituals are performed for the sick, and since European medicines are regarded as having mystical efficacy of the same kind as their own though greater in potency, the curative specialists came to regard us as colleagues and to welcome our attendance at their performances. I remembered having read in Dr. Livingstone's Missionary Travels how he had made a strict point of consulting the local medicine men about the condition of patients, and how this had made for good rapport with an influential section of the Central African popu lation. W e copied his example, and this may have been one reason why we were allowed to attend the esoteric phases of several rites and obtain what cross-checking suggested were reasonably reliable inter pretations of many of the symbols employed in them. By " r e l i a b l e " I mean, of course, that the interpretations were, on the whole, mutually consistent. They might, in fact, be said to constitute the standardized hermeneutics of Ndembu culture, rather than the free associations or eccentric views of individuals. We also collected interpretations from Ndembu who were not ritual specialists, or a t least not specialists in the ritual immediately under consideration.

10

The Ritual Process

Most Ndembu, both men and women, were members of at least one cult association, and it was hard to find an elderly person who was not an " e x p e r t " in the secret knowledge of more than one cult. I n this way we gradually built u p a body of observational data and in terpretative comments, which, when submitted to analysis, began to exhibit certain regularities from which it was possible to elicit a structure, expressed in a set of patterns. Later we shall consider some of the characteristics of these patterns. In all this time, we never asked for a ritual to be performed solely for our anthropological benefit; we held no brief for such artificial ^play-acting. T h e r e was, in fact, no dearth of spontaneous perform ances. O n e of our major difficulties was frequently in deciding on a given day which of two or more performances to attend. As we became increasingly a part of the village scene, we discovered that very often decisions to perform ritual were connected with crises in the social life of villages. I have written elsewhere at some length on the social dynamics of ritual performances a n d do not intend to give them more than passing mention in these lectures. Here I merely indicate that among the N d e m b u there is a close connection between social conflict and ritual at the levels of village and " vicinage (a term I use for discrete clusters of villages), and that a multiplicity of conflict situations is correlated with a high'frequency of ritual performance.

ISOMA

My main aim in this chapter is to explore the semantics of ritual symbols in Isoma, a ritual of the Ndembu, and to construct from the observational and exegetical data a model of the semantic structure of this symbolism. T h e first step in such a task is to pay close attention to the way the N d e m b u explain their own symbols. M y procedure will be to begin with particulars and move to generalization, letting the reader into my confidence at every step along this road. I a m now going to look closely at a kind of ritual which I observed on

Planes of Classification

II

three occasions and for which I have a considerable quantity of exegetical material. I must crave the reader's indulgence for the fact that I shall have to mention a number of N d e m b u vernacular terms, for an important part of the N d e m b u explanation of symbols rests upon folk etymologizing. T h e meaning of a given symbol is often, though by no means invariably, derived by N d e m b u from the n a m e assigned to it, the sense of which is traced from some primary word, or etymon, often a verb. Scholars have shown that in other Bantu societies this is often a process of fictitious etymologizing, dependent on similarity of sound rather than upon derivation from a common source. Nevertheless, for the people themselves it constitutes part of the " e x p l a n a t i o n " of a ritual symbol; and we are here trying to discover " the N d e m b u inside view," how the N d e m b u themselves felt and thought about their own ritual.

Reasons for Performing Isoma T h e Isoma (or Tubwiza) ritual belongs to a class (muckidi) of rituals, recognized as such by Ndembu, known as "women's r i t u a l s " or "rituals of procreation," which itself is a subclass of "rituals of the ancestral spirits o r ' shades' " a term I borrow from Monica Wilson. T h e N d e m b u word for " r i t u a l " is chidika, which also means " a special e n g a g e m e n t " or a n "obligation." This is connected with the idea that one is under an obligation to venerate the ancestral shades, for, as N d e m b u say, " a r e they not the ones who have begotten or borne y o u ? " T h e rituals I am speaking of are in fact performed because persons or corporate groups have failed to meet this obliga tion. Either for his own default or as representative of a group of kin, a person is believed to have been " c a u g h t , " as N d e m b u say, by a shade and afflicted with a misfortune thought to be appropriate to his sex or social role. T h e misfortune appropriate to women consists in some kind of interference with the victim's reproductive capacity. Ideally, a woman who is living at peace with her fellows a n d is mindful of her deceased kin should be married and a mother of " live

12

The Ritual

Process

and lovely c h i l d r e n " (to translate a n N d e m b u expression). But a woman who is either quarrelsome herself or a member of a group riven with quarrels, a n d w h o has simultaneously "forgotten her [deceased mother or mother's m o t h e r or some other senior deceased matrilineal kinswoman's] shade in h e r liver [or, as we would say, ' h e a r t ' ] , " is in peril of having h e r procreative power (lusemu) " t i e d u p " (ku-kasila) by the offended s h a d e . T h e Ndembu, who practice matrilineal descent combined with virilocal marriage, live in small, mobile villages. T h e effect of this arrangementis t h a t w o m e n , through w h o m children derive their primary lineage and residential affiliation, spend m u c h of their reproductive cycle in the villages of their husbands a n d not of their matrilineal kin. T h e r e is no rule, as there is, for e x a m p l e , among the matrilineal Trobriand Islanders, that the sons of w o m e n living in this form of marriage should go to reside in the villages of their mothers' brothers and other matrikin on reaching adolescence. O n e consequence of this is t h a t every fruitful marriage b e c o m e s an arena of covert strug gle between a woman's husband a n d h e r brothers and mother's brothers over the residential affiliation of h e r children. Since there is also a close bond between a w o m a n a n d her children, this usually means that after a short or long p e r i o d a woman will follow her children to her village of matrilineal affiliation. M y figures on N d e m b u divorce indicate that the tribal ratios are the highest among all the matrilineal societies in C e n t r a l Africa for which reliable quantitative data existand all h a v e high divorce rates. Since women return to their matrikin on divorceand a fortiori to their children resident among those kinin a very real sense village con tinuity, through women, depends u p o n marital discontinuity. But, while a woman is residing with her h u s b a n d with her young children, and thus fulfilling the valid n o r m t h a t a woman should please him, she is not fulfilling an equally valid n o r m that she should contribute children to the contemporaneous m e m b e r s h i p of her matrilineal village. Interestingly, it is the shades of direct matrilineal kinswomen own mothers or own mothers' m o t h e r s t h a t are held to afflict women with reproductive disorders, resulting in temporary barren-

Planes of Classification

13

ness. Most of these victims are residing with their husbands when divination decrees that they have been caught with infertility by their matrilineal shades. T h e y have been caught, so Ndembu reg ularly say, because they have "forgotten" those shades who are not only their direct ascendants but also the immediate progenetrices of their matrikinwho form the core membership of villages different from those of their husbands. T h e curative rites, including Isoma, have as one social function that of "causing them to r e m e m b e r " these shades, who are structural nodes of a locally residing matrilineage. T h e condition of barrenness these shades bring about is consid ered to be a temporary one, to be removed by performance of the appropriate rites. Once a woman remembers the afflicting shade, and thus her primary allegiance to matrikin, the interdiction on her fertility will cease; she can go on living with her husband but with a sharpened awareness of where her and her children's ultimate loyalties lie. T h e crisis brought on by this contradiction between norms is resolved by rituals rich in symbolism and preg nant with meaning.

Processual Form Isoma shares with the other women's cults a common diachronic profile or processual form. I n each a woman suffers from gynecolo gical disorders; then either her husband or a matrikinsman seeks out a diviner, who denominates the precise mode of affliction in which the shade, as N d e m b u say, has " c o m e out of the grave to catch her." Dependent upon that mode, the husband or kinsman employs a doctor (chimbuki) who "knows the medicines" and the correct ritual procedures for appeasing the afflicting shade to act as master of ceremonies for the coming performance. This doctor then summons other doctors to help him. These are either women who have undergone exposure to the same kind of ritual and have thus gained entry into the curative cult, or men closely linked by matrilin eal kinship or affinity to a previous patient. T h e patients (ayeji) may be regarded as " candidates " for membership of the cult, the doctors

The Ritual

Process

as its " a d e p t s . " T h e afflicting shades (akishi) a r e believed to have been former adepts. Cult m e m b e r s h i p thus transects village and lineage membership a n d brings into t e m p o r a r y operation what may be termed " a c o m m u n i t y of suffering"or, rather, of "former sufferers " from the same type of affliction as n o w besets the candidate patient. M e m b e r s h i p of a cult such as Isoma cuts across even tribal boundaries, for m e m b e r s of the culturally a n d linguistically related Luvale, Chokwe, a n d Luchazi tribes a r e entitled to attend N d e m b u Isoma rites as adepts, a n d as such to perform r i t u a l tasks. T h e " senior " (mukulumpi) or " g r e a t " (weneni) adept is usually a m a n , even for such women's cults as Isoma; as in most matrilineal societies, while social placement is through w o m e n , authority is in t h e hands of men. Women's cults have the tripartite d i a c h r o n i c structure m a d e familiar to us by the work ofvan G e n n e p . T h e first phase, called Ilembi, separates the candidate from the profane w o r l d ; the second, called Kunkunka (literally, " i n the grass h u t " ) , partially secludes her from secular life; while the third, called Ku-tumbuka, is a festive dance, celebrating the removal of the shade's interdiction and the candidate's return to n o r m a l life. I n Isoma this is signalized by the candidate's bearing a child a n d raising it to the toddling stage.

Indigenous Exegesis of Symbols So m u c h for the broad social a n d cultural settings of Isoma. If we now desire to penetrate the inner structure of ideas contained in this ritual, we have to understand how the N d e m b u themselves interpret its symbols. M y method is perforce the reverse of t h a t of those n u m erous scholars w h o begin by eliciting the cosmology, which is often expressed in terms of mythological cycles, a n d then explain specific rituals as exemplifying or expressing the " s t r u c t u r a l m o d e l s " they find in the myths. But the N d e m b u h a v e a paucity of myths a n d cosmological or cosmogonic narratives.lt is therefore necessary to begin at the other end, with the basic building-blocks, the " m o l e cules," of ritual. These I shall call " s y m b o l s , " a n d for the moment I shall eschew involvement in the long d e b a t e o n the difference be-

Planes of Classification

15

tween such concepts as symbol, sign, and signal. Since the preliminary approach is from the " i n s i d e " perspective, let us rather first inquire into the N d e m b u usage. I n an N d e m b u ritual context, almost every article used, every ges ture employed, every song or prayer, every unit of space and time, by convention stands for something other than itself. It is more than it seems, and often a good deal more. T h e N d e m b u are aware of the expressive or symbolic function of ritual elements. A ritual element or unit is called chijikijilu. Literally, this word signifies a " l a n d m a r k " or " b l a z e . " Its etymon is ku-jikijila, " to blaze a trail"by slashing a mark on a tree with an ax or breaking one of its branches. This term is drawn originally from the technical vocabulary of hunting, a voca tion heavily invested with ritual beliefs and practices. Chijikijilu also means a " b e a c o n , " a conspicuous feature of the landscape, such as an ant hill, which distinguishes one man's gardens or one chief's realm from another's. Thus, it has two main significations: (1) as a hunter's blaze it represents an element of connection between known and unknown territory, for it is by a chain of such elements that a hunter finds his way back from the unfamiliar bush to the familiar village; (2) as both blaze and beacon it conveys the notion of the struc tured and ordered as against the unstructured and chaotic. Its ritual use is already metaphorical: it connects the known world of sensorily perceptible phenomena with the unknown and invisible realm of the shades. It makes intelligible what is mysterious, and also dangerous. A chijikijilu has, further, both a known and an unknown component. U p to a point it can be explained, and there are principles of explana tion available to Ndembu. It has a name (ijina) and it has an appear ance (chimwekeshu), and both of these are utilized as the starting points of exegesis (chakulumbwishu),

The Name

"Isoma"

At the very outset, the n a m e Isoma itself has symbolic value. My informants derive it from ku-somoka, " to slip out of place or fastening." This designation has multiple reference. In the first place, it refers to

16

The Ritual Process

the specific condition the rites a r e intended to dispel. A woman who is " caught in Isoma " is very frequently a woman who has had a series of miscarriages or abortions. T h e unborn child is thought to "slip o u t " before its time has come to be born. In the second place, kusomoka means " to leave one's g r o u p , " perhaps also with the implica tion of p r e m a t u r i t y . T h i s t h e m e seems to be related to the notion of " f o r g e t t i n g " one's matrilineal attachments. In discussing the mean ing of the word Isoma, several informants mentioned the term lufwisha as indicative of the patient's condition. Lufwisha is a n abstract noun derived from ku-fwisha, itself derived from ku-fwa, " to die." Ku-fwisha has both a generic sense a n d a specific one. Generically, it means " to lose relatives by d e a t h , " specifically " to lose children." T h e noun lufwisha means both " t o give birth to a dead c h i l d " and the " c o n stant dying of children." O n e informant told m e : " If seven children die one after the other, it is lufwisha." Isoma is thus a manifestation of a shade that causes a w o m a n to b e a r a dead child or brings death on a series of infants.

The Mask

"Mvweng'i"

T h e shade t h a t has emerged in Isoma manifests itself in other ways, too. I t is thought to a p p e a r in the patient's dreams dressed like one of the masked beings in the boys' circumcision rites (Mukanda). These masked beings, known as makishi (singular ikishi), are believed by women to be shades of ancient ancestors. T h e one known as Mvweng'i wears a bark kilt (nkambi), like the novices during their seclusion after circumcision, a n d a costume consisting of m a n y strings made.from bark cloth. H e carries a hunting bell (mpwambu) used by hunters to keep in touch with one another in the deep bush or to summon their dogs. H e is known as " g r a n d f a t h e r " (nkaka), appears after the boys' circumcision wounds are healed, a n d is greatly feared by women. If a w o m a n touches Mvweng'i, it is thought t h a t she will have miscar riages. A song traditionally sung w h e n this ikishi first appears near

Planes of Classification

17

the lodge where the novices are secluded in the bush runs as follows:
Kako nkaka eyo nkaka eyo eyo nkakayetu nenzi, eyo eyo, nkakayelu, mwanta; " Grandfather, O Grandfather, our grandfather has come, our grandfather, the chief;" mbwemboye mbwemboyeyawume-e mbwemboyeyawumi. spirits, the glans is dry." "the glans penis, the glans is dry, mwang'u walulemba a scattering oitulemba

T h e song represents for N d e m b u a concentration of masculine power, for nkaka also signifies " a n owner of slaves," and a " c h i e f " owns many slaves. T h e dryness of the glans is a symbol of the attain ment of a n auspicious masculine adult status, one of the aims of the Mukanda circumcision rites, for the glans of an uncircumcised boy is regarded as wet and filthy, hence inauspicious, beneath the prepuce. Tulemba spirits, propitiated and exorcised in another type of ritual, cause infants to sicken a n d pine. Mvweng'i drives them from the boys. T h e strings of his costume are believed to " tie up " (ku-kasila) female fertility. I n brief, he is a symbol of m a t u r e masculinity in its pure expressionand his hunting attributes further support thisand as such is dangerous to women in their most feminine role, that of mother. Now, it is in the guise of Mvweng'i that the shade appears to the vic tim. But here there is some ambiguity of exegesis. Some informants say that the shade is identified with Mvweng'i, others that shade (mukishi) a n d masker (ikishi) operate in conjunction. T h e latter say that t h e shade rouses Mvweng'i a n d enlists his aid in afflicting the victim. It is interesting to note that the shade is always the spirit of a de ceased female relative, while Mvweng'i is almost maleness personified. This motif of linking reproductive disorder to the identification of a female with a type of masculinity is found elsewhere in N d e m b u ritual. I have mentioned it in connection with rites to cure menstrual difficulties in The Forest of Symbols (1967): " W h y then is the woman patient identified with male bloodspillers ? T h e [social] field context of these symbolic objects a n d items of behavior suggests that t h e Ndembu feel that the woman, in wasting her menstrual blood a n d in

18

The Ritual Process

failing to b e a r children, is actively renouncing her expected role as a m a t u r e m a r r i e d female. She is behaving like a male killer [i.e. a h u n t e r or homicide], not like a female nourisher" (p. 42. For a fuller analysis of the Nkula curative rites, see Turner, 1968, pp. 54-87). T h e situation in Isoma is not dissimilar. It should be noticed that in these cults, the victim is in various episodes and symbolisms often identified w i t h the shade that afflicts her: she is being persecuted, one might say with fair legitimacy, by a part or aspect of herself, pro jected onto t h e shade. Thus a cured victim in Isoma will" become, in N d e m b u thought, herself an afflicting shade after death, and as such will b e identified with or closely conjoined to the masculine power Mvweng'i. But it would, I think, be erroneous to see in the Isoma beliefs merely an expression of the "masculine protest." This unconscious attitude may well b e more prominent in the Nkula rites than in Isoma. T h e structural tension between matrilineal descent and virilocal marriage seems to d o m i n a t e the ritual idiom of Isoma. It is because the woman has come too closely in touch with the " m a n ' s s i d e " in her marriage that her dead matrikin have impaired her fertility. T h e right relation that should exist between descent and affinity has been upset; the marriage has come to outweigh the matrilineage. T h e woman has been scorched by the dangerous fires of male sacredness. I use this m e t a p h o r because N d e m b u themselves d o : if women see the flames of the boys' seclusion lodge when it is burned down after the circum cision ritual, it is believed that they will be striped as with flames, or, like the zebra (ng'ala), with leprosy, or, alternatively, will run mad or become simpletons.

Aims of Isoma T h u s the implicit aims of Isoma include: restoration of the right rela tion between matriliny and marriage; reconstruction of the conjugal relations between wife and husband; and making the woman, and hence the marriage and lineage, fruitful. T h e explicit aim of the rites,

Planes of Classification

19

as N d e m b u explain it, is to remove the effects of what they call a chisaku. Broadly, chisaku denotes "misfortune or illness due to the displeasure of ancestral shades or a breach of taboo." More specific ally, it also denotes a curse spoken by a living person to arouse a shade and may include medicines concocted to h a r m an enemy. In the case of Isoma, the chisaku is of a particular kind. It is believed that a matrilineal relative of the victim has gone to the source (kasulu) of a stream in the vicinity of the village of her matrikin and there spoken a curse (kumushing'ana) against her. T h e effect of this curse has been " t o a w a k e n " (ku-tonisha) a shade who was once a m e m b e r of the Isoma cult. As one informant said (and I translate literally): "At Isoma they behead a red cock. This stands for the chisaku or misfortune through which people die, it must go away (chisaku chafwang'a antu, chifumi). T h e chisaku is death, which must not happen to the woman patient; it is sickness (musong'u), which must not come to her; it is suffering (ku-kabakana), and this suffering is from the grudge (chitela) of a witch (muloji). A person who curses another with death has a chisaku. T h e chisaku is spoken at the source of a river. If someone passes there and steps on it (ku-dyata) or crosses over it (ku-badyika), bad luck (malwa) or lack of success (ku-halwa) will go with her wherever she goes. She has gotten it at that place, the stream source, and she must be treated (ku-uka) there. T h e shade of Isoma has come out as the result of that curse, and comes like Mvweng'i." As the reader can see, there is in all this a strong overtone of witch craft. Unlike other women's rites, Isoma is not performed merely to propitiate a single shade; it is also aimed at exorcising malign mystical influences emanating from the living as well as the dead. T h e r e is here a grisly alliance of witch, shade, and the Ikishi Mvweng'i to be dealt with. T h e rites involve symbolic reference to all these agencies. It is significant that a matrilineal relative should be regarded as the precipitating cause of the affliction, the arouser of these two grades of ancestral beings, remote and near, Mvweng'i and the female shade. It is also significant that the rites are performed, whenever possible, near a village inhabited by the victim's matrilineal kin. Furthermore, she is partially secluded at that village for a considerable time afterward,

20

The Ritual Process

a n d her h u s b a n d must reside with her uxorilocally during that period. T h e r e seems to b e some ambiguity in my informants' accounts about the interpretation of the precipitating curse. I t is felt to smack of witchcraft a n d hence to be " b a d , " but, at the same time, to be partially justified b y the victim's neglect of her matrilineal ties past a n d present. T h e rites a r e partially to effect a reconciliation between the visible a n d invisible parties concerned, though they contain episodes of exorcism as well.

P R E P A R A T I O N OF S A C R E D SITE

So m u c h for the social settings a n d the major beliefs underlying Isoma. N o w let us turn to the rites themselves, and consider the interpreta tions of symbols in order of their occurrence. These will expand our picture of the belief structure, for N d e m b u , who, as I said, have re markably few myths, compensate for this by a wealth of item-by-item exegesis. T h e r e are n o short cuts, through myth and cosmology, to the structure:in Levi-Strauss's senseof N d e m b u religion. O n e has to proceed atomistically a n d piecemeal from " b l a z e " to " b l a z e , " " b e a c o n " to " b e a c o n , " if one is properly to follow the indigenous m o d e of thinking. I t is only w h e n the symbolic path from the unknown to the known is completed t h a t w e can look back and comprehend its final form. As with all N d e m b u rites, the pattern of procedure in each specific case is set by the diviner originally consulted about the patient's affliction. H e is the one w h o establishes that the woman has lost a succession of children by miscarriage or death in infancymisfortunes summarized in the t e r m lufwisha. I t is he who decrees that the rites must begin at the hole or b u r r o w , either of a giant rat (chituba) or of an ant-bear (mfuji). W h y does h e m a k e this rather odd prescription? N d e m b u explain it as follows: Both these animals stop u p their burrows after excavating t h e m . Each is a symbol (chijikijilu) for the Isoma shade-manifestation w h i c h has hidden away the woman's fertility (lusemu). T h e doctor adepts must open the blocked entrance

Planes of Classification

21

of the burrow, and thus symbolically give her back her fertility, and also enable her to raise her children well. T h e diviner decides which of these species has hidden the fertility in the particular case. T h e burrow must be near the source of the stream where the curse was uttered. T h e utterance of a curse is usually accompanied by the burial of "medicines," often pressed (ku-panda) into a small antelope's horn. From my knowledge of other N d e m b u rites, I strongly suspect that these are hidden near the river source. T h e animal's burrow provides the reference point of orientation for the spatial structure of the sacred site. T h e rites I a m discussing here are " t h e rites of separation," known as ku-lembeka or ilembi, a term N d e m b u connect materially with ways of using medicines or medicine containers prominent in some kinds of women's cults, and etymologically with ku-lemba, " to suppli cate, beg forgiveness, or b e penitent." T h e notion of propitiation is prominent in them, for the doctors are partly pleading on the patient's behalf with the shades and other preterhuman entities to give her back her motherhood. In all ilembi rites one of the first steps is for the doctor adepts, led by the senior adept or " master of ceremonies," to go into the bush to collect the medicines they will treat the patient with later. This episode is known as ku-lang'ula or ku-hukulayitumbu. In Isoma, before this step is taken the patient's husband, if she has one currently, constructs for her use during the subsequent seclusion period a small round grass hut, just outside the ring of a dozen or so huts that con stitutes an N d e m b u village. Such a hut (nkunkd) is also m a d e for girls undergoing seclusion after their puberty rites, and the Isoma h u t is explicitly compared with this. T h e patient is like a novice. Just as a puberty novice is " g r o w n " into a woman, according to N d e m b u thinking, so the Isoma candidate is to be regrown into a fertile woman. What has been undone by the curse has to be done all over again, although not in precisely the same way, for life crises are irreversible. There is analogy but not replication. A red cock, supplied by the husband, and a white pullet, supplied by the patient's matrikin, are then collected by the adepts, who pro ceed to the particular stream source where divination previously

22

The Ritual Process

indicated t h a t t h e curse was laid. T h e y then examine the ground care fully for signs of a giant rat's or ant-bear's burrow. When they find it, the senior a d e p t addresses the animal as follows: " G i a n t rat (antbear), if you a r e t h e one who kills children, now give the woman back her fertility, m a y she raise children well." Here the animal seems to represent the w h o l e " t r o i k a " of afflicting agencieswitch, shade, a n d ikishi. T h e n e x t task is to tie hanks of grass into two knots, one above the filled-in entrance to the burrow, the other about four feet away above the t u n n e l m a d e by the animal. T h e clods beneath these are removed b y h o e , a n d the senior adept and his major male assistant begin to dig d e e p holes there, known as makela (singular, ikela), a t e r m reserved for holes serving a magico-religious purpose. Next, two fires are kindled a t a distance of about ten feet from the holes and nearer the second t h a n the first. O n e fire is said to be " on the righth a n d side," (i.e., looking from the animal's burrow to the new hole) a n d is reserved for the use of the male adepts; the other, " on the lefth a n d side," is for t h e women. T h e senior adept then puts down a piece of broken calabash near the first burrow-entrance hole, and female adepts, led b y t h e patient's mother if she is an adept, put in it some portions of edible roots from their gardens, including cassava rhiz omes a n d sweet p o t a t o tubers. I n ritual idiom these represent " t h e b o d y " (mujimba) of the patient. I t is significant that they are supplied by women, n o t a b l y b y women of the patient's matrilineage. After the senior a d e p t a n d his principal male assistant have inaug urated the digging, they h a n d over their hoes to other male adepts, w h o continue to excavate the holes until they are about four to six feet deep. T h e b u r r o w entrance is known as " the hole of the giant r a t " (or " a n t - b e a r " ) , the other as " t h e new hole." T h e animal is known as the " witch " (muloji), a n d the burrow entrance is said to be " h o t " (-tata). T h e other hole is called ku-fomwisha or ku-fomona, verbal nouns t h a t signify respectively " cooling d o w n " and " domes ticating." W h e n they have reached the appropriate depth, the adepts c o m m e n c e to dig toward one another until they meet about halfway, having completed a tunnel (ikela dakuhanuka). This has to b e wide e n o u g h for one person to pass through. O t h e r adepts break

Planes of Classification

23

or bend the branches of trees in a wide ring around the whole scene of ritual activity, to create a sacred space that rapidly achieves structure. T o ring something around is a persistent theme of N d e m b u ritual; it is usually accompanied by the process of making a clearing (mukombela) by hoe. In this way a small realm of order is created in the formless milieu of the bush. T h e ring is known as chipang'u, a term that is also used for the fence around a chief's dwelling and his medicine hut.

C O L L E C T I O N OF M E D I C I N E S

While the junior adepts prepare the sacred site, the senior adept and his principal assistant go to the adjacent bush to find medicines. These are collected from different species of trees, each of which has a symbolic value derived from the attributes and purposes of Isoma. In most N d e m b u rituals there is considerable consistency in the sets of medicines used in different performances of the same kind of ritual, but in the Isoma rites I attended there was wide variation from performance to performance. T h e first tree from which portions are taken for medicine (yitumbu) is always known as the ishikenu, and it is here that invocation is made, either to the afflicting shade or to the species itself, whose power (ng'ovu) is said to be " a w a k e n e d " (ku-tona) by the words addressed to it. At one performance I at tended, the senior adept went to a kapwipu tree (Swarlzia madagascariensis), which is used because its wood is hard. Hardness repre sents the health and strength (wukolu) desired for the patient. T h e senior adept cleared the base of the tree of weeds with his ritual hoe, then put the pieces of edible tubers representing the patient's body on the cleared space (mukombela) and spoke as follows: " W h e n this woman was pregnant before, her lips, eyes, palms and the soles of her feet turned yellow [a sign of anemia]. Now she is pregnant again. This time make her strong, so that she may bear a living child, and may it grow strong." T h e doctor then cut bark chips from another tree of the same species with his medicine ax, and p u t them in his

24

The Ritual Process

piece of b r o k e n calabash. After that he proceeded to cut bark chips from sixteen further species of trees. I t would take too long to discuss the meaning of each of these here, suffice it to say t h a t m a n y N d e m b u can attach not merely a single significance b u t in some cases (such as musoli, museng'u, and mukombukombu) m a n y connotations to a single species. Some of these species are used in m a n y different kinds of rituals and in herbalist practice, (where, however, different types of associational linkages are utilized from those employed in ritual, depending more on taste and smell t h a n on n a t u r a l properties a n d etymology). Some (e.g., kapwipu, mubang'a) a r e used because they have tough (hence " strengthening") wood, others (e.g., mucha, musafwa, mufung'u, museng'u, musoli, and mubulu) because they are fruit-bearing trees, representing the ritual intention of m a k i n g the patient fruitful once more; but all share the ritually i m p o r t a n t property that bark string cannot be taken from them, for this would " t i e u p " the fertility of the patient. In this sense, they m a y all b e said to b e coxmteT-Mvweng'i medicines, for, as the r e a d e r will recall, his costume is largely made up of bark strings, deadly to women's procreation. I c a n n o t refrain, however, from mentioning in more detail a smaller set of Isoma medicines, from another performance, for the native interpretation of these throws light on m a n y of the ritual's underlying ideas. H e r e the doctors went first to a chikang'anjamba or chikoli tree {Strychnos spinosa). This they described as the mukulumpi, " s e n i o r " or " e l d e r , " of the medicine. After invoking its powers, they took a p o r t i o n of one of its roots and some leaves. Chikang'anjamba m e a n s " the elephant fails" (to uproot it), on account of its tenacity a n d toughness. Its alternative name, chikoli, they derived from ku-kola, " t o b e strong, healthy, or firm," a designation that accords w i t h its extreme toughness and durability. This same tree
1

Mubang'a (Afrormosia angolensis), mulumbulumbu, mucha {Parinari mobola), musesi wehata [Erythrophloeum qfricanum), musesi wezenzela (Burkea qfricana),musafwa,mufung'u (Anissophyllea fruticulosa or boehmii), katawubwang'u, musoli (Vangueriopsis lanciflora), kayiza {Strychnos stuhlmannii), wunjimbi, museng'u (Ochna pulchra), wupembi, muleng'u {Uapaca species), mukombukombu (Tricalysia angolensis), and mubulu.

Planes of Classification

25

provides medicine for the circumcision rites, where it is thought to confer on the novices exceptional virility. In Isoma, its use stresses the connection between these rites and Mukanda, the circumcision rites, while it is also a specific against the infirmityand in many cases the anemiaof the patient. A comparison of the dominant medicines of these two performances shows that the same principle or idea can be expressed in different symbols. T h e dominant medicine of the first performance, kapwipu, is also a strong tree, and one from which is often taken the forked branch that forms the central ele ment of shrines set up to the shades of hunters, considered to be " tough and virile m e n . " Such shrine trees, peeled of bark, are ex ceptionally resistant to the action of termites and other insects. Decoctions of kapwipu leaves and bark are also used as aphrodisiacs. T h e second medicine collected in this performance represents another theme of N d e m b u ritualthat of representing the patient's inauspicious condition. This is the mulendi tree. It has a very slippery surface, from which climbers are prone to slip (ku-selumuka) and come to grief. In the same way the patient's children have tended to "slip o u t " prematurely. But the "glossiness" (ku-senena) of this tree also has therapeutic value, and this side of its meaning is promi nent in other rites and treatments, for its use makes the " d i s e a s e " (musong'u) slip away from the patient. It is, indeed, not uncommon for N d e m b u symbols, at all levels of symbolism, to express simulta neously an auspicious and an inauspicious condition. For example, the name Isoma itself, meaning " t o slip out," represents both the patients' undesirable state and the ritual to cure it. Here we come across another ritual principle, expressed in the Ndembu term ku-solola, " to make appear, or reveal." W h a t is. made sensorily perceptible, in the form of a symbol (chijikilu), is thereby made accessible to the purposive action of society, operating through its religious specialists. I t i s t h e " hidden " (chamusweka) t h a t i s " danger o u s " or " n o x i o u s " (chafwana). Thus, to name an inauspicious con dition is halfway to removing that condition; to embody the invisible
2
2

See also T u r n e r , 1 9 6 7 , p p . 3 2 5 - 3 2 6 .

26

The Ritual Process

action of witches or shades in a visible or tangible symbol is a big step t o w a r d remedying it. This is not so very far removed from the practice of the modern psychoanalyst. When something is grasped b y the m i n d , m a d e capable of being thought about, it can be dealt with, m a s t e r e d . Interestingly enough, the principle of revelation itself is embodied in an N d e m b u medicine-symbol used in Isoma. T h i s is t h e musoli tree (whose name is derived by informants from ku-solola), from which leaves and bark chips are also taken. It is widely used in N d e m b u ritual, and its name is linked with its natural properties. I t produces many small fruits, which fall to the ground a n d lure o u t of hiding various species of edible animals, which can be killed b y the hunter. It literally " makes t h e m appear." In hunt ing cults, its employment as medicine is intended to produce animals to t h e view {ku-solola anyama) of the hitherto unlucky hunter; in w o m e n ' s cults, it is used " t o make children a p p e a r " {ku-solola anyana) to a n unfruitful woman. As in so many cases, there is in the semantics of this symbol a union of ecology and intellect that results in t h e materialization of an idea. T o r e t u r n to the medicine-collecting: the doctors next collect roots a n d leaves from a chikwata tree {Zizyphus mucronata), a species in whose therapeutic meaning etymology once more combines with its natural characteristics. Chikwata has "strong t h o r n s , " w h i c h " c a t c h " {ku-kwata) or arrest the passer-by. It is thus said b o t h to represent " s t r e n g t h " and, by its thorns, to "pierce disease." I could, if time permitted, expatiate upon the ritual theme of " c a t c h i n g " or " s n a t c h i n g , " which is expressed in many symbols. I t p e r v a d e s the idiom of hunting symbolism, as might be expected, b u t is also exemplified in the phrase " t o catch a c h i l d " {ku-kwata mwana), w h i c h means " to give birth." But I will pass on to the next m e d i c i n e species from which portions are taken, musong'asong'a {Ximenia caffra), again a hardwood tree, making thus for health and strength, b u t also derived by folk etymology from ku-song'a, " t o c o m e to fruit or develop fruit," a term that is metaphorically applied to giving b i r t h to children, as in ku-song'a anyana. T h e muhotuhotu tree (Canthium venosum) is used for medicine "because of its n a m e . "

Planes of Classification

27

Ndembu derive this from ku-hotomoka, " t o fall suddenly," like a branch or fruit. T h e inauspicious condition, it is hoped, will suddenly cease by its application. Next, medicine is taken from the mutunda tree, whose derivation is from ku-lunda, which means " to be higher than those around it." In Isoma it stands for the good growth of an embryo in the womb and the child's continued exuberant growth thereafter. Mupapala (Anthocleista species) is the name of the next medicine species, and once more we have a representation of the patient's inauspicious condition. N d e m b u derive its name from kupapang'ila, which means " t o wander about in confusion" without knowing where one is. O n e informant put it in this w a y : " A woman goes this way and that without children. She must not do this any more. T h a t is why we cut mupapala medicine." Behind this idea, and behind the idea of "slipping out," is the notion that it is good and appropriate when things adhere to their proper place and when people do what is appropriate for them to do in their stage of life and status in society. In another performance of Isoma, the principal medicine or " d o m i n a n t s y m b o l " was not a particular species of tree but any kind of tree whose roots were thoroughly exposed to view. Such a tree is called wuvumbu, derived from the verb ku-vumbuka, meaning " t o be u n e a r t h e d " and " to emerge from hiding," for example, like a hunted animal. Thus, one informant adumbrated its meaning as follows: " W e use wuvumbu tree to bring everything to the surface. In just the same way everything in Isoma must be c l e a r " (-lumbuluka). Another variant upon the theme of "revelation."

Hot and Cool Medicines: Apertures of Death and Life Sometimes a portion of wood is taken from a decayed, fallen tree. This, once more, represents the patient's musong'u, or diseased, afflicted condition. Equipped with this array of strengthening, fecundatory,revelatory, clarifying, health-giving, affixing medicines, some

28

The Ritual Process

of which in addition represent the m a n n e r of t h e patient's affliction, the adepts r e t u r n to the sacred site w h e r e t r e a t m e n t will be given. T h e y now complete the arrangements t h a t give t h a t consecrated space its visible structure. T h e medicine leaves a n d bark fragments are pounded by a female adept in a consecrated meal-mortar. T h e n they are soaked in w a t e r and the liquid m e d i c i n e is divided into two portions. O n e is p u t into a large, thick piece of b a r k (ifunvu) or into a potsherd (chizanda), a n d is then h e a t e d o n a fire that is kindled just outside the hole d u g through the e n t r a n c e t o the giant rat's or ant-bear's b u r r o w . T h e other is poured cold i n t o a n izawu, a term t h a t refers to either a clay pot or a m e d i c i n e t r o u g h , or into a broken calabash, a n d this is placed by the " n e w h o l e . " (See Figure i ) . According to one informant, the holes s t a n d for " g r a v e s (tulung'a) a n d for procreative power (lusemu) " i n o t h e r w o r d s , for t o m b a n d w o m b . T h e same informant c o n t i n u e d : " T h e ikela (hole) of heat is the ikela of d e a t h . T h e cool ikela is life. T h e ikela of the giant rat is the ikela of t h e misfortune or grudge (chisaku). T h e new ikela is the ikela of m a k i n g well (kuhandisha) or curing. A n ikela is located at or near the source of a s t r e a m ; this represents lusemu, the ability to produce offspring. T h e new ikela should flow a w a y from the patient (muyeji); in this w a y the b a d things m u s t leave h e r . T h e circle of broken trees is a chipang'u. [This is a multivocal t e r m t h a t stands for (i) a n enclosure; (2) a ritual enclosure; (3) a fenced courtyard a r o u n d a chief's dwelling a n d medicine h u t ; (4) a ring around the moon.] T h e w o m a n w i t h lufwisha [i.e., w h o h a s lost three or four children b y stillbirth or infant mortality] m u s t g o into the hole of life a n d pass t h r o u g h t h e tunnel to the hole of d e a t h . T h e big doctor sprinkles h e r w i t h cold medicine, while his assistant sprinkles her w i t h hot m e d i c i n e . "

FIGURE

i.Isoma: the ritual scene. The couple to be treated sit in the " h o t " hole of a tunnel representing the passage from death to life. A medicine fire is tended behind them by a doctor. A calabash of cold medicines stands in front of the " cool" hole, where the entrance to the tunnel can be seen. Doctors wait here for the patients to emerge.

The Ritual Process

River source

/
/
O Cool medicine

Kuhandisha

IKELA OF LIFE OR HEALTH

X Women's fire

Female adepts

c H

Male adepts

X
Men's fire

Chisaku

IKELA OF DEATH OR WITCHCRAFT ^<^Red cock

Hot medicine over fire

\
\
Animal's burrow (blocked) Fence _ * *

/
/

(Chipang'uj Schematic Representation of the Spatial Symbolism of thehoma

Ritual

Planes of Classification

3i

We are now beginning to see the development of a whole series of classifications, symbolized in spatial orientations and in different kinds of objects. They are for the most part arranged in a set of what Levi-Strauss might well call " b i n a r y discriminations." But, before we analyze the pattern, a few more variables have to be fed into the system. At performances I observed, the patient's husband entered the " c o o l " ikela with her, standing on the "right-hand s i d e " nearer the men's fire, while she stood on the left. T h e n , after having been splashed with cool and hot medicine, she entered the connect ing tunnel first, while he followed her. As a variant the senior adept (or " b i g doctor") swept both wife and husband with cool a n d hot medicine. T h e n his assistant took over for a while and did likewise.

White and Red Fowls When the patient first enters the cool ikela, she is given the young white pullet to hold; during the rites she clasps it against her left breast, where a child is held (see figure 2). Both husband and wife, incidentally, are naked except for narrow waist-cloths. This is said to represent the fact that they are at once like infants and corpses. The adepts, in contrast, are clothed. T h e mature red cock is laid, trussed u p by the feet, on the right of the hot ikela, in fact on the men's side, ready to be sacrificed by beheading at the end of the rites. Its blood and feathers are poured into the hot ikela as the final act of the rites, as the antithesis of the reception of the white pullet by the woman patient, which begins the rites. T h e white chicken is said to stand for ku-koleka, " g o o d luck or strength," and ku-tooka, "whiteness, purity, or auspiciousness." But the red cock, as we have seen, represents the chisaku, or mystical misfortune, the "suffering" of the woman. T h e white pullet, according to one informant, also stands for lusemu, procreative capacity. " T h a t is why it is given to the woman," he said, "for she is the one who becomes pregnant and gives birth to children. A m a n is just a m a n and he can't be pregnant. But a m a n gives power to women to have children who

32

The Ritual

Process

FIGURE

2. Isoma: the

w o m a n patient holds the w h i t e pullet against her

left breast, representing the side of nurturance.

can b e seen, w h o a r e visible. T h e r e d cock stands for the m a n , p e r h a p s t h e grudge is t h e r e " [i.e., against h i m ] . " I f the woman still has n o children after t h e rites, t h e g r u d g e would b e with the w o m a n " [i.e., would n o t b e connected w i t h h e r marital situation, b u t would have arisen in other sets of r e l a t i o n s ] . Finally, it is prob ably of significance, a l t h o u g h unstated, t h a t t h e red cock remains

Planes of Classification

33

trussed up and unmoving through the rites, while the white hen accompanies the woman as she moves through the tunnel from " l i f e " to " d e a t h " and back to " l i f e " again. In other Ndembu ritual con texts, movement represents life and stillness death: the cock is con secrated for slaughter.

THE C U R A T I V E PROCESS

The rites in the makela follow a processual pattern. T h e first phase consists of a passage from the cool to the hot ikela, the woman leading and the m a n following. At the hot ikela the doctors mingle their splashings of medicine with exhortations to any witches or curselayers to remove their inimical influences. Next the marital pair,

FIGURE 3.Isoma: the doctor beside the calabash splashes the patients with medicine, while the men stand on the right of the tunnel's longi tudinal axis singing the kupunjila " s w a y i n g " song.

Bilkent Univers Library

34

The Ritual Process

in t h e s a m e o r d e r , return to the cool ikela, where they are again splashed w i t h m e d i c i n e (See figure 3 ) . T h e n they cross once more to t h e h o t ikela. T h e r e follows a temporary lull, during which the h u s b a n d is e s c o r t e d out of the ikela to fetch a small cloth to wipe the m e d i c i n e from t h e faces of the couple and the body of the pullet. H e r e t u r n s to t h e cool ikela, and after further medication, there is a p r o l o n g e d i n t e r v a l , during which beer is brought and drunk by the a t t e n d e r s a n d t h e husband. T h e patient, herself is forbidden to drink a n y . After b e e r , beginning again in the cool ikela, the splashing

FIGURE

4. Isoma:

the husband prepares to follow his wife through the tunnel.

is r e s u m e d . T h i s t i m e a r o u n d , the husband leads the way to the hot ikela (See figure 4 ) . T h e y return to the cool ikela in the same order. After splashing, t h e r e is another interval for beer. T h e n the sequence

Planes of Classification

35

FIGURE 5.Isoma:

the cock is beheaded over the fire and its blood is scattered in the " hot" hole.

cool-hot-cool follows, the wife leading. Finally, there is a like se quence at the end of which the red cock is beheaded and its blood poured into the hot ikela (See figure 5). T h e n the couple are swept once more with both types of medicine and cold water is poured over them (See figure 6). In all, the couple are splashed twenty times, thirteen of them in the cool ikela, seven in the hot, a ratio of nearly two to one. While splashing goes on, the male adepts on the right and the female adults on the left sing songs from the great life-crisis a n d initiation rites of the N d e m b u : from Mukanda, boys' circumcision; Alung'ong'i, the rites of a funerary initiation; Kayong'u, initiation into divining; Nkula, a traditional women's cult; and Wuyang'a, initia tion into hunters' cults. Periodically, they sing the Isoma song

FIGURE

6.Isoma: cold water is poured over the couple.

Planes of Classification

37

"mwanamiyaya punjila," accompanied by a swaying dance called kupunjila, which represents the dancing style of the Mvweng'i ikishi and, further, mimes the contractions of a n abortive labor.

FIGURE J. Isoma: wife and husband squat in the newly-made seclusion hut, where the white pullet will also be kept until it lays its first egg. T h e hut is built just outside the village. T h e doctor holds in his right hand the knife with which he beheaded the cock.

CLASSIFICATORY S T R U C T U R E : TRIADS

There is enough data to attempt to analyze the structure of the rites so far. First, there are three sets of triads. T h e r e is the invisible triadwitch, shade, a n d Mvweng'ito which is opposed the visible triaddoctor, patient, a n d patient's husband. I n the first triad, t h e witch is the mediator between the dead and the living in a hostile and lethal connection; in the second, the doctor is the mediator

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The Ritual Process

b e t w e e n t h e living a n d t h e dead in a conciliatory and life-giving connection. I n t h e first, t h e shade is female and the ikishi male, while the w i t c h m a y b e of either sex; in the second, the patient is female a n d h e r h u s b a n d m a l e . T h e doctor mediates between the sexes, in t h a t h e treats b o t h . T h e N d e m b u doctor, in fact, has many a t t r i b u t e s t h a t a r e r e g a r d e d as feminine in N d e m b u culture; he can p o u n d m e d i c i n e in a m e a l mortar, a task normally undertaken by w o m e n ; a n d h e h a n d l e s w o m e n and talks to t h e m about private m a t t e r s in a w a y t h a t w o u l d b e impermissible to m e n in secular roles. O n e t e r m for " d o c t o r , " chimbanda, is said by N d e m b u themselves to b e connected w i t h t h e . t e r m mumbanda, standing for " w o m a n . " I n b o t h triads t h e r e a r e close bonds of relationship between two of t h e p a r t n e r s . I n t h e first, the shade a n d the witch are believed to b e matrilineal k i n ; in t h e second, the husband a n d the wife are linked b y affinity. T h e first p a i r afflicts the second pair with misfor t u n e . T h e t h i r d p a r t n e r , Mvweng'i, represents the m o d e of that mis fortune, a n d t h e o t h e r t h i r d partner, the doctor, the mode of its removal. T h e t h i r d triad is represented by the 2 : i ratio between the cold a n d h o t "ablutions, w h i c h further m a y be held to symbolize the u l t i m a t e victory of life over death. Herein is contained a dialectic t h a t passes from life t h r o u g h d e a t h to renewed life. Perhaps, at the level of " d e e p s t r u c t u r e , " one might even connect the movement of the p a t i e n t in the t u n n e l with her actual movement through m a r r i a g e from village to village, matrikin to spouse's kin, and back again on t h e d e a t h or divorce of t h a t spouse.

CLASSIFICATORY STRUCTURE : DYADS

T h e other structural features of the rites m a y b e arrayed in terms of criss-crossing binary oppositions. I n the first place, there is the major opposition between the ritual site a n d t h e wild bush, which is roughly similar to t h a t m a d e b y Eliade b e t w e e n " c o s m o s " and

Planes of Classification

39

" c h a o s . " T h e other oppositions are best arranged in three sets in columnar form, as follows:
Longitudinal Burrow/new hole Grave/fertility Death/life Mystical misfortune/ curing Hot medicine/cool medicine Fire/absence of fire Blood/water Red cock/white pullet Latitudinal Left-hand fire/ right-hand fire Women/men Patient/patient's husband Cultivated roots/bush medicines White pullet/red cock Altitudinal Below surface/above surface Candidates/adepts Animals/humans Naked/clothed Medicine roots/ medicine leaves Shades/living White pullet/red cock

These sets of pairs of opposed values lie along different planes in ritual space. T h e first set is longitudinal a n d is spatially polarized by the "ikela of life" and the "ikela of d e a t h . " T h e second set is latitud inal and is spatially bounded by the male fire on the right and the female fire on the left. T h e third set is altitudinal a n d is spatially bounded by the surface of the ground a n d the floor of the combined makela and connecting tunnel. These oppositions a r e m a d e by t h e Ndembu themselves in exegesis, in practice, or in both. I n terms of spatial orientation the main oppositions a r e : animal-made hole/ man-made hole; left/right; below/above. These correspond respec tively to the paired values: death/life; female/male; candidates/ adepts. But, since these sets of values transect one another, they should not be regarded as equivalent. In Isoma, t h e N d e m b u are not saying, in the nonverbal language of ritual symbols, that death and feminity, and life a n d masculinity, are equivalent; nor are they saying that candidates are in a feminine role in relation to adepts (though they are certainly in a passive role). Equivalences m a y be sought within each set (or column), n o t between them. Thus, the animal's blocked lair-entrance is regarded as similar to t h e filled-in graves of people, to death, which blocks u p

40

The Ritual Process

life; to the mystical m i s f o r t u n e t h a t results in the deaths of infants; to " h e a t , " w h i c h is a e u p h e m i s m for witchcraft and for grudges that " b u r n " ; the red cock, w h o s e color stands for " the blood of witch c r a f t " (mashi awuloji) i n Isoma ( N d e m b u witchcraft is necrophagous, a n d in anti-witchcraft rites, r e d stands for the blood exposed in such feasts [see T u r n e r , 1967, p . 70]); and to " b l o o d " as a general symbol for aggression, d a n g e r , a n d , in some contexts, ritual impurity. T h e n e w hole, m a d e i n t h e direction of the river source, symbolizing the spring of fertility, is r e g a r d e d , on the other h a n d , as having affinities w i t h fertility, life, c u r a t i v e procedures, coolness or cold nessa synonym for f r e e d o m from the attacks of witches or shades a n d hence for " h e a l t h " (wukolu); with the absence of "fire"in this context a s y m b o l for t h e w a s t i n g a n d dangerous power of witch craft; w i t h t h e w h i t e p u l l e t w h i c h in this ritual represents and even embodies t h e p a t i e n t ' s fertility and by its color symbolizes (as I h a v e shown e l s e w h e r e e . g . , 1967, p p . 69-70) such desirable qualities as " g o o d n e s s , h e a l t h , strength, purity, good fortune, fertility, food, e t c . " ; a n d finally with water, which has much the same range of senses as " w h i t e n e s s , " though in terms of process r a t h e r t h a n state. T h e s e positive a n d n e g a t i v e qualities are suprasexual in their attribution, a n d I b e l i e v e t h a t it would be a mistake to equate them too narrowly w i t h s e x u a l differences. T h e latter are more closely linked w i t h t h e l e f t - h a n d / r i g h t - h a n d opposition. I n this set, it can hardly b e said t h a t t h e p a t i e n t , her white pullet, a n d the cultivated roots supplied b y t h e w o m e n h a v e the inauspicious connotations allocated to t h e g r a v e / d e a t h / h e a t symbolism of t h e first set. I men tion this because o t h e r w r i t e r s , such as Herz, N e e d h a m , Rigby, and Beidelman, a d m i t t e d l y i n r e g a r d to other cultures, have tended to list as m e m b e r s of t h e s a m e set such pairs as left/right, female/male, inauspicious/auspicious, i m p u r e / p u r e , etc., thus regarding the link age between femininity a n d inauspiciousness as a frequentindeed, almost a u n i v e r s a l - h u m a n i t e m of classification. N o r should the below/above d i c h o t o m y b e correlated, in N d e m b u culture, with the sex division. T h e set of t e r m s a r r a y e d u n d e r these heads is once more

Planes of Classification

41

sex-free, since, for example, the patients below and the doctors above contain members of both sexes.

SITUATION AND CLASSIFICATION

In other types of ritual contexts other classifications apply. Thus, in male circumcision rites, females and female attributes may b e regarded as inauspicious and polluting, but the situation is reversed in girls' puberty rites. W h a t is really needed, for the N d e m b u and, indeed, for any other culture, is a typology of culturally recognized and stereotyped situations, in which the symbols utilized are classi fied according to the goal structure of the specific situation. T h e r e is no single hierarchy of classifications that m a y b e regarded as pervading all types of situations. Rather, there are different planes of classification which transect one another, and of which the con stituent binary pairs (or triadic rubrics) are only temporarily con nected: e.g., in one situation the distinction red/white may be homo logous with male/female, in another with female/male, and in yet another with meat/flour without sexual connotation.

Planes of Classification Indeed, single symbols may represent the points of interconnection between separate planes of classification. It will have been noted that the opposition red cock/white pullet in Isoma appears in all three columns. In the life/death plane, the white pullet equals life and fertility as against the red cock, which equals death and witch craft; in the right/left plane, the cock is masculine and the pullet feminine; and in the above/below plane, the cock is above, since it is to be used as " m e d i c i n e " (yitutnbu), poured down from above, while the pullet is below, since it is closely linked, as child to mother, with the patient who is being medicated. This leads m e to the p r o b lem of the " p o l y s e m y " or multivocality of many symbols, the fact

42

The Ritual

Process

that they possess m a n y significations simultaneously. O n e reason for this m a y b e found in t h e i r " n o d a l " function with reference to intersecting sets of classifications. T h e binary-opposition red cock/ white hen is significant in a t least t h r e e sets of classifications in Isoma. If one is looking a t o m i s t i c a l l y a t e a c h of these symbols, in isolation from one a n o t h e r a n d from t h e o t h e r symbols in the symbolic field (in terms of indigenous exegesis or symbol context), its multivocality is its most striking feature. If, o n the other h a n d , one is looking at t h e m holistically in t e r m s o f t h e classifications that structure the semantics of t h e w h o l e r i t e i n w h i c h they occur, then each of the senses allocated to t h e m a p p e a r s as the exemplification of a single principle. I n b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n on each plane each symbol becomes univocal.

C O G N I T I O N A N D E X I S T E N C E IN R I T U A L SYMBOLISM

I conclude this c h a p t e r b y r e l a t i n g its findings to the standpoint of Levi-Strauss in The Savage Mind. Levi-Strauss is quite correct in stressing that la pensee sauvage contains properties such as homo logies, oppositions, c o r r e l a t i o n s , a n d transformations which are also characteristic of sophisticated t h i n k i n g . In the case of the Ndembu, however, the symbols t h e y use indicate t h a t such properties are w r a p p e d u p in a m a t e r i a l i n t e g u m e n t shaped by their life experi ence. Opposition does n o t a p p e a r as such b u t as the confrontation of sensorily perceptible o b j e c t s , such as a hen a n d a cock of different ages a n d colors, in v a r y i n g spatial relationships and as undergoing different fates. A l t h o u g h Levi-Strauss devotes some attention to the role of ritual a n d m y t h i c a l symbols as instigators of feeling and desire, h e does not d e v e l o p t h i s line of t h o u g h t as fully as he does his work on symbols as factors in cognition. (I have considered this elsewhere a t some length-for instance, 1967, p p . 28-30, 54-55O T h e symbols a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s as found in Isoma are not only a set of cognitive classifications for o r d e r i n g the N d e m b u universe. They are also, a n d p e r h a p s as i m p o r t a n t l y , a set of evocative devices for

Planes of Classification

43

rousing, channeling, and domesticating powerful emotions, such as hate, fear, affection, and grief. They are also informed with purposiveness and have a " c o n a t i v e " aspect. In brief, the whole person, not just the N d e m b u " m i n d , " is existentially involved in the life or death issues with which Isoma is concerned. Finally, Isoma is not " g r o t e s q u e " in the sense that its symbolism is ludicrous or incongruous. Every symbolic item is related to some empirical item of experience, as the indigenous interpretations of the vegetable medicines clearly reveal. From the standpoint of twentieth-century science, we may find it strange that N d e m b u feel that by bringing certain objects into a ring of consecrated space they bring with these the powers and virtues they seem empirically to possess, and that by manipulating them in prescribed ways they can arrange and concentrate these powers, rather like laser beams, to destroy malignant forces. But, given the limited knowledge of natural causation transmitted in N d e m b u culture, who can doubt that under favorable circumstances the use of these medicines may produce considerable psychological benefit? T h e symbolic expres sion of group concern for an unfortunate individual's welfare, coupled with the mobilization of a battery of " g o o d " things for her benefit, and the conjunction of the individual's fate with symbols of cosmic processes of life and deathdo these really add u p for us to something merely "unintelligible"?

Paradoxes of Twinship Ritual

in Ndembu

T W I N S H I P IN K I N S H I P A N D LIFE : SOME A F R I C A N EXAMPLES

I n the first chapter I a n a l y z e d o n e k i n d of N d e m b u ritual per formed to remedy a deficiency: e.g., a w o m a n ' s temporary incapacity to produce or raise living c h i l d r e n . I n o w wish to consider an N d e m b u ritual whose raison d'etre is a n i m m o d e r a c y of a different sort. This is the Wubwang'u r i t u a l , w h i c h is performed to strengthen a woman who is expected to b e a r or w h o has already borne a set of twins (ampamba). H e r e t h e difficulty is one of excess rather than defect, of overperformance r a t h e r t h a n underperformance. The bearing of twins constitutes for t h e N d e m b u w h a t we would call a paradoxthat is, a t h i n g t h a t conflicts w i t h preconceived notions of what is reasonable or possible. T h e r e a r e several absurdities in the physiological fact of t w i n s h i p for t h e N d e m b u . In the first place, as we have seen, a h i g h c u l t u r a l p r e m i u m is placed on fertility (lusemu); yet h e r e w e h a v e a n e x u b e r a n c e of fertility that results in physiological a n d e c o n o m i c distress. I n a society without cattle or the notion t h a t sheep a n d goats c a n b e milked for human consumption, it is difficult for a m o t h e r to supply twins with ade quate nourishment b y l a c t a t i o n . Often t h e i r survival may depend upon the chance t h a t a n o t h e r w o m a n has recently lost a child, has milk available, a n d is willing to n u r s e o n e of t h e twins. And even if 44

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

45

the twins survive until they are weaned, it may be difficult for their parents alone to provide them with their subsistence. For this reason they are symbolically represented in the rites as a charge upon the community. One way in which this is expressed is in a ceremonial dance where the mother of twins, clad only in a strip of bark cloth with a frontal flap of leather or cloth, and carrying a flat, round winnowing basket (Iwalu), makes the round of all the villages in a vicinage. As she dances she raises the flap to expose to all the source of her ex cessive fecundity, and solicits offerings of food, clothing, and money by circling her basket before the onlookers. This dance exhibits several motifs characteristic of Wubwang'u. O n e is the suspension of the rules of modesty, which are normally rigorously incumbent on Ndembu w o m e n ; another is the ritual power of vulnerability or weaknessa motif pursued much further in Chapter 3. Here I will point out only that twinship is regarded simultaneously as a blessing and a misfortune, both of which involve the wider community in the welfare of the ritual subject. But Wubwang'u exhibits another paradox in the social order. Professor Schapera (and other scholars) have drawn attention to the fact that wherever kinship is structurally significant, and provides a frame for corporate relationships and social status, the birth of twins is a source of classificatory embarrassment. For it is widely held, in Africa and elsewhere, that children born during a single parturition are mystically identical. Yet, under the ascriptive rules associated with kinship systems, there is "only one position in the structure of the family or corporate kin-group for them to occupy. There is a classificatory assumption that h u m a n beings bear only one child at a time and that there is only one slot for them to occupy in the various groups articulated by kinship which that one child enters by birth. Sibling order is another important factor; older siblings exert certain rights over junior siblings and may in some cases succeed to political office before them. Yet twinship presents the paradoxes that what is physically double is structurally single and what is mystically one is empirically two.

46

The Ritual Process

A f r i c a n societies resolve this dilemma in various ways. One r e m e d y for the structural contradiction produced by twinship is to p u t t h e t w i n s to death. This practice is followed by the Bushmen of t h e K a l a h a r i , of whom Baumann writes: " L'infanticide est friquentpar suite des conditions konomiques difficiles, mais le meurtre des jumeaux ou de Vun d'entre eux est du a la croyance qu'ils portent malheur " (Baumann a n d W e s t e r m a n n , 1962, p p . 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ) . T h e paradox is here resolved b y t h e destruction of one or both of the twins, who are believed to b r i n g (mystical) misfortune. Other societies do not destroy twins b u t r e m o v e t h e m from the kinship system to which they belong by b i r t h a n d confer on them a special status, often with sacred attributes. T h u s , a m o n g the Ashanti, according to Rattray (1923), "twins, if b o t h of t h e same sex, belong, as of right, to the chief, and become, if girls, his potential wives, if boys, elephant-tail switchers at the c o u r t . T h e y must be shown to him as soon as possible after birth, b e i n g c a r r i e d to the ' p a l a c e ' in a brass basin. Twins, on state occasions, a r e dressed in white, each alike" (p. 99). W h i t e , a m o n g the Ashanti, is a symbol, inter alia, for divinity and t h e " s p i r i t u a l " and fertilizing fluidswater, semen, and saliva. T h e e l e p h a n t is also connected with exuberant fertility, as is evi d e n c e d i n t h e girl's puberty ritual, during which the novice "touches t h r e e r o a s t e d pieces of elephant's ear, while the following words are a d d r e s s e d to h e r : ' M a y the elephant give you her womb that you m a y b e a r ten c h i l d r e n ' " (1923, p . 73). Ashanti chiefs have many of t h e a t t r i b u t e s of "divine k i n g s " and are believed to transcend t h e cleavages between sectional groups in their realms, with whose welfare a n d fertility their own are mystically identified. Thus, twins a r e lifted o u t of the secular structure and participate in and sym bolize t h e sacredness and fertility of the chief. But twins born in the r o y a l family itself are killed, for such an event is said to be "hateful" t o t h e G o l d e n Stool, supreme insignium and expression of Ashanti r o y a l t y ( 1 9 2 3 , p . 66). This is presumably because twins would intro d u c e c o n t r a d i c t i o n into the structure of the royal matrilineage, giving rise to p r o b l e m s of succession, inheritance, and precedence. A c c o r d i n g to Evans-Pritchard (1956), the Nuer of the Nilotic

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

47

Sudan assert that twins are one person and that they are birds: " T h e i r single social personality: is something over and above their physical duality, a duality which is evident to the senses and is indicated by the plural form used when speaking of twins and by their treatment in all respects in ordinary social life as two quite distinct individuals. It is only in certain ritual situations, and symbolically, that the unity of twins is expressed, particularly in ceremonies connected with marriage and death, in which the personality undergoes a c h a n g e " (pp. 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 ) . In this society, twins are not removed from the social structure, but they neverthe less acquire a ritual and symbolic value. They are symbolically identified with birds, not only on account of the resemblance between " t h e multiple hatching of eggs and the dual birth of b i r d s " (p. 130), but also because twins, like birds, are classified by the Nuer as "people of the a b o v e " and "children of G o d . " "Birds are children of God on account of their being in the air, and twins belong to the air on account of their being children of God by the manner of their conception and b i r t h " (p. 1 3 1 ) . T h e Nuer thus resolve the paradox of twinship by relating the single personality of twins to the sacred order, and their physical duality to the secular order. Each aspect operates on a distinct cultural level, and the concept of twinship mediates between the levels. In many societies, twins have this mediating function between animality and deity: They are at once more than h u m a n and less than human. Almost everywhere in tribal society they are hard to fit into the ideal model of the social structure, but one of the para doxes of twinship is that it sometimes becomes associated with rituals that exhibit the fundamental principles of that structure; twinship takes on a contrastive character analogous to the relation ship of ground to figure in Gestalt psychology. Indeed, one often finds in h u m a n cultures that structural contradictions, asymmetries, and anomalies are overlaid by layers of myth, ritual, and symbol, which stress the axiomatic value of key structural principles with regard to the very situations where these appear to be most in operative.

48

The Ritual Process

A m o n g m a n y Bantu-speaking peoples, including the Ndembu, twins a r e n e i t h e r p u t to d e a t h nor permanently assigned a special status as a m o n g t h e Ashanti. But, at the life crises of their birth, m a r r i a g e , a n d d e a t h , special rituals are performed and they have almost a l w a y s a latently sacred character, which becomes visible at all rites c o n c e r n i n g twin births. Moreover, the parents of twins a n d c e r t a i n of t h e i r siblings, especially the one immediately follow ing t h e m in b i r t h o r d e r , fall within the p e n u m b r a of this sacredness. For e x a m p l e , M o n i c a Wilson (1957) writes: Twin birth is a fearful event to the Nyakyusa. The parents of twins and twins themselves are abipasya, the fearful ones, felt to be very dangerous to their relatives a n d immediate neighbours, and to cattle, causing them to suffer from diarrhoea or purging, and swollen legs, if any contact takes place. Therefore, the parents are segregated and an elaborate ritual is per formed, in which a wide circle of kinsmen and neighbours and the family cattle participate. T h e infants are naturally segregated with their mother, but it is the danger from the parents rather than from the twins themselves that is emphasized. Ilipasa is commonly used to mean " twins," " twin birth," but it is more accurately translated as " abnormal birth," for it is used of a child born feet foremost (unsolola) as well as for any multiple birth, and the same ritual is performed whatever the type of ilipasa (p. 1 5 2 ) . T h e a i m of t h e N y a k y u s a rites is to rid twins and their parents of the d a n g e r o u s contagiousness of their condition. T h e parents must b e t r e a t e d w i t h m e d i c i n e s and ritual so that they may produce one child a t e a c h b i r t h henceforth and so that they may not affect their neighbors w i t h mystical illness. A m o n g the Nyakyusa and other B a n t u societies, s u c h as the Suku of the Congo, of whose twinship rites v a n G e n n e p (1909) has written, and the Soga of Uganda (Roscoe, 1 9 2 4 , p . 1 2 3 ) , twinship rites involve the whole local com m u n i t y . V a n G e n n e p draws attention to the fact that at the Suku rites of r e i n t e g r a t i o n , following a long " l i m i n a l " period during w h i c h t h e t w i n s a r e secluded from contact with the public life for six years, t h e r e is a "ritualistic traversing of the territory belonging to t h e society as a w h o l e and a (general) sharing of food" by the villagers ( p . 4 7 ) . I h a v e already mentioned how the Ndembu

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

49

regard twins as a charge upon the whole community. This may be regarded as another instance of a widely prevalent social tendency either to make what falls outside the norm a matter of concern for the widest recognized group or to destroy the exceptional pheno menon. In the former case, the anomalous may be sacralized, re garded as holy. Thus, in eastern Europe, idiots used to be regarded as living shrines, repositories of a sacredness that had wrecked their natural wits. They were entitled to food and clothing from everyone. Here the anomaly, the "stone that the builders rejected," is removed from the structured order of society and made to represent the simple unity of society itself, conceptualized as homogeneous, rather than as a system of heterogeneous social positions. Among Ndembu, too, the whole biology of twinning is sacralized and made into a matter for everyone, not just for the mother's close kin. T h e mother's affliction with too much of a good thing becomes the community's responsibility. It also becomes an occasion on which the community can celebrate and extol some of its crucial values and principles of organization. T h e paradox that what is good (in theory) is bad (in practice) becomes the mobilizing point of a ritual that stresses the overall unity of the group, surmounting its contradictions. To repeat: there are two things that can be done about twinship in a kinship society. Either you can say, like the little boy on first seeing a giraffe, " I don't believe it," and deny the social existence of the bio logical fact; or else, having accepted the fact, you can try to cope with it. If you try to cope, you must make it, if you can, appear to be consistent with the rest of your culture. You may, for example, in some situations focus attention upon the duality of twins, and in others upon their unity. O r you can reflect upon natural and social pro cesses whereby what were originally two separate and even opposed elements fuse to form something new and unique. You can examine the process whereby two become one. O r you can examine the converse of this, the process whereby one becomes two, the process of bifurca tion. Still further, you can regard the number T w o as being itself representative of all forms of plurality as opposed to unity. T w o represents the M a n y as opposed to the One, as derived from it, or as fused with it again.

The Ritual Process

F u r t h e r m o r e , if you pay attention to the Two, disregarding the O n e for t h e m o m e n t , you may regard it as comprising either a pair of similars, a dioscural pair like Castor and Pollux, or a pair of opposites, like m a l e a n d female, or life and death, as in the Isoma ritual. N d e m b u , in the symbolic idiom of the twinship ritual, have elected to e m p h a s i z e the aspect of opposition and complementarity. A l t h o u g h twins, in n a t u r e , are frequently of the same sex, and, i n d e e d , i d e n t i c a l twins are always of the same sex, N d e m b u stress in Wubwang'u t h e e q u a l but opposite aspect of duality. Pursuing this view f u r t h e r , w h e n they exhibit the process of uniting the compo nents of t h e d y a d , they represent this process as a coincidence of opposites, a n d n o t as a doubling of similars. Sexual symbolism is used to p o r t r a y this process, but I hope to show that very much more t h a n sexual intercourse is intended by it. T h e idiom of sexuality is used to r e p r e s e n t t h e processes by which social forces approximately e q u a l in s t r e n g t h a n d opposite in quality are exhibited as working in h a r m o n y . I n this chapter I shall be mainly concerned with the social referents of symbols that also represent aspects of sexuality. T h e fusion of a plurality of sociocultural referents with a plurality of o r g a n i c referents (including those with a sexual character) in a single visible representation, invested by believers with an extra o r d i n a r y p o w e r , a n d possessing a new quality of h u m a n communi cation, is a n i m p o r t a n t characteristic of religious symbols. To sayt h a t e i t h e r set of referents, cultural or organic, is " b a s i c " or " p r i m a r y , " a n d t h a t the other is reducible to it, is to overlook the q u a l i t a t i v e difference from either set presented by the pattern of their i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e .

T H E P L O T OF T H E N D E M B U T W I N

RITUAL

T h e unifying of a p a i r of opposites, dominantly expressed in symbols for m a l e - f e m a l e difference, opposition and union, constitutes what m a y b e called t h e ritual " p l o t " of Wubwang'u. I propose to select t w o i m p o r t a n t episodes in the ritual and to examine each in turn

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

51

with reference to its symbolism. Like most Ndembu cults of afflic tion, the cult association of Wubwang'u is m a d e u p of persons who have themselves undergone as patients the ritual treatment char acteristic of Wubwang'u. T h e afflicting spirit is believed to be that of a deceased member of the cult. T h e adepts or doctors collect vegetable medicines for the patient, adorn themselves in a special a y , and then wash the patient with pounded leaf-medicines and give her medicine to drink mixed with water. A shrine is made for the patient near the door of her hut, and cult members perform a number of rites in connection with it. Both men and women may act as doctors, for men who were themselves members of a pair of twins, who were sons or fathers of twins, or whose wives, mothers, or sisters have been successfully treated by the Wubwang'u procedure, have the right to learn the medicines and techniques of Wubwang'u. According to my records, the afflicting spirit is always that of a woman, and in the majority of cases is believed to be the patient's own mother's mother.
W

Wubwang'u may be performed for a woman who has just borne twins or for a woman who is expected to bear twins. It is expected, for example, that a woman whose own mother, mother's mother, or both have borne twins, or who was one of a twin pair herself, will have twins. If such a woman experiences any form of reproductive disorder during pregnancy, Wubwang'u may be performed for her often without consulting a diviner. Other women, unconnected in any way with twinning, may become patients in Wubwang'u, if they have suffered from reproductive troubles. This is often because relatives of the ailing woman have consulted a diviner, who has consulted his symbolic objects and decided that a spirit " i n Wubwang'u form" has caught her. All N d e m b u rituals concerned with female reproduction have both a specific and a general aspect, dealing explicitly with a particular culturally defined disorder but being held capable of curing other kinds. Thus, Nkula is properly for menstrual troubles but is also performed for miscarriage, frigidity, and barrenness, while Isoma is for miscarriage and stillbirth but also deals with menstrual disorders. Similarly, Wubwang'u as a generic

52

The Ritual Process

curative r i t u a l is b e l i e v e d to benefit women suffering from a variety of r e p r o d u c t i v e d i s o r d e r s . But its main symbolic emphases are on t w i n b i r t h , j u s t a s t h o s e of Nkula are on menorrhagia, and Isoma on miscarriages. T h e t w o e p i s o d e s (of which the second is subdivided into two phases) to w h i c h I w o u l d like to draw attention a r e : ( i ) the Rites of t h e R i v e r S o u r c e ; a n d (2) the Making of the Twin Shrine, with t h e Fruitful C o n t e s t of t h e Sexes. I n the first, the unity of the sexes in m a r r i a g e is r e p r e s e n t e d as a mystery; in the second, the sexes are r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e i r division and opposition.

Properties of Ritual

Symbols
1

E a c h of t h e s e e p i s o d e s is charged with symbolism. Such symbols exhibit t h e p r o p e r t i e s of condensation, unification of disparate referents, a n d polarization of meaning. A single symbol, in fact, represents many things a t t h e s a m e t i m e : it is multivocal, not univocal. Its referents a r e n o t all o f t h e s a m e logical order b u t are drawn from many domains of s o c i a l experience and ethical evaluation. Finally, its referents t e n d t o cluster around opposite semantic poles. At one pole t h e r e f e r e n t s a r e to social and moral facts, at the other, to physiological facts. T h u s , the mudyi (Diplorrhyncus condylocarpon) tree, central s y m b o l of t h e girls' puberty ritual, means simultaneously breast milk a n d m a t r i l i n y , while the mukula (Pterocarpus angolensis) tree stands for t h e b l o o d of circumcision a n d the moral community of m a t u r e t r i b e s m e n . S u c h symbols, then, unite the organic with the s o c i o m o r a l o r d e r , proclaiming their ultimate religious unity, over a n d a b o v e conflicts between and within these orders. Powerful drives a n d e m o t i o n s associated with h u m a n physiology, especially w i t h t h e p h y s i o l o g y of reproduction, a r e divested in the ritual process
See T u r n e r , 1 9 6 7 , for a discussion of what I consider to be the kinds of data from which the m a i n semantic components and properties of religious symbols may be inferred, a n d I will not repeat the whole argument here.
1

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

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of their antisocial quality and attached to components of the nor mative order, energizing the latter with a borrowed vitality, and thus making the Durkheimian " o b l i g a t o r y " desirable. Symbols are both the resultants and the instigators of this process, and encapsulate its properties.

R I T E S OF T H E R I V E R S O U R C E : C O L L E C T I O N OF M E D I C I N E S

The Rites of the River Source at Wubwang'u exemplify most of these properties. They form p a r t of a sequence of ritual activities that makes up the first phase of this ritual of twinship. As in Isoma, and indeed other N d e m b u rituals of affliction, the collection of medicines (ku-hukula yitumbuliterally, " t o snatch or steal medicines"or ku-lang'ulayitumbu) is the first activity in the sequence. T h e Wubwang'u doctor adepts who perform this carry with them into the bush a number of foods in the senior practitioner's winnowing basket (Iwalu). These may include a cassava root, beans, groundnuts, a lump of salt, maize grains, portions of the meat of domestic animals and wild pig, and other comestibles. T h e y bring the white beer m a d e from maize or bulrush millet, the color of which makes it an appropriate libation for the shades, who are symbolically " w h i t e " {a-tooka) beings. T h e y also carry white clay in a phallus-shaped calabash (see Figure 8) and powdered red clay in the shell of a water mollusc (nkalakala) (see Figure 17, p . 74). According to informants, " t h e foods are brought to strengthen the bodies of the mother and children," while the white clay is " t o make the children strong, pure, and fortunate." Several informants held that the red clay means " b a d luck (ku-yindama), lack of strength (kubula kukoleka), and lack of success (ku-halwa)." But, as we shall see below, p . 69, this same red clay at the Rites of the River Source represents " t h e blood of the mother." This is yet another example of the way in which the same symbols have varying sig nificance in different contexts. T h e binary-opposition white/red at different episodes of Wubwang'u represents strength/weakness, good

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The Ritual Process

8. Twin ceremony: an adept carries the ritual winnowing basket, containing a calabash of white beer and a phallus-shaped calabash filled with white clay. She is receiving a medicine branch.
FIGURE

l u c k / b a d luck, h e a l t h / d i s e a s e , purity of heart/a grudge causative of witchcraft, s e m e n / m a t e r n a l blood, masculinity/femininity. T h e b a n d of a d e p t s is h e a d e d by a male and a female senior practi tioner. T h e s e a d e p t s a r e accompanied by their children; indeed, Wubwang'u is t h e only k i n d of N d e m b u ritual in which children are enjoined to p a r t i c i p a t e in collecting " m e d i c i n e s " (yitumbu), to use a traditional b u t n o t w h o l l y a p p r o p r i a t e term for the vegetable sub-

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

55

stances. Each child carries a leafy branch taken from every " m e d i cine " tree or bush visited. Bawdy songs are sung during the medicine collection " t o make the p a t i e n t " strong, and a double hunting-bell (mpwambu) is rung by the principal doctor. Its purpose is " t o open the ears of the unborn children so that they may know they are twins." The singing and bell-ringing are also " t o arouse the shades" (kutnnisha akishi), for each doctor adept has a guardian shade who was formerly a Wubwang'u cult-member. Furthermore, they are held to " r o u s e " the medicine trees, the species from which Wubwang'u medicine potions and lotions will be prepared. Without these stim ulating sounds, it is believed the trees would remain merely as trees; with them arid with their accompanying rites of sacralization, they become magically efficacious powers, akin to the " v i r t u e s " possessed by herbs in Western folk-therapy.. In a text on medicine collection which I cite in full on p p . 86-88, there is a passage that runs: " T h e r e must be a renewal (or causing to rise up) and scattering of those former (or traditional) words and a cutting (of medicines)." These " w o r d s " are the songs and prayers of Wubwang'u, and they mystically affect the cutting of medicine plants. An example of prayer is to be found when the dominant symbolic medicine of the rites is consecrated, the kata wubwang'u tree. First the senior practitioner dances around it in a circle because " h e wants to please the shade," for it is the big tree of the Wubwang'u shade "big " that is, in ritual status, for all the trees I have seen treated in this way were slender young specimens. T h e n he digs a hole over its tap root and places the items of food in it, while he utters the following prayer: Eyi mufu wami kanang'a wading'i naWubwang'u, " Y o u , O m y dead [kinswoman] w h o had Wubwang'u, neyi muntu wunatnwidyikili dehi muWubwang'u, if you have come out to someone today in Wubwang'u, ifuku dalelu mukwashi chachiwahi
this very day you must help her well,

ashakami chachiwahi nawanyana.

that she m a y sit well with children."

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The Ritual

Process

A libation of beer is t h e n p o u r e d into the hole on the food so that " t h e shades m a y c o m e t o e a t a n d d r i n k there." T h e n the doctor fills his m o u t h w i t h w a t e r o r b e e r a n d powdered white clay (mpemba or mpeza) a n d blows it o v e r t h e l a u g h i n g scattering onlookers in sign of blessing. N e x t t h e p a t i e n t is m a d e to stand touching the tree and facing east while strips o f b a r k a r e cut from it into the winnowing basket (see Figures 9 a n d 1 o ) a n d a fronded branch is cut and given

FIGURE

9 . T w i n C e r e m o n y : t h e patient stands touching the medicine tree while facing east, t h e direction of rebirth. The doctor cuts portions of bark into t h e w i n n o w i n g basket with his ritual ax.

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

57

FIGURE i o . T w i n ceremony: this figure illustrates the ritual identifi cation of twinsin this case of opposite sex. T h e man in white is twin to the female patient whose back is to the molu waWubwang'u every medicine cutting. vine, from which medicine fronds are being cut. H e must stand near her at

to a woman adept to carry. According to one adept, " s h e faces east be cause everything comes from the east (kabeta kamusela) where the sun rises; when someone dies, his face is turned toward the east, meaning

58

The Ritual

Process

that he will be born again, b u t a s t e r i l e p e r s o n (nsama) or a witch (muloji) is buried facing west so t h a t h e w i l l d i e forever." I n brief, the east is t h e auspicious a n d life-giving d i r e c t i o n . T h e kata wubwang'u tree, as i n Isoma, is k n o w n as " t h e e l d e r " or " t h e place of g r e e t i n g , " a n d is a m u l t i v o c a l s y m b o l (i.e., one having m a n y designations). Such a s y m b o l is r e g a r d e d a s t h e critical site of transition from secular to sacred w a y s o f b e h a v i n g . I n Wubwang'u, a clear distinction is m a d e b e t w e e n m e d i c i n e s collected in t h e dry bush (yitumbu ya mwisang'a) a n d those c o l l e c t e d i n t h e streamside forest (yitumbu yetu). T h e bush is r e g u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h both hunting a n d virility, while t h e streamside forest is l i n k e d w i t h femininity. W o m e n make gardens in t h e r i c h b l a c k a l l u v i a l soil beside streams, a n d soak their cassava roots in pools n e a r b y . I n Wubwang'u, there is a separate " e l d e r " tree for t h e b u s h a n d o n e for t h e stream. Kata wubwang'u is t h e " e l d e r " for t h e b u s h . T h e fruit of this tree is divided into two symmetrical portions, w h i c h N d e m b u c o m p a r e explicitly with twins (ampamba or ampasa). A n u m b e r of o t h e r trees of the dry bush a r e next visited for bark s c r a p i n g s a n d leafy branches. Below is a list containing t h e n a m e s of e a c h species, followed b y a n abbreviated native explanation of w h y it is u s e d . SPECIES Ndembu Term Botanical Name p I. Kata Wubwang'u Ochna pulchra a. Museng'u 3 . Mung'indu 4. Mucha 5 . Mufung'u 6. Kapepi Swartzia madagascariensis Parinari mobola ? Arisophyllea boehmii Hymenocardia acida Vangueriopsis lanciflora NDEMBU EXPLANATION

"Double-fruit twins" " O n e f l o w e r makes m a n y small f r u i t s t w i n s are like one person" " Bears fruits, thus will give m o t h e r m a n y children" S a m e as 3 S a m e as 3 S a m e as 3 " has thin fruits, like leaves, these are sour (batuka), used as relish " " F r o m ku-solola, 'to make visible' t o m a k e a w o m a n with no c h i l d r e n to p r o d u c e young ones"

7. Musoli

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual SPECIES Botanical Name Ndembu Term Pterocarpus 8. Mukula angolensis 9. Mudumbila
10. Muhotuholu

59

NDEMBU

EXPLANATION

" Its red gum is called 'blood' to give a woman enough blood at time of birth " " H a s fruits, fertility" gives a woman

Canthium venosum

" F r o m ku-hotomoka, 'to fall sud denly,' so must the woman's trouble slip from her body " " H a s fruits" (see 3 ) " F r o m ku-mwang'a, 'to scatter,' means to scatter the disease "

11. Mudeng'ula 12. Mwang'alala

Paropsia brazzeana

To this set of vegetable medicines is added a portion of hornets' nest. "Perhaps this is because of its many young," one informant guessed. T h a t completes the list of bush medicines. Next, a number of medicines are obtained from the streamside (gallery) forest. T h e " e l d e r " tree for the streamside is a creeper called molu waWubwang'u, "the vine of IVubwang'u." Ndembu say: "Molu waWubwang'u grows into many different branches and spreads to form a large place of its own. In just the same way a woman should have as many children as the creeper has branches." Its later use in Wubwang'u is twofold: first, it is intertwined among the children's medicine branches, which have been set upright near the patient's hut to form a tiny double enclosure like the letter m , which serves as a shrine for the afflicting shade; second, it is draped over the patient's shoulders and around her breasts. This use recalls its role as a medicine for making a woman's breast milk white, if it becomes yellow or reddish. This dis colored milk is called nshidi (" sin " ) . If the milk is red or yellow, witch craft is felt to be somehow involved in the anomaly; the mother herself may be a witch, or someone else is bewitching her. Molu medicine restores the milk to its proper color (see also Turner, 1967, p . 347). White things are believed by Ndembu to stand for such virtues and values as goodness, purity, good health, good luck, fertility, openness, social communion, and a number of other auspicious qualities. Thus, molu, the dominant symbol of the streamside, stands for motherhood,

6o

The Ritual Process

l a c t a t i o n , t h e breasts, a n d fertility. Like mudyi, molu represents the n u r t u r a n t a s p e c t s of m o t h e r h o o d . T h e o t h e r s t r e a m s i d e medicines are then collected. These are, in order of collection: SPECIES Botanical Name Ndembu Term , Molu waWubwang'u Possibly a species of Convolvulaciae NDEMBU EXPLANATION

" I t grows into many different branches and forms a large place of its own; it spreadsthus a w o m a n should have as many children as the creeper has branches " " I t has many fruits, will make w o m a n fertile "

2. Musojisoji 3 . Muhotuhotu 4. Mudyi Canthium venosum Diplorrhyncus condylocarpon (Uvariastrom hexalobodies) Harungana madagascariensis

See bush medicines above, p. 59

(10)
"Because it is used in Nkang'a, the girls' puberty rites, to make a w o m a n mature and fruitful" " Katuna has red sap. A s a child is born accompanied b y blood, so should a mother have much blood" " I t has m a n y spreading roots a w o m a n should have many children. Ku-tung'ula means 'to speak of a person behind his back'perhaps the grudge (chitela) comes from this "

5 . Katuna

6. Mutung'ulu

Commentary T h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of these species represent t h e woman's desired fruitfulness. S o m e a r e connected with t h e idea of maternal blood. O n e a d e p t vouchsafed t h e information t h a t a n unborn child "eats food t h r o u g h t h e blood of t h e m o t h e r , " thereby indicating some k n o w l e d g e of t h e physiology of reproduction. W h a t is of great interest is t h e c o n n e c t i o n of such medicines as muhotuhotu and mutung'ulu with t r o u b l e , b a c k b i t i n g , a n d grudges. These r u n like a red thread through t h e ideological s t r u c t u r e of Wubwang'u, a n d are in fact connected

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with its red symbolism. Thus, from the powdered red clay brought by the senior practitioner, the children who accompany their doctor parents into the bush decorate their faces (see Figure 1 1 ) . Those of them who are twins draw a red circle around their left eye, and, with powdered white clay, a white circle around the right eye. These are "for the shades of twins or mothers of twins," informants told me. According to one of them, the red circle "represents blood," while the white one stands for " s t r e n g t h " or "good luck'.' But another said explicitly that the red circle stands for " t h e g r u d g e " (chitela), and since it was around the left, or "feminine," eye, "perhaps the grudge comes from that side." Asked what he meant by this, he went on to say that perhaps there was ill-feeling between the patient and her grandmother when the latter, now an afflicting Wubwang'u shade, was alive. O n the other hand, he continued, the shade might have been angered by quarrels in the matrilineal kin-group (akwamama, " those on the mother's side ") and have punished one of its members. In any case, he said, grudges are found more often in the matrilineage (ivumu, or " w o m b " ) than among paternal kin, who have goodwill toward one another. This was a conscious attempt to interrelate the binary oppositions male/female, patrilaterality/matriliny, good will/ grudge, white/red in a completely consistent manner. Implicit in this interpretation, too, is the paradox of twinship itself. Twins are both good luck and reasonable fertilityand in this respect have an affinity with the ideal relationship that should inter link patrilateral kinand bad luck and excessive fertility. T h e Ndembu, incidentally, regard twins of opposite sex as being more auspicious than twins of the same sexa view widely held in African societiespossibly for the reason that twins of the same sex occupy the same sibling position in the kinship and political structure. Apart from the twin-fruit symbolism of kata wubwang'u and the many-in-one symbolism of museng'u, the medicines themselves do not make explicit reference to twinship. R a t h e r do they cumulatively represent exuberant fertility. But the sharp distinction m a d e in the rites between medicines of the bush and those of the gallery forest, a distinction connected by informants with that between masculinity and femininity, is related to the main dualistic theme of Wubwang'u.

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The Ritual Process

FIGURE

1 1 . T w i n ceremony: children are marked with white and red circles around their eyes, distinguishing them in categories of twin and non-twin.

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63

T H E R I T E S OF T H E R I V E R S O U R C E : THE STREAM AND THE ARCH

The mudyi tree (the " m i l k - t r e e " ) , focal symbol of the girls' puberty rites, also appears in the twin ritual. Characteristically, it appears in an episode that portrays the mystical unity of opposites. After the medicines for the basket have been collected, the senior male practi tioner cuts a pliant wand of mudyi, and another of muhotuhotu. These are taken near the source of a stream (see Figure 12). T h e wands are

FIGURE 1 2 .

Twin Ceremony: the ritual party arrives at the river source, "where procreative capacity begins," bearing branches of medicine trees.

planted on either bank of the stream, opposite one another, their tips are bent over to form a n arch, and they are bound together. T h e muhotuhotu wand lies on top of the mudyi wand. T h e complete arch is called mpanza or kuhimpa, a verbal noun meaning " e x c h a n g i n g . "

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The Ritual Process

T h e muhotuhotu t r e e is u s e d in various ritual contexts. Its meaning tends t o b e a s s o c i a t e d b y N d e m b u with certain of its natural proper ties, a n d also w i t h t w o v e r b s from which certain ritual experts derive some of its r e f e r e n t s . T h i s h a b i t of etymologizing, as I mentioned in C h a p t e r I , is h i g h l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Central African exegetics. W h e t h e r t h e e t y m o l o g i c a l explanation of the names of ritual objects a n d a c t i o n s is t r u e o r false is u n i m p o r t a n t . N d e m b u are merely utiliz i n g o n e of t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t give richness to the semantic content of all l a n g u a g e s h o m o n y m y w h i c h m a y b e described as a kind of serious p u n n i n g . I f t w o s i m i l a r l y sounding words of different derivation c a n l e n d o n e a n o t h e r c e r t a i n of their senses, semantic enrichment is effected. H o m o n y m y is exceptionally useful in ritual where, as I h a v e said, r e l a t i v e l y few symbols must represent a multiplicity of phenomena. Muhotuhotu is s o m e t i m e s derived from the verb ku-kotumuna, which m e a n s " t o fall s u d d e n l y . " I t is said that toward the end of the dry season t h e leaves of t h i s t r e e tend to fall off simultaneously, leaving t h e b o u g h s s u d d e n l y b a r e . I n the same way, when muhotuhotu is used as m e d i c i n e , diseases, misfortunes, a n d the effects of witchcraft/ sorcery will " fall o f f " t h e p a t i e n t treated with it. Whenever Ndembu use a m e d i c i n e b r o o m for sweeping the body with pounded leafm e d i c i n e , muhotuhotu f o r m s one of its three components. This broom is used m o s t t y p i c a l l y i n anti-witchcraft ritual. B u t t h e r a d i c a l -hotu- h a s a n o t h e r derivative, which also influences t h e m e a n i n g of muhotuhotu. T h i s is the verb ku-hotomoka, the sense of w h i c h was g i v e n t o m e i n t h i s periphrastic formulation: " a tree which lodges o n a n o t h e r t r e e falls d o w n suddenly when the wind blows; its falling is called ku-hotomoka. Sometimes it means a tree which grows over t h e b o d y of a n o t h e r t r e e . A disease lies on a person's body, and t h e d o c t o r desires t h a t it s h o u l d slip off." I n t h e specific s i t u a t i o n found in Wubwang'u, however, muhotuhotu is said to s t a n d for " t h e m a n " (iyala), while the mudyi wand stands for " t h e w o m a n " (mumbanda). All t h e adepts I have questioned agree t h a t this is t h e case, p o i n t i n g out t h a t muhotuhotu was placed above mudyi. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y say t h a t the tying together of the wands

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stands for their sexual union (kudisunda). Sometimes a wand of kabalabala (Pseudolachnostylis species) wood is used instead ofmuhotuhotu. A forked bough of this wood is frequently used as a shrine in the hunters' cult. It is a tough, termite-resistant wood, and is compared in the boys' circumcision ritual with a n erect phallus. I t is used there as a medicine to induce male potency. Here the connection with virility is quite clear. Another cluster of referents is associated with the form of the arch over the stream. Its title mpanza means " t h e c r o t c h " or bifurcation the human body. According to one informant: "Mpanza is the place where the legs join. It is the place of the organs of reproduction in men and women." T h e same symbol appears in the girls' puberty ritual, where a tiny bow (kawuta) of mudyi wood is placed at the apex of the girl novice's seclusion hutjust where a pole of mudyi wood is tied to a pole of red mukula wood. T h e bow, draped with white beads representing children, stands for the novice's desired fertility. T h e point of junction between the poles is also called mpanza. This bi furcation, basic to biological and social continuity, reappears in the dualistic symbolism of twinship. The term mpanza is used at boys' circumcision for a tunnel of legs belonging to senior officiants and circumcisers, beneath which the junior guardians who tend the novices during seclusion are obliged to pass. This tunnel is both an entrance to the situation of circumcision and also a magical mode of strengthening the genitalia of the junior guardians. T h e tunnel symbolism in this ritual recalls that found in Isoma. The mpanza motif recurs in the Wubwang'u ritual itself. During the rites performed later at the village shrine, male doctors plunge under each other's outstretched legs (see Figure 19, p . 77). Also the patient herself is passed through the doctors' legs. This is called kuhanwisha muyeji mwipanza. T h e Isoma tunnel, the reader may recall, was called ikela dakuhanuka, where kuhanuka has the same root as kuhanwisha. So far, then, the arch stands for the fertility resulting from com bined masculinity and femininity. T h e siting of the mpanza near the source of a stream is also significant. Such a source (ntu or nsulu) is

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Process

said by N d e m b u to b e " w h e r e p r o c r e a t i v e capacity (lusemu) begins." W a t e r is classified by r i t u a l specialists in the category of " w h i t e " symbols. As such it h a s t h e g e n e r i c senses of "goodness," " p u r i t y , " " g o o d l u c k , " a n d " s t r e n g t h , " w h i c h it shares with other symbols of this class. (A function o f t h e s e rites, informants told me, is " t o wash away diseases" (nyisong'u). T h e d o c t o r s ' feet are washed " s o as to purify t h e m " (nakuyitookesha), for t h e r e is an element of impurity in Wubwang'u, in its r i b a l d r y a n d aggressiveness.) But water has addi tional senses c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o its p e c u l i a r properties. In that water is " c o o l " (atuta) or " f r e s h " (atontola), it stands for " b e i n g alive" (ku-handa), as o p p o s e d t o t h e b u r n i n g heat of fire, which, like fever, means " d y i n g " (ku-fwila), especially dying as the result of witch craft. A g a i n , w a t e r , i n t h e f o r m of r a i n a n d rivers, stands for "in c r e a s e " or " m u l t i p l i c a t i o n " (ku-senguka), for fertility in general. T h e symbolism of mpanza i n t h e t w i n s h i p rites suggests that human fertility is to b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e fertility of n a t u r e . T h e motif of " c o o l n e s s " is also exemplified when the senior female p r a c t i t i o n e r r e m o v e s a p i e c e of black alluvial soil (malowa) from the s t r e a m i m m e d i a t e l y b e l o w t h e arch. This piece is placed in the medicine basket a n d l a t e r forms one of the components of the village shrine for t h e Wubwang'u s p i r i t . Informants say that the use of malowa h e r e parallels its u s e in t h e girls' p u b e r t y rites. T h e r e malowa stands for m a r i t a l h a p p i n e s s (wuluwi), a t e r m related to luwi, meaning " m e r c y " or " k i n d n e s s . " I n m a n y o t h e r contexts it is said to be used because it is " c o o l " f r o m its c o n t a c t with water. Being " c o o l , " it weakens diseases, w h i c h , as in Isoma ritual, are thought to be " h o t . " But it is also linked b y i n f o r m a n t s w i t h fertility, since crops grow exuberantly in it. After the b r i d a l n i g h t t h a t follows the girls' puberty ritual, the novice's instructress (nkong'u) p u t s s o m e malowa soil in contact with the b r i d e a n d the g r o o m , t h e n s c a t t e r s fragments of it on the threshold of every h u t in t h e village i n h a b i t e d b y a married couple. N d e m b u say t h a t this m e a n s t h a t " t h e c o u p l e n o w love one another properly a n d t h e instructress wishes t o j o i n all t h e married people in the village w i t h t h a t s a m e l o v e . " T h i s n o t i o n t h a t m a r r i a g e should ideally be

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

67

fruitfully peaceful is stated quite explicitly by Ndembu women. They say that the sort of husband they prefer is a good-tempered, hard-working, and quiet-speaking man. A m a n like this, they say, will "father ten children." This ideal type, as seen by women, is the exact opposite of the male personality-type extolled in the hunters' cults, the sort of m a n who, it is said in a hunters' ritual song, "sleeps with ten women a day, and is a great thief." Indeed, women are recom mended in such contexts to give their hearts to these tough, quarrel some, and lustful men of the bush. T h e two antithetical ideals coexist in Ndembu society as in our own, as any reader of the novel Gone with the Wind will recognize. This novel, incidentally, is also based on a dualistic themethat of the North versus the South, and of capitalism versus landowning. Moreover not only the fruitful union but also the combat of the sexes is shown in various episodes of the twin ritual. Thus, the mpanza arch represents fertile, legitimate love between man and woman. T h e male and female principles " e x c h a n g e " their qualities, the opposite banks of the stream are joined by the arch. The water of life flows through it, and coolness and health are the prevailing modes. After the mpanza is made, the patient stands on a log placed in the middle of the water (see Figure 1 3 ) . T h e female adepts and their daughters line up on the log behind her in order of seniority. T h e senior male practitioner brings the small calabash (ichimpa), openly compared by informants with a phallus (ilomu) and of the type used to give novices their training in sexual technique at the girls' puberty ritual, and takes powdered white clay (mpemba) out of it. T h e male doctors have previously added certain ingredients to the white d a y sman portions of mpelu, or pieces of animal or organic matter, used as ingredients of contagious magic. In Wubwang'u these are classified as " w h i t e " symbols and include: powdered white portions of the goliath beetleused also as a charm in hunting cults; some hairs from an albino (mwabi), regarded as an auspicious being; white feathers from the gray parrot (kalong'u); and white pigeon feathers (kapompa). These are all connected with hunting and masculinity as well as with whiteness. T h e white clay itself refers quite explicitly

68

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

69

to semen (matekela), which, in its turn, is said to be "blood purified by water." T h e senior practitioner faces the patient, puts the white powder in his mouth, and blows it over the patient's face and chest. Next the senior female practitioner, standing just behind the patient, takes some powdered red clay (mukundu) from the shell of a large water snail called nkalakala, puts it in her mouth, and blows it over the patient's face and chest. T h e act of blowing (ku-pumina or ku-pumbila) stands both for orgasm and for blessing with the good things of life (ku-kiswila nkisu). It affords yet another example of the semantic bipolarity of ritual symbols. T h e blowing on of white, then red, clay dramatizes the Ndembu theory of procreation. M y best informant, Muchona, inter preted the rite as follows: " T h e white clay stands for semen and the red clay for maternal blood. T h e father first gives blood to the mother, who keeps it in her body and makes it grow. Semen is this blood mixed and whitened with water. It comes from the power of the father. I t remains in the mother as a seed of life" (kabubu kawumi). Muchona, and some others, took the view that both white and red clay should be contained in the snail's shell to represent the union of male a n d female partners in the conception of a child. But in each of the performances of Wubwang'u I witnessed, white and red clay were kept in separate containers. W h a t is interesting about Muchona's view is that in it he stresses the unitive aspect of the rite.

T H E MAKING OF T H E T W I N S H R I N E IN T H E V I L L A G E

Dualism prevails in the public rite that follows in the patient's village. This is emphatically represented both in the binary structure of the twin shrine and in the explicit opposition of the sexes in mime, dance, and song. T h e doctors return from the river bearing leafy fronds, like a Palm Sunday processionone m a d e u p largely of women and child ren, however (see Figure 14). Levi-Strauss would perhaps regard the presence of the children in the medicine-gatheringhighly anomal ous in N d e m b u ritualas a sign t h a t children were " m e d i a t o r s "

7o

The Ritual Process

FIGURE 1 4 . T w i n c e r e m o n y :

the ritual party returns from the river

b e a r i n g fronds, like a Palm S u n d a y procession.

between t h e m e n a n d t h e women, b u t N d e m b u themselves look on t h e m as s y m b o l s (yinjikijilu) of twinship (Wubwang'u) a n d fertility (lusemu). T h e y w a n t t h e m also to " b e strengthened," for all who fall within t h e a m b i t of Wubwang'u, b y birth or bearing, are believed to b e weakened a n d i n need of mystical invigoration. T h e t w i n s h i p s h r i n e in t h e village is constructed about five yards in front of t h e p a t i e n t ' s h u t . I t is m a d e from the leafy branches col lected in t h e b u s h , o n e from each medicine species, in t h e form of a

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

7i

semicircle about a foot and a half in diameter. A partition of branches is made across the center, dividing it into two compartments. Each of these compartments is eventually filled with sets of ritual objects. But, at different performances I witnessed, the senior officiants had different views as to how the compartments should be regarded, and this influenced the choice of objects. O n e school of thought held that what is called the "left-hand" compartment should contain: (1) a foundation of black river mud (malowa) taken from under the patient's feet at the Rites of the River Source, " t o weaken the shades causing the Wubwang'u condition"; (2) a black clay pot (izawu) dotted with white and red clay taken from the phallus-shaped calabash and the shell of the water mollusc (see Figure 1 5 ) ; and (3) in the pot, cold water mixed with bark chips from the medicine trees (see Figures 16 and 1 7 ) . I n contrast, the right-hand compartment should contain a small calabash of sacralized honey beer (kasolu), normally a man's and a hunter's drink, used as a sacred beverage in hunters' cults. It is far more intoxicating than other Ndembu beers, and its " h e a d y " quality is considered appropriate to the sexual jesting that character izes the rites. Honey, too, is a symbol for the pleasure of sexual intercourse (see, for example, the song on p . 80). I n this variant, the left-hand compartment is regarded as female, and the right-hand one as male. Each compartment is called chipang'u, meaning "enclo s u r e " or "fence," usually surrounding a sacralized space, such as the dwelling place and medicine hut of a chief. T h e patient is splashed with medicine from the pot, while the adepts, male and female, drink the beer together. In this form of the ritual, the main dualism is that of sex. But, in another variantthe one described on p . 87the left-hand compartment is made smaller than the other one. Here the opposi tion is between fertility and sterility. T h e right-hand compartment of chipang'u represents fertility and the beneficent and fertile shades; the left-hand compartment is said to be that of sterile persons (nsama) and the shades of sterile or malevolent persons (qyikodjikodji). A large clay pot, decorated with red and white clay as in the first form of the rites, is placed in the large compartment. This is actually known as the " g r a n d m o t h e r " (nkaka yamumbanda), and represents the afflicting

72

The Ritual

Process

FIGURE 1 5 . T w i n c e r e m o n y : the construction of the twin shrine. T h e medicine pot is d e c o r a t e d w i t h white and red dabs. In the basket is a p l u m p cassava root, w h i c h is the " f o o d " mentioned on p. 5 3 .

shade w h o was once a m o t h e r of twins. T h e other compartment is the interesting one for a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l inquiry. T h e r e is a n enigmatic phrase in the n a r r a t i v e of t h e actual rites (see below, p . 87): nyisoka yachifwifwu chansama, w h i c h literally means "shoots of a bundle of leaves of a sterile p e r s o n . " T h e t e r m nsama represents a homonym, really a sinister p u n . O n e sense of the word is " a b u n d l e of leaves or of

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

73

FIGURE 1 6 . T w i n ceremony: all the adepts' hands collectively pour water into the medicine pot, each one adding his " strength."

grass." W h e n a hunter wishes to obtain honey, he climbs u p a tree to a hive (mwoma) a n d draws u p after him on a rope a bundle of grass or leaves. H e throws the rope over a bough, sets fire to this nsama bundle, and hauls it u p under the hive. I t smokes furiously a n d the smoke drives out the bees. T h e blackened remains of the bundle are also called nsama. Nsama also means " a sterile or barren person," perhaps

74

The Ritual

Process

FIGURE 1 7 . Twin ceremony: the twin shrine is ready. It is obviously a binary shrine with two compartments, wound around with the molu waWubwang'u vine. In the left compartment is the black medicine pot, under which can be seen the black mud. In the right is the calabash containing sacralized honey beer, daubed with red and white clay.

in the sense in w h i c h we speak of " a burnt-out case." Black is often, but not always, t h e color of sterility in N d e m b u ritual. I n Wubwang'u, w h e n the a d e p t s r e t u r n from the bush with their leafy branches, t h e senior p r a c t i t i o n e r snatches leaves from them and ties t h e m into a b u n d l e k n o w n as nsama yawayikodjikodji abulanga kusema anyana, " t h e b u n d l e of t h e mischievous shades who fail to bear children," or nsama for s h o r t . T h e n this chimbuki (doctor) takes a calabash cup {chikashi or lupanda) of m a i z e or kaffir corn beer and pours it on t h e nsama as a libation, saying, "All you shades without

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

75

children, here is your beer. You cannot drink the beer that is already poured into this big p o t " (in the right-hand compartment). " T h a t is the beer for the shades who bore children." H e then puts the piece of black river mud in the chipang'u and lays the nsama bundle on top of it. T h e malowa black clay is said " t o weaken the shades causing disease." Another difference between the two forms of the chipang'u " e n closure" is that in the one stressing sexual dualism, an arrow is inserted behind the pot in the left-hand compartment, point down ward (see Figure 18). This arrow stands for the patient's husband. Arrows with this meaning appear in several N d e m b u rituals, and the name for bridewealth paid by the husband is nsewu, " a r r o w . " In the rites stressing the dichotomy between fertility and sterility the arrow is not employed. I n the latter there seems to b e an equation made between sterility and twinship, for twins frequently die; too much is the same as too little. I n both types, however, the molu waWubwang'u river creeper is woven laterally through the vertical leafy branches of the shrine. T h e patient is made to sit on a m a t before this shrine, and over her shoulders are draped vines ormolu waWubwang'u, to give her fecundity and especially a good supply of milk (see Figure 19). She is then steadily splashed with medicine while what I will call the "rites of the fruitful contest of the sexes" rage hilariously in the dancing place between the shrine and the patient's hut. It is considered appropriate if pieces of medicine leaves are seen to adhere to her skin. These are yijikijilu, or "symbols," of the Wubwang'u manifestation of the shades. They make the shade in this twinship form "visible" to all, though transubstantiated into leaves.

T H E F R U I T F U L C O N T E S T OF T H E S E X E S

The next aspect of Wubwang'u to which I would like to call attention is the cross-sexual joking that marks two of its phases. Here we have an expression of the " t w i n " paradox as a joke or, as Ndembu say,

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

77

19.Twin ceremony: the patient's shoulders are draped with molu waWubwang'u vines, to give her fecundity and a good supply of milk. Here a male doctor can be seen plunging under another doctor's legs, to give sexual strength (see pp. 65 and gi).
FIGURE

" a joking relationship" (wusensi). T h e specific reference of the rites is to the division of humanity into men and women, and to the arousal of sexual desire by stressing the difference between them in the form of antagonistic behavior. T h e shades of the dead, in that they are believed to give their names and personal characteristics to infants of both sexes, and in a certain sense to be reborn in them, in a way have

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n o sex. It is their g e n e r i c h u m a n i t y t h a t is stressed, or perhaps their bisexuality. But t h e living a r e differentiated by sex, and sex differences are, as G l u c k m a n (1955) w r i t e s , "exaggerated by c u s t o m " (p. 6 1 ) . I n Wubwang'u, N d e m b u a r e obsessed by the hilarious contradiction t h a t the m o r e t h e sexes stress t h e i r differences and mutual aggression, the more d o t h e y desire sexual congress. T h e y sing ribald and Rabelaisian songs d u r i n g t h e collection of " medicines" in the bush a n d toward t h e e n d of t h e p u b l i c dance, while the patient is being sprinkled w i t h those m e d i c i n e s , some of which emphasize sexual conflict a n d some of w h i c h a r e dithyrambs in praise of sexual union, frequently specified as a d u l t e r o u s . These songs are believed to " s t r e n g t h e n " (ku-kolesha) b o t h the medicines a n d the patient. T h e y are also believed to m a k e t h e attenders strong, b o t h sexually and bodily. First, before singing t h e r i b a l d songs, N d e m b u chant a special formula, "kaikaya wo, kakwawu weleli" ( " h e r e another thing is d o n e " ) , which has t h e effect of legitimizing the mention of matters that otherwise would b e w h a t they call " a secret thing of shame or modesty " (chuma chakujinda chansonyi). T h e same formula is repeated in legal cases c o n c e r n i n g s u c h matters as adultery and breaches of exogamy, where sisters a n d d a u g h t e r s or in-laws (aku) of the plaintiffs a n d defendants a r e p r e s e n t . N d e m b u h a v e a customary phrase explaining Wubwang'u songs. " T h i s singing is without shame because shamelessness is [a characteristic] of the curative treatment of Wubwang'u" (kamina kakadi nsonyi mulong'a kaWubwang'u kakuuka nachu nsonyi kwosi). I n brief, Wubwang'u is a n occasion of licensed disrespect a n d prescribed immodesty. But no sexual promiscuity is displayed in actual b e h a v i o r ; indecency is expressed by word and gesture only. T h e songs, a t b o t h phases, a r e in serial order. First, members of each sex belittle the sexual organs a n d prowess of members of the opposite sex, a n d extol t h e i r o w n . T h e w o m e n jeeringly assert to their husbands t h a t they h a v e secret lovers, a n d t h e m e n retort t h a t all they get from the w o m e n a r e v e n e r e a l diseases, a consequence of adultery. Afterward b o t h sexes praise in lyrical terms t h e pleasures of inter course as such. T h e w h o l e a t m o s p h e r e is b u o y a n t a n d aggressively

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

79

jovial, as m e n and women strive to shout one another down (see Figure 2 0 ) . T h e singing is thought to please the strong a n d merry Wubwang'u shade-manifestation. Nqfuma mwifundi kumwemweta,
" I am going a w a y to teach her how to smile,

lyayi lelu iyayi kumwemweta.

Y o u r mother, today, your mother how to smile.

Kakweji nafu namweki,

T h e moon which has gone appears,

FIGURE ao. T w i n ceremony: the men and women cheerfully revile one another, to vocally symbolize the fruitful contest of the sexes.

The Ritual Process Namoni iyala hakumwemweta.

I have seen the ma n on w h o m to smile.

Eye iyayi eye!

Mother!

Twaya sunda kushiya nyisong'a,

C o m e and copulate to leave diseases,

Lelu tola mwitaku mwazowa.

T o d a y look at a wet v u l v a

Nyelomu eyeye, nyelomu!

Mother of penis! M o t h e r of penis!

Yeyuwamuzang'isha.
T h a t will give you much pleasure.

Nashinkaku. Nashinki dehi.

I do not close. I have closed already.

Wasemang'ayami wayisema,
Y o u are giving birth, I a m the one w h o gives birth

Nimbuyi yami.
I a m the elder of the twins.

Mwitaku mweneni dalomu kanyanya,

A large v u l v a , a small penis,

Tola mwitaku neyi mwihama dachimbu,

Look, a vulva as on a lion's brow,

Nafumahu ami ng'ang'ayanyisunda.

I a m going a w a y , I , a veritable witchdoctor of copulation.

Kamushindi ilomu,
I will rub your penis,

Yowu iyayi,yowu iyayi\

Mother, O mother!

Mpang'ayeyiyobolang'a chalala.
Y o u r swollen scrotum stimulates the v u l v a indeed.

Mwitaku wakola nilomu dakola,

A strong v u l v a and a strong penis,

Komanayowana neyi matahu, wuchi wawutowala sunjiyakila.

H o w it tickles like grass! Copulation is like sweet honey.

Ilomu yatwahandang 'a,

T h e penis is making m e strong,

Eyi welili neyi wqyobolang'a,iwu mutong'a winzeshimu.

Y o u did something w h e n y o u played with m y v u l v a , here the basket, fill it."

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

CROSS-SEXUAL AND CROSS-COUSIN JOKING

81

What is conspicuous is the perfect equality between the sexes in this jesting and mutual "flyting"to borrow a term from the Scottish Chaucerian poets for competitive lampooning verses. There is no hint that this is a "ritual of rebellion" in Gluckman's (1954) sense. What is represented in Wubwang'u seems rather to be associated with the conflict between virilocality, which interlinks male kin together and expels female kin from their natal villages, and matriliny, which asserts the ultimate structural paramountcy of descent through women. These principles are fairly evenly balanced in secular life, as I have suggested inSchism and Continuity in an African Society (1957). Ndembu explicitly connect Wubwang'u joking with the customary joking between cross-cousins. Both kinds are called wusensi, and both involve an element of sexual repartee. T h e importance of cross-cousinship (wusonyi) in N d e m b u society derives in great part from the opposition between virilocality and matriliny. For villages tend to contain almost half as many children as sisters' children of men of the senior generation of matrilineal kin (Turner, 1957, Table 10, p . 7 1 ) . These are grouped together as members of a single genealogical generation in opposition to the senior adjacent generation. But cross-cousins are also divided from one another: children of male villagers compete with their crosscousins for their fathers' favors and attentions. Virilocality in a society with matrilineal descent also gives an individual two villages in which he has strong legitimate claims to reside, those respectively of his father's and his mother's kin. In practice, many men are torn between competing loyalties to one or the other, to the father's or to the mother's side. Yet, as the child of his father and mother, each m a n represents the union of both. I consider that the approximate equality of ties through the male and female sides in Ndembu society, with neither set regarded as axiomatically dominant, is symbolized in Wubwang'u by the ritual opposition between men and women. Cross-cousinship is the kinship bond that most fully expresses the fruitful tension between these principles, for it expresses the residential unity of matrilineally

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Process

and patrilaterally linked k i n . Cross-cousins of opposite sex are en couraged to m a r r y , a n d , before marriage, may indulge in love play and ribald joking w i t h o n e another. For marriage produces a temporary unity of t h e sexes, whose differences, stereotyped and exaggerated by custom, h a v e become associated with equal and opposed principles of social organization. Hence, it is not inconsistent with the N d e m b u w a y of looking at things that they compare Wub wang'u cross-sexual j o k i n g w i t h cross-cousin joking. Wubwang'u too, for all its ribaldry, celebrates the institution of marriagein the symbolism of the mpanza a r c h , a n d of an arrow representing the husband, inserted in t h e chipang'u shrine. This arrow stands for the patient's h u s b a n d . I n t h e girls' p u b e r t y ritual, an arrow placed in the mudyi tree symbolizes t h e bridegroom, and indeed the term for the m a i n m a r r i a g e p a y m e n t is nsewu, which means " a r r o w . " T h e procreative urge is d o m e s t i c a t e d into the service of society through the institution of m a r r i a g e ; t h a t is w h a t the symbolism suggests. And marriage between cross-cousins, b o t h matrilateral and patrilateral, is the preferred form.

COMPETITION FOR RESIDENTIAL

FILIATION

BETWEEN M A T R I L I N Y AND VIRILOCALITY

N d e m b u society, to r e p e a t , is regulated by two residential principles of almost equal s t r e n g t h : matrilineal descent and virilocalitypatrilocality. These principles tend to become competitive rather than coadaptive, as I h a v e a r g u e d in Schism and Continuity (1957), and this is partly o w i n g to ecological reasons. N d e m b u grow a staple crop, cassava, w h i c h flourishes on m a n y kinds of soil, and h u n t forest animals widely distributed t h r o u g h their territory. T h e y do not keep cattle, a n d m e n a t t a c h h i g h value to hunting, which can be carried on all over N d e m b u c o u n t r y . W a t e r is available everywhere. There is nothing to p i n d o w n p o p u l a t i o n s to limited tracts of territory. Given the existence of two major modes of filiation, there is no ecological weighting in favor of either principle. It is where an

Paradoxes of Twinskip in Ndembu Ritual

83

African community is anchored to limited tracts of fertile land or can exploit only a single category of movable resources (such as large livestock), that one tends to find the regular paramountcy in many fields of activity of a single kinship principle of organiza tion: patriliny or matriliny. U n d e r Ndembu ecological conditions, residential filiation through male links (husband and father) com petes freely with matriliny. At one moment a given village may exhibit in its residential composition the dominance of one mode, and, at another moment, of the other. I believe that this structural competition between major principles of residential filiation is a crucial factor in accounting for (1) the way Ndembu treat twins, and ( 2 ) their conceptualization of duality, in terms not of a pair of similars but of a pair of opposites. T h e unity of such a pair is that of a tensed unity or Gestalt, whose tension is constituted by ineradicable forces or realities, implacably opposed, and whose nature as a unit is constituted and bounded by the very forces that contend within it. If these mutually involved irrepress ibles belong together in a h u m a n being or a social group, they can also constitute strong unities, the more so if both principles or protagonists in the conflict are consciously recognized and accepted. These are self-generated natural unities, to be distinguished from the arbitrary flat unities that can be externally reduplicated. But, they are also not quite like the dialectical pairs of opposites of Hegel or Marx, of which one party, after mastering the other, gives rise to new contradictions within itself. Given the persistence of Ndembu ecology, the parties to this tensed unity belong together and, in their very opposition, frame it, constitute it. T h e y do not break each other down; in a way they provoke each other, as in symbolic form the mutually taunting sexes do in Wubwang'u. Only socioeconomic change can break this kind of social Gestalt. In Schism and Continuity I tried to analyze various aspects of this kind of unity: matriliny versus virilocality; the ambitious individual versus the wider interlinking of matrilineal kin; the elementary family versus the uterine sibling group, an opposition that may also be seen in terms of tension between patrifilial and matrilineal

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Process

principles; the forwardness of y o u t h versus the domineering elders; status-seeking versus responsibility; sorcerismi.e., hostile feelings, grudges, a n d intriguesversus friendly respect for others, etc. All these forces and principles can b e c o n t a i n e d within Ndembu unity; they belong to it, they color it, they a r e it. W h a t cannot be con tained are modern pressures a n d t h e m a k i n g of money. W h a t happens, then, in t h e course of t h e Wubwang'u ritual ? T h e opposing principles a r e not p e r m a n e n t l y reconciled or blended. H o w can they be while N d e m b u r e m a i n a t the level of technology and with the specific ecology I h a v e described? But, instead of coming against one another in t h e b l i n d antagonism of material interest, "seeing nothing b u t t h e m s e l v e s , " as it were, they are reinstituted against one another in t h e transcendant, conscious, recognizant unity of N d e m b u society w h o s e principles they are. And so, in a sense, for a time, they actually become a play of forces instead of a bitter battle. T h e effects of such a " p l a y " soon wear off, but the sting is temporarily removed from certain troubled relationships.
1

T W I N S H I P AS M Y S T E R Y A N D A B S U R D I T Y

T h e ritual episodes I have discussed, t h o u g h only superficially the Rites of the River Source, a n d t h e D o u b l e Shrine with t h e Fruit ful Contest of t h e Sexesrelate to t w o aspects of t h e p a r a d o x of twinship. T h e first is to be found in t h e fact t h a t t h e notion 2 = 1 may be regarded as a mystery. I n d e e d , t h e N d e m b u characterize the first episode by a term t h a t largely conveys this sense. This is mpang'u, which is applied to t h e central a n d most esoteric episode of a ritual. T h e same word also m e a n s " a secret saying or pass w o r d , " such as is used b y novices a n d their g u a r d i a n s in t h e cir cumcision lodge. T h e rites by t h e s t r e a m source a r e as m u c h a religious mystery as those of t h e a n c i e n t Greeks a n d R o m a n s or of
M y sister-in-law, Mrs. Helen Barnard, of Wellington University, New Zealand, has pointed out to me how similar this viewpoint is to the Hindu notion of a Ma.
1

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndemba Rituals

85

modern Christians, since they relate to hidden or inexplicable matters beyond h u m a n reason. T h e second aspect is the Ndembu feeling that 2 = 1 is an absurdity, a huge and even brutal joke. So much of their ritual is devoted to the procurement of fertility of various sorts, yet the mother of twins has been endowed with too much of it at one time. What is interesting about both the mystery and the absurdity of twinship here is that Ndembu, in the ritual of Wubwang'u, have elected to exhibit the major sets of complementary and antithetical dyads recognized in their culture. Yet, in its aspect of mystery, there is also the clear emergence of the sacred color-triangle whitered-black (see Turner, 1967, p p . 69-81). These colors constitute, for Ndembu, classificatory rubrics under which a hierarchy of ritual objects, persons, activities, episodes, gestures, events, ideas, and values are assembled and arrayed. At the river source the white clay and the red clay are brought into conjunction with cool black river mud, the ensemble being interpreted to mean the union of the sexes in peaceful, fruitful marriage. But, clearly, the triangle, from its appearance in other, more complex and basic rituals, notably those of life crisis, has a deeper significance than this situational specification within its total semantic wealth. It represents the whole cosmic and social order recognized by Ndembu in its harmony and balance, wherein all empirical contradictions are mystically resolved. T h e disturbance brought about by the Wubwang'u manifestation of the shades is here ritually countered by a portrayal of quintessen tial order, a portrayal that is believed to have efficacy and is not a mere assemblage of cognitive signs. Wubwang'u is a ritual that moves regularly from the expression of jocose disturbance to that of cosmic order and back to disturbance to be finally resolved by the transfer of the patient to partial seclusion from secular life until the dangerous condition has been removed from her. This oscillation is to some extent homologous with the processual structure of Isoma. But the major difference between these rites is the constant emphasis in Wubwang'u on opposition between the sexes and the social principles of filiation derived from the parents

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The Ritual Process

of opposite sex. I n Isoma, t h e sex dyad was s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e life/ death antithesis. I n Wubwang'u, sexual opposition is t h e m a i n theme.

A N N D E M B U V I E W OF W U B W A N G ' U

I fear that I have not as yet allowed t h e N d e m b u to speak sufficiently for themselves about the meaning of Wubwang'u. T o give their "inside view," a n d to enable t h e reader to c o m p a r e t h e i r inter pretation with mine, I will translate comments I r e c o r d e d from Wubwang'u adepts either during actual performances of t h e rites or shortly afterward in informal discussions. I will begin with a succinct account of t h e w h o l e p r o c e d u r e as related by a n experienced male doctor:
Neyi nkakayindi wavwalili ampamba, " I f her [patient's] grandmother g a v e birth to twins, neyi nkakayindi nqfwi dehi

and if her grandmother is already dead, chakuyawu nakuhong'a kutiya nindi nkakayeyi diyi wudi mukwakuhong'a naWubwang'u Wubwang'u,

when they go to divine the diviner answers and says: ' Y o u r grandmother is the one w h o has diyi wunakukwati nakutwali.

she is the one who has caught you, kulusemu IwaWubwang'u Wubwang'u, w h o has brought y o u to the reproductive state of dichu chochina hikukeng'a walwa

and so, therefore, she desires beer nakumwimbila ng'omaya Wubwang'u Wubwang'u. hakuvwala chachiwahi. for the playing of the drums [or dance] of Neyi wudinevumu akumujilika

If you have a w o m b [e.g., are pregnant], she forbids y o u to give birth well. Neyi eyi navwali dehi kunyamuna mazu chachiwahi

I f y o u have already given birth well, amakulu there [must be] a renewal and scattering of those former words

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual hikuyimwang'a hikuteta acheng'i

and a cutting [of medicines] [i.e., the rites must be performed again]

nakuwelishamu mwana mukeki.

in order that the b a b y m a y be washed in [them],

Neyi nawa aha mumbanda navwali ampamba

Sometimes when a woman has borne twins

akuya ninyana mwisang'a

they will go with children into the bush

nakumukunjika kunyitonduyakumutwala kumeji

and stand her beside the trees and take her through to the water

nakusenda nyolu
and carry vines [of the molu waWubwang'u yakupakata nakukosa mamayawu creeper]

for draping [over and under her arms] and wash their mother

ninyana hamu hikutwala anyana ku mukala.

a n d the children in just the same w a y a n d convey the children to the village.

Kushika kuna ku mukala

W h e n they arrive there at the village,

hikutung'a chipang'u kunonayilumbu

they construct a [small] enclosure [for a shrine] and pick up medicines

hikusha mu mazawu izawu dimu danyanya dakusha

and put them in medicine troughs [or clay pots]one small trough [or pot]

nyisoka yachifwifu chansarna

for green shoots from a bundle of leaves for a sterile person

hikwinka muchipang'u china chanyanya

they put in that small enclosure,

hikunona izawu hikwinka mu chipang'u cheneni.

they take [another] medicine trough and put it in the large enclosure.

Akwawu anading'i nakuhang'ana nanyoli

Others were dancing with creepers,

asubolang'a nyoli nakutenteka mu chipang'u.

they strip off the creepers and put them a w a y in the enclosure.

88

The Ritual Process Kushalayemweni imbe-e hakuwelisha anyana hamu

T h e y remain there themselves singing and wash the children [with medicine]

nakuhilisha munyendu;
and pass them under [their] legs;

chikukwila namelele hikuyihang'a;

this is done in the late afternoon, when they chase them;

mwakukama nawufuku kunamani.

when they sleep at night it is all over.

Mqfuku ejima anyana ching'a kuyiwelisha mu mazawu,

E v e r y d a y they must wash the children [with medicine] in the troughs,

hefuku hefuku diku kukula kwawanyana ampamba

day after day until the twins grow u p . "

Commentary This account is Wubwang'u in a nutshell, But, naturally, it leaves o u t m a n y of those fascinating details that for anthropologists constitute the major clues to a culture's private universe. I t makes clear t h a t the afflicting shade in Wubwang'u is typically a deceased m o t h e r of twins (nyampasa). She was herself a m e m b e r of the cult, for in N d e m b u ritual thought, as I have noted, only a deceased cultmember can afflict t h e living in the mode of manifestation treated by that cult. Again, t h e text makes plain that affliction is in t h e matrilineal descent line. However, glosses by other informants insist that a male shade c a n " c o m e through in Wubwang'u" if h e was a father of twins (sampasa) or a twin himself. I have never r e corded a single instance of this, however. Wubwang'u is n o t thought of as a n independent spirit b u t as t h e w a y in which a n ancestral shade makes its displeasure with t h e living known. According to other informants, it is " t h e women w h o explain to the m e n the medicines a n d curative techniques of Wubwang'u." O n e doctor's sister taught h i m ; she was a nyampasa, a mother of twins. H e went on to say that both twins had diedand, indeed,

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

89

it is very common for one or both to die, for Ndembu say that a mother will either favor one with milk and food supplies and neglect the other, or try to feed both equally on a supply that is sufficient for only one. Twins are known by special terms: the elder is mbuya, the younger kapa. T h e child following them in birth order is called chikomba, and it is his duty to play the ritual drums at a performance of Wubwang'u. Often the rites are performed for chikomba and his mother when he is a toddler, to " m a k e him strong." A chikomba can also become a Wubwang'u doctor. Although men learn the medicines from female adepts in the cult, they become the principal doctors and masters of ceremonies. O n e sign of their status is the double hunting-bell (mpwambu), which once more represents the duality of twinship.

THE HOPPING WITH THE ARROW

T h e conclusion of the rites further emphasizes the sexual division. At sundown, the senior practitioner takes the winnowing basket, which has been laid on the pot in the " f e m a l e " compartment, puts it on the patient's head, then raises and lowers it several times. T h e n he puts the remaining ritual equipment on the basket and holds the ensemble aloft. H e next takes the arrow and places it between his big toe and second toe and invites the patient to hold his waist. T h e pair then hop on their right legs straight to the patient's hut. Two hours later she is taken out and washed with what remains of the medicine in the clay pot, or medicine trough. I conclude this description of the rites of the Double Shrine with a text that describes in full the episode of hopping with the arrow:
Imu mumuchidika. " This is w h a t is in the ritual. Neyi chidika chaWubwang'u chinamani dehi namelele is already finished in the late afternoon

W h e n the ritual of Wubwang'u chimbuki wukunona nsewu the doctor takes the arrow

The Ritual Process wukwinka mumpasakanyijanyinuyakumwendu wachimunswa.

and puts it in the cleavage of the toes of the left foot.

Muyeji wukwinza wukumukwata nakumukwata mumaya.

T h e patient comes and catches him around the w a i s t .

Chimbuki neyi wukweti mfumwindi

If the doctor should catch her husband

mumbanda wukumukwata mjummindi mumaya

the w o m a n will clasp her husband around the w a i s t

hiyakuya kanzonkwela mwitala

and they will go hopping into the hut

nakuhanuka munyenduyawakwawu adi muchisu.

and they will pass through the legs of other people w h o a r e in the doorway.

lyala ning'odindi akusenda wuta ninsewu mwitala dawu.

T h e m a n and his wife will carry a bow and a r r o w into their hut.

Chimbanda wayihoshang'a
T h e doctor says to them:

nindi mulimbamulimba
'Get into the kraal [as a m a n says to his sheep or g o a t s ] ,

ing'ilenu mwitala denu ing'ilenu mwitala

enter your hut, enter your hut.'

Chakwing'ilawu anlu ejima hiyakudiyila kwawu kunyikala yawu.

W h e n they went in, all the people went a w a y to their o w n villages.

Tunamanishi.
W e have finished."

Commentary It is worth noting that the term for " b e t w e e n t h e t o e s , " mumpasakanyi, is etymologically connected with the term mpasa, t h e r i t u a l word for " t w i n s . " I n N d e m b u ritual generally, t h e arrow stands for t h e m a n or husband a n d is held in the right h a n d , while t h e b o w represents the w o m a n a n d is held in t h e left h a n d . Bow a n d a r r o w together symbolize marriage. " T o h o p " (kuzonkwela) stands for sexual inter course, a n d has this meaning in t h e boys' circumcision rites, w h e n the novices a r e forced to h o p o n one leg as p a r t of their discipline

Paradoxes of Twinskip in Ndembu Ritual

91

during seclusionr I n Wubwang'u the doctor and the patient hop on their right legs, for the right is the side of strength. T h e phrase "mulimbamulimba" is shouted at domestic animals when they are herded into their kraals at night. It signifies the bestial aspect of twinship, which, as a mode of multiple birth, is considered more appropriate to animals than men. T h e tunnel of legs made by the adepts u n d e r which the father and mother of twins must pass resembles that at the circumcision rites under which the junior guardians of the novices must pass. This tunnel, as we have seen, is made by the senior men in Mufcanda, and signifies (1) sexual strength for the junior guardians passing beneath it, and (2) the rite de passage from juniority to seniority. In Wubwang'u it appears to mean, by homology, the incorporation of the parents of twins into the cult association of Wubwang'u into which they are born from the bodies of the adepts.

Conclusion

1. Forms of Duality T h e ritual of twinship among the N d e m b u throws into high relief most types of duality recognized by the Ndembu. T h e cleavage between m e n and women, the opposition of mean and private grudgery and social feeling, and between sterility a n d fruitfulness, are shared by Wubwang'u and Isoma. But Wubwang'u has certain special features of its own. It exhibits fully the animality and the humanity of sex, in the forms of excessive production of children, as juxtaposed to the mystery of marriage, which unites dissimilars and curbs excess. T h e couple are at once praised for their excep tional contribution to society and cursed for their excess in so doing. At the same time, the deep contradiction between matrilineal de scent and patrilaterality emerge in the boisterous joking relationship between the sexes, which is explicitly compared to the joking re lationship between cross-cousins. T h e r e is a strong strain, moreover,

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of egalitarianism in t h e rites; t h e sexes a r e p o r t r a y e d as equal though opposed. This equality exposes s o m e t h i n g profound in the n a t u r e of all social systemsan idea I develop m o r e fully in Chapter Three. A n event, such as twinning, t h a t falls o u t s i d e t h e orthodox classifications of society is, paradoxically, m a d e t h e ritual occasion for a n exhibition of values t h a t relate to t h e c o m m u n i t y as a whole, as a homogeneous, unstructured unity t h a t t r a n s c e n d s its differen tiations a n d contradictions. This theme, of t h e d u a l i s m between " s t r u c t u r e " a n d " c o m m u n i t a s , " a n d their u l t i m a t e resolution in "societas," seen as process r a t h e r then timeless entity, dominates the next three chapters of this book.

2. Prescribed Obscenity I t would b e appropriate here to m e n t i o n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d unjustly neglected p a p e r by Professor E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , " S o m e Collective Expressions of Obscenity in Africa," r e c e n t l y republished in his collection of essays The Position of Women in Primitive Society (1965a). This paper makes t h e following p o i n t s :
(1) T h e r e are certain types of obscene behavior [in A f r i c a n society] the expression of which is always collective. T h e s e are u s u a l l y prohibited, but are permitted or prescribed on certain occasions; (2) T h e s e occasions are all of social importance, a n d fall roughly under two headings, Religious Ceremonies a n d J o i n t E c o n o m i c Undertakings (p.

101).

H e explains t h e obscenity as follows:

(1) T h e withdrawal b y society of its normal prohibitions gives special emphasis to the social value of the activity; (2) I t also canalizes h u m a n emotion into prescribed channels of expres sion at periods of h u m a n crisis (p. 1 0 1 ) .

Wubwang'u falls neatly into this category of rites of prescribed and stereotyped obscenity, although it contains crucial episodes extolling marriage, whose network of relationships is characteristic ally inhibitory of expressions of obscenity. W h a t w e a r e confronted with in the twinship rites is i n fact a domestication of those wild

Paradoxes of Twinship in Ndembu Ritual

93

impulses, sexual and aggressive, which Ndembu believe are shared by men and animals. T h e raw energies released in overt symbolisms of sexuality and hostility between the sexes are channeled toward master symbols representative of structural order, and values and virtues on which that order depends. Every opposition is overcome or transcended in a recovered unity, a unity that, moreover, is rein forced by the very potencies that endanger it. O n e aspect of ritual is shown by these rites to be a means of putting at the service of the social order the very forces of disorder that inhere in man's m a m malian constitution. Biology and structure are p u t in right relation by the activation of an ordered succession of symbols, which have the twin functions of communication and efficacy.

Communitas

FORM A N D A T T R I B U T E S OF R I T E S OF P A S S A G E

I n this Chapter I take u p a theme I have discussed briefly elsewhere (Turner, 1967, p p . 9 3 - 1 1 1 ) , note some of its variations, and consider some of its further implications for the study of culture and society. This theme is in the first place represented by the nature and char acteristics of what Arnold van Gennep (1909) has called the "liminal p h a s e " of rites de passage. V a n Gennep himself defined rites de passage as "rites which accompany every change of place, state, social posi tion and age." T o point u p the contrast between " s t a t e " and " t r a n sition," I employ " s t a t e " to include all his other terms. It is a more inclusive concept than " s t a t u s " or "office," and refers to any type of stable or recurrent condition that is culturally recognized. V a n Gennep has shown that all rites of passage or " t r a n s i t i o n " are marked by three phases: separation, margin (or limen, signifying " t h r e s h o l d " in Latin), and aggregation. T h e first phase (of separa tion) comprises symbolic behavior signifying the detachment of the individual or group either from an earlier fixed point in the social structure, from a set of cultural conditions (a " s t a t e " ) , or from both. During the intervening " l i m i n a l " period, the characteristics of the ritual subject (the "passenger") are ambiguous; he passes through a cultural realm that has few or none of the attributes of the past or coming state. I n the third phase (reaggregation or reincorporation),

Liminality and Communitas the passage is consummated. T h e ritual subject, individual or cor porate, is in a relatively stable state once more and, by virtue of this, has rights and obligations vis-a-vis others of a clearly defined and " s t r u c t u r a l " type; he is expected to behave in accordance with certain customary norms and ethical standards binding on incum bents of social position in a system of such positions.

Liminality T h e attributes of liminality or of liminal personae (" threshold people ") are necessarily ambiguous, since this condition and these persons elude or slip through the network of classifications that normally locate states and positions in cultural space. Liminal entities are neither here nor there; they are betwixt and between the positions assigned and arrayed by law, custom, convention, and ceremonial. As such, their ambiguous and indeterminate attributes are expressed by a rich variety of symbols in the many societies that ritualize social and cultural transitions. Thus, liminality is frequently likened to death, to being in the womb, to invisibility, to darkness, to bisexuality, to the wilderness, and to an eclipse of the sun or moon. Liminal entities, such as neophytes in initiation or puberty rites, may be represented as possessing nothing. They may be disguised as monsters, wear only a strip of clothing, or even go naked, to demon strate that as liminal beings they have no status, property, insignia, secular clothing indicating rank or role, position in a kinship system in short, nothing that may distinguish them from their fellow neophytes or initiands. Their behavior is normally passive or humble; they must obey their instructors implicitly, and accept arbitrary^ punishment without complaint. It is as though they are being re duced or ground down to a uniform condition to be fashioned anew and endowed with additional powers to enable them to cope with their new station in life. Among themselves, neophytes tend to develop an intense comradeship and egalitarianism. Secular distinctions of rank and status disappear or are homogenized. T h e condition

96

The Ritual Process

of the patient and her husband in Isoma had some of these a t t r i butespassivity, humility, near-nakednessin a symbolic milieu t h a t represented both a grave and a womb. I n initiations with a long period of seclusion, such as the circumcision rites of m a n y tribal societies or induction into secret societies, there is often a rich p r o liferation of liminal symbols.

Communitas W h a t is interesting about liminal phenomena for our present p u r poses is the blend they offer of lowliness and sacredness, of h o m o geneity and comradeship. W e are presented, in such rites, w i t h a " m o m e n t in and out of time," and in and out of secular social structure, which reveals, however fleetingly, some recognition (in symbol if not always in language) of a generalized social b o n d t h a t has ceased to be a n d has simultaneously yet to be fragmented into a multiplicity of structural ties. These are the ties organized in terms either of caste, class, or rank hierarchies or of segmentary oppositions in the stateless societies beloved of political anthropologists. It is as though there are here two major " m o d e l s " for h u m a n interrelatedness, juxtaposed a n d alternating. T h e first is of society as a struc tured, differentiated, and often hierarchical system of politico-legaleconomic positions with m a n y types of evaluation, separating m e n in terms of " m o r e " or " l e s s . " T h e second, which emerges recogniz ably in the liminal period, is of society as an unstructured or rudimentarily structured and relatively undifferentiated comitatus, com munity, or even communion of equal individuals w h o submit to gether to the general authority of the ritual elders. I prefer the Latin term " c o m m u n i t a s " to " c o m m u n i t y , " to dis tinguish this modality of social relationship from a n " area of c o m m o n living." T h e distinction between structure a n d communitas is not simply the familiar one between " s e c u l a r " a n d " s a c r e d , " or that, for example, between politics and religion. Certain fixed offices in tribal societies have many sacred attributes; indeed, every social

Liminality and Communitas

97

position has some sacred characteristics. But this "sacred " component is acquired by the incumbents of positions during the rites de passage, through which they changed positions. Something of the sacredness of that transient humility and modelessness goes over, and tempers the pride of the incumbent of a higher position or office. This is not simply, as Fortes (1962, p . 86) has cogently argued, a matter of giving a general stamp of legitimacy to a society's structural positions. It is rather a matter of giving recognition to an essential and generic human bond, without which there could be no society. Liminality implies that the high could not be high unless the low existed, and he who is high must experience what it is like to be low. No doubt something of this thinking, a few years ago, lay behind Prince Philip's decision to send his son, the heir apparent to the British throne, to a bush school in Australia for a time, where he could learn how " t o rough it."

Dialectic of the Developmental Cycle From all this I infer that, for individuals and groups, social life is a type of dialectical process that involves successive experience of high and low, communitas and structure, homogeneity and differentia tion, equality and inequality. T h e passage from lower to higher status is through a ^imbo.. of-statuslessness_ In such a process, the opposites, as it were, constitute one another and are mutually indis pensable. Furthermore, since any concrete tribal society is made up of multiple personae, groups, and categories, each of which has its own developmental cycle, at a given moment many incumbencies of fixed positions coexist with many passages between positions. In other words, each individual's life experience contains alternating ex posure to structure and communitas, and to states and transitions.

T H E L I M I N A L I T Y OF AN I N S T A L L A T I O N R I T E

One brief example from the N d e m b u of Zambia of a rite de passage that concerns the highest status in that tribe, that of the senior chief

98

The Ritual Process

Kanongesha, will be useful here. It will also expand our knowledge of the way the Ndembu utilize and explain their ritual symbols. T h e position of senior or paramount chief a m o n g the Ndembu, as in many other African societies, is a p a r a d o x i c a l one, for he represents both the apex of the structured politico-legal hierarchy and the total community as an unstructured unit. H e is, symbolically, also the tribal territory itself and all its resources. Its fertility and freedom from drought, famine, disease, and insect plagues are bound u p with his office, and with both his physical a n d moral condition. Among the Ndembu, the ritual powers of the senior chief were limited by and combined with those held by a senior h e a d m a n of the au tochthonous Mbwela people, who m a d e submission only after long struggle to their L u n d a conquerors led b y t h e first Kanongesha. An important right was vested in the h e a d m a n named Kafwana, of the H u m b u , a branch of the Mbwela. This w a s the right to confer and periodically to medicate the supreme symbol of chiefly status among tribes of L u n d a origin, the lukanu bracelet, m a d e from h u m a n gen italia and sinews and soaked in the sacrificial blood of male a n d female slaves at each installation. Kafwana's ritual title was Chivwikankanu, " t h e one who dresses with or puts on the lukanu." H e also had the title Mama yaKanongesha, " m o t h e r of K a n o n g e s h a , " because he gave symbolic birth to each n e w i n c u m b e n t of that office. Kafwana was also said to teach each new K a n o n g e s h a the medicines of witchcraft, which made him feared by his rivals a n d subordinates perhaps one indication of weak political centralization. T h e lukanu, originally conferred by the head of all the L u n d a , the Mwantiyanvwa, who ruled in the K a t a n g a m a n y miles to the north, was ritually treated by Kafwana and h i d d e n by him d u r i n g inter regna. T h e mystical power of the lukanu, a n d hence of the K a n o n gesha-ship, came jointly from M w a n t i y a n v w a , the political fountainhead and, Kafwana, the ritual source: its employment for the benefit of the land and the people was in the h a n d s of a succession of individual incumbents of the chieftainship. Its origin in M w a n t i y a n vwa symbolized the historical unity of the N d e m b u people, a n d their political differentiation into subchiefdoms u n d e r K a n o n g e s h a ; its

Liminality and Communitas

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periodic medication by Kafwana symbolized the landof which Kafwana was the original " o w n e r " a n d the total community living on it. T h e daily invocations m a d e to it by Kanongesha, at dawn and sunset, were for the fertility and continued health and strength of the land, of its animal and vegetable resources, and of the peoplein short, for the commonweal and public good. But the lukanu had a negative aspect; it could be used by Kanongesha to curse. If he touched the earth with it and uttered a certain formula, it was believed that the person or group cursed would become barren, their land infertile and their game invisible. In the lukanu, finally, L u n d a and Mbwela were united in the joint concept of N d e m b u land and folk. In the relationship between Lunda and Mbwela, and between Kanongesha and Kafwana, we find a distinction familiar in Africa between the politically or militarily strong and the subdued autoch thonous people, who are nevertheless ritually potent. Iowan Lewis (1963) has described such structural inferiors as having " t h e power or powers of the w e a k " (p. 1 1 1 ) . O n e well-known example from the literature is to be found in Meyer Fortes's account of the Tallensi of northern Ghana, where the incoming Namoos brought chieftainship and a highly developed ancestral cult to the autochthonous Tale, who, for their part, are thought to have important ritual powers in connection with the earth and its caverns. In the great Golib Festival, held annually, the union of chiefly and priestly powers is symbolized by the mystical marriage between chief of Tongo, leader of the Namoos, and the great earth-priest, the Golibdaana, of the Tale, portrayed respectively as " h u s b a n d " and "wife." Among Ndembu, Kafwana is also considered, as we have seen, symbolically feminine in relation to Kanongesha. I could multiply examples of this type of dichotomy many times from African sources alone, and its range is world-wide. T h e point I would like to stress here is that there is a certain homology between the ^wjeakness.".and "jDassivity^" ojLHrmnality in diachronic transitions between states and statuses, and the " s t r u c t u r a l " or synchronic inferiority of certain personae, groups, and social categories in political, legal, and economic

IOO

The Ritual Process

systems. T h e " l i m i n a l " a n d the " i n f e r i o r " c o n d i t i o n s are often asso ciated with ritual powers a n d with the total c o m m u n i t y seen as undifferentiated. T o return to the installation rites of the K a n o n g e s h a of the N d e m b u : T h e liminal component of such rites b e g i n s with the con struction of a small shelter of leaves a b o u t a m i l e away from the capital village. This h u t is known as kafu or kafwi, a t e r m N d e m b u derive from ku-fwa, " t o d i e , " for it is here t h a t t h e chief-elect dies from his commoner state. Imagery of d e a t h a b o u n d s in N d e m b u liminality. For example, the secret a n d sacred site w h e r e novices are circumcised is known as ifwilu or chifwilu, a t e r m also derived from ku-fwa. T h e chief-elect, clad in nothing but a r a g g e d waist-cloth, a n d a ritual wife, w h o is either his senior wife (mwadyi) or a special slave w o m a n , known as lukanu (after the r o y a l bracelet) for the occasion, similarly clad, are called by K a f w a n a to enter the kafu shelter just after sundown. T h e chief himself, incidentally, is also known as mwadyi or lukanu in these rites. T h e c o u p l e are led there as though they were infirm. T h e r e they sit c r o u c h e d in a posture of shame (nsonyi) or modesty, while they are w a s h e d with medicines mixed with water brought from K a t u k a n g ' o n y i , t h e river site w h e r e the ancestral chiefs of the southern L u n d a diaspora dwelt for a while on their journey from Mwantiyanvwa's capital before separating to carve out realms for themselves. T h e wood for this fire must n o t b e cut by a n ax b u t found lying on the ground. T h i s m e a n s t h a t it is t h e product of the earth itself a n d not an artifact. O n c e m o r e w e see t h e conjunction of ancestral L u n d a h o o d a n d the c h t h o n i c powers. Next begins the rite of Kumukindyila, w h i c h m e a n s literally " t o speak evil or insulting words against h i m " ; w e m i g h t call this rite " T h e Reviling of the Chief-Elect." I t begins w h e n Kafwana m a k e s a cut on the underside of the chief's left a r m o n which the lukanu bracelet will be drawn on the morrowpresses medicine into t h e incision, a n d presses a m a t on the u p p e r side of t h e a r m . T h e chief a n d his wife are then forced rather roughly to sit o n the m a t . T h e wife must not b e pregnant, for the rites t h a t follow a r e held to destroy fertility. Moreover, the chiefly couple must h a v e refrained from sex ual congress for several days before the rites.

Liminality and Communitas Kafwana now breaks into a homily, as follows:

101

Be silent! You are a mean and selfish fool, one who is bad-tempered! You do not love your fellows, you are only angry with them! Meanness and theft are all you have! Yet here we have called you and we say that you must succeed to the chieftainship. Put away meanness, put aside anger, give up adulterous intercourse, give them up immediately! We have granted you chieftainship. You must eat with your fellow men, you must live well with them. Do not prepare witchcraft medicines that you may devour your fellows in their hutsthat is forbidden! We have desired you and you only for our chief. Let your wife prepare food for the people who come here to the capital village. Do not be selfish, do not keep the chieftainship to your self! You must laugh with the people, you must abstain from witchcraft, if perchance you have been given it already! You must not be killing people! You must not be ungenerous to people! But you, Chief Kanongesha, Chifwanakenu ["son who resembles his father"] of Mwantiyanvwa, you have danced for your chieftainship because your predecessor is dead [i.e., because you killed him]. But today you are born as a new chief. You must know the people, O Chifwanakenu. If you were mean, and used to eat your cassava mush alone, or your meat alone, today you are in the chieftainship. You must give up your selfish ways, you must welcome everyone, you are the chief! You must stop being adult erous and quarrelsome. You must not bring partial judgments to bear on any law case involving your people, especially where your own children are involved. You must say: " If someone has slept with my wife, or wronged me, today I must not judge his case unjustly. I must not keep resentment in my heart." After this harangue, any person w h o considers that he has been wronged by the chief-elect in the past is entitled to revile him and most fully express his resentment, going into as m u c h detail as h e desires. T h e chief-elect, during all this, has to sit silently with down cast head, " t h e pattern of all p a t i e n c e " and humility. Kafwana meanwhile splashes the chief with medicine, at intervals striking his buttocks against h i m (kumubayisha) insultingly. M a n y informants have told m e that " a chief is just like a slave (ndung'u) on the night before he succeeds." H e is prevented from sleeping, partly as a n ordeal, partly because it is said that if he dozes off he will have bad dreams about the shades of dead chiefs, " w h o will say that he is

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The Ritual Process

wrong to succeed t h e m , for has he not killed t h e m ? " Kafwana, his assistants, a n d o t h e r i m p o r t a n t m e n , such as village headmen, man h a n d l e the chief a n d his wifewho is similarly reviledand order t h e m to fetch firewood and perform other menial tasks. T h e chief m a y not resent a n y of this or hold it against the perpetrators in times to come.

A T T R I B U T E S OF L I M I N A L E N T I T I E S

T h e phase of r e a g g r e g a t i o n in this case comprises the public installa tion of t h e K a n o n g e s h a with all p o m p a n d ceremony. While this would b e of t h e u t m o s t interest in study of N d e m b u chieftainship, a n d to a n i m p o r t a n t t r e n d in current British social anthropology, it does not concern us h e r e . O u r present focus is upon liminality and the ritual powers of t h e weak. T h e s e are shown under two aspects. First, K a f w a n a a n d t h e other N d e m b u commoners are revealed as privileged to exert a u t h o r i t y over the supreme authority figure of the tribe. I n liminality, t h e u n d e r l i n g comes uppermost. Second, the supreme political a u t h o r i t y is p o r t r a y e d " a s a^slave," recalling that aspect of the c o r o n a t i o n of a p o p e in western-Christendom when h e is called u p o n to b e t h e "serous servorum Dei." Part of the rite has, of course, w h a t M o n i c a Wilson (1957, p p . 46-54) has called a " p r o phylactic function." T h e chief has to exert self-control in the rites that h e m a y b e a b l e to h a v e self-mastery thereafter in face of the temptations of p o w e r . B u t t h e role of the h u m b l e d chief is only an extreme example of a r e c u r r e n t t h e m e of liminal situations. This t h e m e is the s t r i p p i n g off of preliminal a n d postliminal attributes. Let us look a t t h e m a i n ingredients of the Kumukindyila rites. T h e chief a n d his wife a r e dressed identically in a ragged waist-cloth and share the same namemwadyi. T h i s term is also applied to boys undergoing initiation a n d to a m a n ' s first wife in chronological order of marriage. I t is a n i n d e x of t h e anonymous state of "initiand." These attributes of sexlessness a n d anonymity are highly character istic of liminality. I n m a n y kinds of initiation where the neophytes are of both sexes, m a l e s a n d females are dressed alike and referred to

Liminality and Communitas by the same term. This is true, for example, of many baptismal cere monies in Christian or syncretist sects in Africa: for example, those of the Bwiti cult in the Gabon (James Fernandez; personal com munication). It is also true of initiation into the N d e m b u funerary association of Chiwila. Symbolically, all attributes that distinguish categories and groups in the structured social order are here in abey ance; the neophytes are merely entities in transition, as yet without place or position. Other characteristics are submissiyeness and silence. Not only the chief in the rites under discussion, but also neophytes in many riles de passage have to submit to an authority that is nothing less than that of the total community. This community is the repository of the whole g a m u t of the culture's values, norms, attitudes, sentiments, and relationships. Its representatives in the specific ritesand these may vary from ritual to ritualrepresent the generic authority of tradi tion. I n tribal societies, too, speech is not merely communication but also power and wisdom. T h e wisdom (mana) that is imparted in sacred liminality is not just an aggregation of words and sentences; it has ontological value, it refashions the very being of the neophyte. T h a t is why, in the Chisungu rites of the Bemba, so well described by Audrey Richards (1956), the secluded girl is said to be " g r o w n into a woman " by the female eldersand she is so grown by the verbal and nonverbal instruction she receives in precept and symbol, especi ally by the revelation to her of tribal sacra in the form of pottery images. T h e neophyte in liminality must be a tabula rasa, a blank slate, on which is inscribed the knowledge and wisdom of the group, in those respects that pertain to the new status. T h e ordeals and humili ations, often of a grossly physiological character, to which neophytes are submitted represent partly a destruction of the previous status and partly a tempering of their essence in order to prepare them to cope with their new responsibilities and restrain them in advance from abusing their new privileges. T h e y have to b e shown that in themselves they are clay or dust, mere matter, whose form is impres sed upon them by society.

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Another liminal theme exemplified in t h e N d e m b u installation rites is sexual continence. This is a pervasive theme of N d e m b u ritual. Indeed, the resumption of sexual relations is usually a cere monial m a r k of the return to society as a s t r u c t u r e of statuses. While this is a feature of certain types of religious behavior in almost all societies, in preindustrial society, with its s t r o n g stress on kinship as the basis of m a n y types of group affiliation, sexual continence has additional religious force. For kinship, or relations shaped by the idiom of kinship, is one of the m a i n factors in structural differentia tion. T h e undifferentiated character of liminality is reflected by the discontinuance of sexual relations and the a b s e n c e of marked sexual polarity. I t is instructive to analyze the homiletic of K a f w a n a , in seeking to grasp the meaning of liminality. T h e r e a d e r will r e m e m b e r that h e chided the chief-elect for his selfishness, m e a n n e s s , theft, anger, witch craft, and greed. All these vices represent t h e desire to possess for one self what ought to be shared for the c o m m o n good. A n i n c u m b e n t of high status is peculiarly tempted to use the a u t h o r i t y vested in h i m by society to satisfy these private a n d privative wishes. But he should regard his privileges as gifts of the whole c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h in the final issue has an overright over all his actions. Structure a n d t h e high offices provided by structure are thus seen as instrumentalities of the commonweal, not as means of personal aggrandizement. T h e chief must not " k e e p his chieftainship to himself." H e " m u s t laugh with the people," and laughter (ku-seha) is for t h e N d e m b u a " w h i t e " quality, a n d enters into the definition of " w h i t e n e s s " or " w h i t e things." Whiteness represents the seamless w e b of connection t h a t ideally ought to include b o t h the living a n d the d e a d . I t is r i g h t relation between people, merely as h u m a n beings, a n d its fruits a r e health, strength, and all good things. " W h i t e " laughter, for e x a m p l e , which is visibly manifested in the flashing of teeth, represents fellow ship a n d good company. I t is the reverse of p r i d e (winyi), a n d t h e secret envies, lusts, a n d grudges t h a t result behaviorally in witchcraft (wuloji), theft (wukombi), adultery (kushimbana), meanness (chifwa), a n d homicide (wubanji). Even w h e n a m a n has b e c o m e a chief, h e

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must still be a member of the whole community of persons (antu), and show this by "laughing with t h e m , " respecting their rights, "welcoming everyone," a n d sharing food with them. T h e chastening function of liminality is not confined to this type of initiation b u t forms a component of many other types in many cultures. A wellknown example is the medieval knight's vigil, during the night before he receives the accolade, when he has to pledge himself to serve the weak and the distressed and to meditate on his own unworthiness. His subsequent power is thought partially to spring from this pro found immersion in humility. The pedagogics of liminality, therefore, represent a condemnation of two kinds of separation from the generic bond of communitas. T h e first kind is to act only in terms of the rights conferred on one by the incumbency of office in t h e social structure. T h e second is to follow one's psychobiological urges a t the expense of one's fellows. A mystical character is assigned to the sentiment of humankindness in most types of liminality, a n d in most cultures this stage of transition is brought closely in touch with beliefs in the protective and punitive powers of divine or preterhuman beings or powers. For example, when the N d e m b u chief-elect emerges from seclusion, one of his subchiefswho plays a priestly j o l e at the installation ritesmakes a ritual fence around the new chief's dwelling, and prays as follows to the shades of former chiefs, before the people who have assembled to witness the installation:
Listen, all you people. Kanongesha has come to be born into the chieftain ship today. This white clay

[mpemba],

with which the chief, the ancestral

shrines, and the officiants will be anointed, is for you, all the Kanongeshas of old gathered together here. [Here the ancient chiefs are mentioned b y name.] A n d , therefore, all you who have died, look upon your friend who has succeeded [to the chiefly stool], that he m a y be strong. H e must con tinue to pray well to you. H e must look after the children, he must care for all the people, both men and women, that they m a y be strong and that he himself should be hale. Here is your white clay. I have enthroned you, O chief. Y o u O people must give forth sounds of praise. T h e chieftainship has appeared.

The Ritual Process T h e powers that shape the neophytes in liminality for the i n c u m bency of new status are felt, in rites all over the world, to be m o r e than h u m a n powers, though they are invoked and channeled b y the representatives of the community.
%

L I M I N A L I T Y C O N T R A S T E D W I T H STATUS SYSTEM

Let us now, rather in the fashion of Levi-Strauss, express the differ ence between the properties of liminality and those of the s t a t u s system in terms of a series of binary oppositions or discriminations. T h e y can b e ordered as follows: Transition/state Totality/partiality Homogeneity/heterogeneity Communitas/structure Equality/inequality Anonymity/systems of nomenclature Absence of property/property Absence of status/status Nakedness or uniform clothing/distinctions of clothing Sexual continence/sexuality Minimization of sex distinctions/maximization of sex distinctions Absence of rank/distinctions of rank Humility/just pride of position Disregard for personal appearance/care for personal appearance No distinctions of wealth/distinctions of wealth Unselfishness/selfishness Total obedience/obedience only to superior rank Sacredness/secularity Sacred instruction/technical knowledge Silence/speech Suspension of kinship rights and obligations/kinship rights and obligations Continuous reference to mystical powers/intermittent reference to mystical powers Foolishness/sagacity

Liminality and Communitas

Simplicity/complexity Acceptance of pain and suffering/avoidance of pain and suffering Heteronomy/degrees of autonomy

This list could be considerably lengthened if we were to widen the span of liminal situations considered. Moreover, the symbols in which these properties are manifested and embodied are manifold and various, and often relate to the physiological processes of death and birth, anabolism and katabolism. T h e reader will have noticed immediately that many of these properties constitute what we think of as characteristics of the religious life in the Christian tradition. Undoubtedly, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, a n d J e w s would n u m ber many of them among their religious characteristics, too. W h a t appears to have happened is that with the increasing specialization of society and culture, with progressive complexity in the social divi sion of labor, what was in tribal society principally a set of transi tional qualities " betwixt and between " defined states of culture a n d society has become itself a n institutionalized state. But traces of the passage quality of the religious life remain in such formulations a s : " T h e Christian is a stranger to the world, a pilgrim, a traveler, with no place to rest his h e a d . " Transition has here become a permanent condition. Nowhere has this institutionalization of liminality been more clearly marked and defined than in the monastic a n d mendi cant states in the great world religions. For example, the Western Christian Rule of St. Benedict "provides for the life of men who wish to live in community a n d devote themselves entirely to God's service by self-discipline, prayer, and work. T h e y a r e to be essentially families, in the care a n d under the absolute control of a father (the abbot); individually they are bound to personal poverty, abstention from marriage, and obedience to their superiors, a n d b y the vows of stability and conversion of manners [originally a synonym for "common life," "monasticity" as distinguished from secular life]; a moderate degree of austerity is imposed by" the night office, fasting, abstinence from fleshmeat, and restraint in conversation" (Attwater, 1961, p. 5 1 m y emphases). I have stressed features that bear a remarkable similarity to the condition of the chief-elect during his

io8

The Ritual

Process

transition to the public i n s t a l l a t i o n rites, when he enters his kingdom. T h e N d e m b u circumcision rites (Mukanda) present further parallels between the neophytes a n d t h e m o n k s of St. Benedict. Erving Goffm a n (Asylums, 1962) discusses w h a t h e calls the "characteristics of total institutions." A m o n g t h e s e h e includes monasteries, and de votes a good deal of a t t e n t i o n t o " t h e stripping a n d leveling pro cesses which . . . directly c u t across t h e various social distinctions with which the recruits e n t e r . " H e t h e n quotes from St. Benedict's advice to the a b b o t : " L e t h i m m a k e n o distinction of persons in the monastery. Let not one b e l o v e d m o r e t h a n another, unless he be found to excel in good works o r i n obedience. Let not one of noble birth b e raised above h i m w h o w a s formerly a slave, unless some other reasonable cause i n t e r v e n e " ( p . 1 1 9 ) . H e r e parallels with Mukanda a r e striking. T h e novices are " s t r i p p e d " of their secular c l o t h i n g w h e n they are passed beneath a symbolic gateway; they a r e " leveled " in that their former names are discarded a n d all are assigned t h e c o m m o n designation mwadyi, or " n o v i c e , " a n d treated alike. O n e of t h e songs sung b y circumcisers to the mothers of the novices o n t h e n i g h t before circumcision con tains the following line: " E v e n if y o u r child is a chief's son, tomorrow h e will b e like a slave"just as a chief-elect is treated like a slave before his installation. M o r e o v e r , t h e senior instructor in the seclu sion lodge is chosen p a r t l y b e c a u s e h e is father of several boys u n d e r going the rites a n d becomes a f a t h e r for t h e whole group, a sort of " a b b o t , " though his title Mfumwa tubwiku, m e a n s literally " h u s b a n d of the novices," to emphasize t h e i r passive role.

MYSTICAL

DANGER WEAK

A N D T H E P O W E R S OF T H E

O n e m a y well ask w h y it is t h a t l i m i n a l situations a n d roles are almost everywhere a t t r i b u t e d w i t h magico-religious properties, or why these should so often b e r e g a r d e d a s d a n g e r o u s , inauspicious, or polluting to persons, objects, events, a n d relationships t h a t h a v e

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not been ritually incorporated into the liminal context. M y view is briefly that from the perspectival viewpoint of those concerned with the maintenance of "structure," all sustained manifestations of com munitas must appear as dangerous and anarchical, and have to be hedged around with prescriptions, prohibitions, and conditions. And, as M a r y Douglas (1966) has recently argued, that which can not be clearly classified in terms of traditional criteria of classifica tion, or falls between classificatory boundaries, is almost everywhere regarded as " p o l l u t i n g " and " d a n g e r o u s " (passim). T o repeat what I said earlier, liminality is not the only cultural manifestation of communitas. In most societies, there are other areas of manifestation to be readily recognized by the symbols that cluster around them and the beliefs that attach to them, such as " the powers of the weak," or, in other words, the permanently or transiently sacred attributes of low status or position. Within stable structural systems, there are m a n y dimensions of organization. W e have already noted that mystical and moral powers are wielded by subjugated autochthones over the total welfare of societies whose political frame is constituted by the lineage or territorial organization of incoming conquerors. I n other societiesthe N d e m b u and L a m b a of Zambia, for examplewe can point to the cult associations whose members have gained entry through common misfortune a n d debilitating circumstances to therapeutic powers with regard to such common goods of mankind as health, fertility, and climate. These associations transect such important components of the secular political system as lineages, villages, subchiefdoms, and chiefdoms. W e could also mention the role of structurally small and politically insignificant nations within systems of nations as upholders of religious and moral values, such as the Hebrews in the ancient Near East, the Irish in early medieval Christendom, and the Swiss in modern Europe. Many writers have drawn attention to the role of the court jester. Max Gluckman (1965), for example, writes: " T h e court jester operated as a privileged arbiter of morals, given license to gibe at king and courtiers, or lord of the m a n o r . " Jesters were "usually men of low classsometimes on the Continent of Europe they were

no

The Ritual Process

priestswho clearly moved out of their usual estate. . . . I n a system where it was difficult for others to rebuke the head of a political unit, we might have here a n institutionalized joker, operating at the highest point of the unit . . . a joker able to express feelings of out raged morality." H e further mentions how jesters attached to m a n y African monarchs were "frequently dwarfs and other oddities." Similar in function to these were the drummers in the Barotse royal barge in which the king a n d his court moved from a capital in the Zambezi Flood Plain to one of its margins during the annual floods. T h e y were privileged to throw into the water any of the great nobles " w h o h a d offended them a n d their sense of justice during the past y e a r " (pp. 1 0 2 - 1 0 4 ) . These figures, representing the poor a n d the deformed, appear to symbolize the moral values of communitas as against the coercive power of supreme political rulers. Folk literature abounds in symbolic figures, such as " h o l y beg gars," " t h i r d sons," "little tailors," a n d "simpletons," who strip off the pretensions of holders of high rank a n d office and reduce t h e m to the level of common h u m a n i t y a n d mortality. Again, in the traditional " W e s t e r n , " we have all read of the homeless a n d mysterious " s t r a n g e r " without wealth or n a m e who restores ethical a n d legal equilibrium to a local set of political power relations b y eliminating the unjust secular " b o s s e s " w h o are oppressing the smallholders. Members of despised or outlawed ethnic and cultural groups play major roles in myths a n d popular tales as representatives or expressions of universal h u m a n values. Famous among these are the good Samaritan, the Jewish fiddler Rothschild in Chekhov's tale "Rothschild's Fiddle," M a r k T w a i n ' s fugitive Negro slave J i m in Huckleberry Finn, and Dostoevsky's Sonya, the prostitute who redeems the would-be Nietzschean " s u p e r m a n " Raskolnikov, in Crime and Punishment. All these mythic types are structurally inferior or " m a r g i n a l , " yet represent w h a t H e n r i Bergson would h a v e called " o p e n " as against "closed morality," the latter being essentially the normative system of bounded, structured, particularistic groups. Bergson speaks of h o w a n in-group preserves its identity against m e m b e r s of out-groups,

Liminality and Communitas

in

protects itself against threats to its way of life, and renews the will to maintain the norms on which the routine behavior necessary for its social life depends. I n closed or structured societies, it is the marginal or "inferior" person or the " o u t s i d e r " who often comes to sym bolize what David H u m e has called " t h e sentiment for h u m a n i t y , " which in its turn relates to the model we have termed " communitas."

M I L L E N A R I A N MOVEMENTS

Among the more striking manifestations of communitas are to be found the so-called millenarian religious movements, which arise among what N o r m a n Cohn ( 1 9 6 1 ) has called " u p r o o t e d and des perate masses in town and countryside . . . living on the margin of society" (pp. 3 1 - 3 2 ) (i.e., structured society), or where formerly tribal societies are brought under the alien overlordship of complex, industrial societies. T h e attributes of such movements will be well known to most of my readers. Here I would merely recall some of the properties of liminality in tribal rituals that I mentioned earlier. Many of these correspond pretty closely with those of millenarian movements: homogeneity, equality, anonymity, absence of property (many movements actually enjoin on their members the destruction of what property they possess to bring nearer the coming of the perfect state of unison and communion they desire, for property rights are linked with structural distinctions both vertical and hori zontal), reduction of all to the same status level, the wearing of uniform apparel (sometimes for both sexes), sexual continence (or its antithesis, sexual community, both continence and sexual com munity liquidate marriage and the family, which legitimate struc tural status), minimization of sex distinctions (all are " e q u a l in the sight of G o d " or the ancestors), abolition of rank, humility, dis regard for personal appearance, unselfishness, total obedience to the prophet or leader, sacred instruction, the maximization of religious, as opposed to secular, attitudes and behavior, suspension of kinship rights and obligations (all are siblings or comrades of one another regardless of previous secular ties), simplicity of speech and nanners,

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The Ritual

Process

sacred folly, acceptance of p a i n a n d suffering (even to the point of undergoing m a r t y r d o m ) , a n d so f o r t h . It is noteworthy t h a t m a n y o f these movements cut right across tribal and national divisions d u r i n g their initial momentum. Com munitas, or the " o p e n s o c i e t y , " differs in this from structure, or the "closed society," in t h a t it is p o t e n t i a l l y or ideally extensible to the limits of humanity. I n p r a c t i c e , o f course, the impetus soon becomes exhausted, and the " m o v e m e n t " b e c o m e s itself an institution among other institutionsoften o n e m o r e fanatical and militant than the rest, for the reason t h a t it feels itself to be the unique bearer of universal h u m a n t r u t h s . M o s t l y , such movements occur during phases of history t h a t a r e i n m a n y respects "homologous" to the liminal periods of i m p o r t a n t r i t u a l s in stable and repetitive societies, when major groups or social c a t e g o r i e s in those societies are passing from one cultural state to a n o t h e r . T h e y are essentially phenomena of transition. T h i s is p e r h a p s w h y in so many of these movements much of their mythology a n d s y m b o l i s m is borrowed from those of traditional rites de passage, e i t h e r in the cultures in which they originate or in the c u l t u r e s w i t h w h i c h they are in dramatic contact.

HIPPIES,

COMMUNITAS, OF THE WEAK

AND THE P O W E R S

I n modern Western society, t h e v a l u e s of communitas are strikingly present in the literature a n d b e h a v i o r of what came to be known as the " b e a t g e n e r a t i o n , " w h o w e r e succeeded by the "hippies," who, in turn, have a j u n i o r d i v i s i o n k n o w n as the " teeny-boppers." These are the " c o o l " m e m b e r s o f t h e adolescent and young-adult categorieswhich d o n o t h a v e t h e advantages of national rites de passagewho " o p t o u t " of t h e s t a t u s - b o u n d social order and acquire the stigmata of the lowly, d r e s s i n g like " b u m s , " itinerant in their habits, " f o l k " in their m u s i c a l t a s t e s , a n d menial in the casual employment they u n d e r t a k e . T h e y stress personal relationships rather than social obligations, a n d r e g a r d s e x u a l i t y as a polymorphic instru-

Liminality and Communitas

"3

merit of immediate communitas rather than as the basis for an enduring structured social tie. T h e poet Allen Ginsberg is particularly eloquent about the function of sexual freedom. T h e " s a c r e d " properties often assigned to communitas are not lacking here, either: this can be seen in their frequent use of religious terms, such as " s a i n t " and " a n g e l , " to describe their congeners and in their interest in Zen Buddhism. T h e Zen formulation "all is one, one is none, none is a l l " well expresses the global, unstructured character earlier applied to communitas. T h e hippie emphasis on spontaneity, immediacy, and "existence" throws into relief one of the senses in which communitas contrasts with structure. Communitas is of the now; structure is rooted in the past and extends into the future through language, law, and custom. While our focus here is on traditional preindustrial societies it becomes clear that the collective dimensions, communitas and structure, are to be found at all stages and levels of culture and society.

S T R U C T U R E A N D COMMUNITAS IN K I N S H I P BASED SOCIETIES

I.

Tallensi

There are some further manifestations of this distinction found in the simpler societies. These I shall consider in terms, not of passages between states, but rather of binarily opposed states that in certain respects express the distinction between society regarded as a struc ture of segmentarily or hierarchically opposed parts and as a homo geneous totality. In many societies, a terminological distinction is made between relatives on the father's and mother's side, and these are regarded as quite different kinds of people. This is especially the case with regard to the father and the mother's brother. Where there is unilineal descent, property and status pass either from father to son or from mother's brother to sister's son. In some societies, both lines of descent are used for purposes of inheritance. But, even in this

U4

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Process

instance, the types of p r o p e r t y a n d status that pass in each line are very different. Let us begin by c o n s i d e r i n g a society i which there is unilineal descent only in the p a t e r n a l l i n e . This example is drawn once more from the Tallensi of G h a n a , o n which we have rich information. O u r problem is to discover w h e t h e r in a binary discrimination at one structural level of the t y p e " s t r u c t u r a l superiority-structural inferi ority," w e can find a n y t h i n g a p p r o x i m a t i n g the ritual " power of the weak," which, in its t u r n , c a n b e shown to relate to the model of communitas. Fortes (1949) w r i t e s :
n

The dominant line of descent confers the overtly significant attributes of social personalityjural status, rights of inheritance and succession to property and office, political allegiance, ritual privileges and obligations; and the submerged line [constituted by matri-filiation; I would prefer "submerged side," since the link is a personal one between ego and his mother and through her both to her patrilineal kin and to her cognates] confers certain spiritual characteristics. Among the Tallensi it is easy to see that this is a reflex of the fact that the bond of uterine descent is maintained as a purely personal bond. It does n o t subserve common interests of a material, jural, or ritual kind; it unites individuals only by ties of mutual interest and concern not unlike those that prevail between close collateral kin in our culture. While it constitutes one of the factors that counterpoise the exclusiveness of the agnatic line, it does not create corporate groups competing with the agnatic lineage and clan. Carrying only a spiritual attribute, the uterine tie cannot undermine the jural a n d politico-ritual solidarity of the patrilineal lineage (p. 3amy emphases). Here we have the o p p o s i t i o n p a t r i l i n e a l / m a t r i l a t e r a l , which has the functions d o m i n a n t / s u b m e r g e d . T h e patrilineal tie is associated with property, office, political a l l e g i a n c e , exclusiveness, and, it may be added, particularistic a n d s e g m e n t a r y i n t e r e s t s . It is the " s t r u c t u r a l " link par excellence. T h e u t e r i n e tie is associated with spiritual characteristics, m u t u a l interests a n d c o n c e r n s , a n d collaterality. It is counterpoised to exclusiveness, w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y means that it makes for inclusiveness a n d d o e s n o t s e r v e m a t e r i a l interests. In brief, matrilaterality represents, in t h e d i m e n s i o n of kinship, the notion of communitas.

Liminality and Communitas

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An example, drawn from the Tallensi, of the " s p i r i t u a l " and " c o m m u n i t a r i a n " character of matrilaterality is to b e found in the consecration rites of the so-called bakologo, or diviner's shrine. This shrine is by definition, says Fortes (1949), a " f e m a l e " shrine:
T h a t is to say, the ancestors associated with it come, by definition, from a matrilateral lineage of the diviner; and the dominant figure among them is usually a woman, " a mother." T h e

bakologo

. . . is the very incarnation of

the vindictive and jealous aspect of the ancestors. It persecutes the man in whose life it has intervened relentlessly, until he finally submits and " accepts itthat is, until he undertakes to set up a shrine to the [matrilateral]

bakologo spirits in his own home so that he can sacrifice to them regularly. Every man, and not only those who have suffered exceptional misfortunes, is directed
by the religious system of the Tallensi to project his deeper feelings of guilt and insecurity largely on to the mother image embodied in the the

bakologo

complex. Usually, also, a man does not immediately yield to the demands of

bakologo

ancestors. H e temporizes, evades, and resists, perhaps for years,

until he is at last forced to submit and accept the men over forty have

bakologo.

Nine out of ten

bakologo

shrines, but not every man has a talent for

divining, so most men simply have the shrine and do not use it for divining (p. 3 2 5 m y emphases).

I have given Fortes's account a t some length because I think it brings out vividly, not only the opposition and tension between patrilineal a n d matrilateral kinship bonds, b u t also t h e tension pro duced in individual pysches as they m a t u r e between structural a n d communitarian ways of looking at Tallensi society. W e must re member that the dogma of patriliny, what Homans a n d Schneider would call the " h a r d " descent line through which rights over status and property are transmitted, is dominant and colors the values of the Tallensi at many levels of society a n d culture. From the stand point and perspective of persons occupying positions of authority in the patrilineal structure, social links through women, symbolizing the widest Tale community where it transects the narrow corporate bonds of descent a n d locality, must needs appear to have a disruptive aspect. T h a t is why, in m y opinion the Tallensi have the bakologo "mother image," which "persecutes" a n d " i n t e r v e n e s " in a m a t u r e

n6

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m a n ' s life until he " a c c e p t s " it. F o r , a s men m a t u r e and interact with one another in ever wider r a n g e s o f social relations, they become increasingly conscious that t h e i r p a t r i l i n e a g e s are merely parts of the Tallensi whole. For them, in a p e r f e c t l y literal fashion, the wider community intervenes, b y b r e a k i n g i n t o the self-sufficiency and relative autonomy of segmentary l i n e a g e a n d clan affairs. T h e global sentiments annually stressed a t s u c h g r e a t integrative festivals as the Golib, where, as I m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , t h e r e is a kind of mystical marriage between representatives of t h e Namoos invaders and the T a l e autochthones, become m o r e a n d m o r e meaningful to " m e n over forty," who participate as f a m i l y a n d sublineage heads, and no longer as minors u n d e r p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y . Norms a n d values "from w i t h o u t " break into the exclusiveness o f lineage loyalties. I t is clearly appropriate t h a t c o m m u n i t a s should h e r e b e symbol ized by matrilateral ancestors, especially b y m o t h e r images, since, in this virilocal, patrilineal society, w o m e n enter the lineage patrisegments from without, a n d , as F o r t e s has shown, matrilateral kin for the most part reside outside a m a n ' s "field of clanship." It is understandable, too, t h a t s u c h spirits should b e represented as " v i n d i c t i v e " a n d " j e a l o u s " : it is t h e " m o t h e r s " (who are the founders of dugs, or matri-segments) w h o i n t r o d u c e divisions into the ideal unity of the patrilineage. T o p u t it briefly, a t certain life crises, such as adolescence, the a t t a i n m e n t of e l d e r h o o d , a n d d e a t h , varying in significance from culture to c u l t u r e , t h e passage from one struc tural status to another m a y b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a strong sentiment of " h u m a n k i n d n e s s , " a sense of t h e g e n e r i c social b o n d between all members of societyeven in s o m e cases t r a n s c e n d i n g tribal or national boundariesregardless of t h e i r s u b g r o u p affiliations or in cumbency of structural positions. I n e x t r e m e cases, such as the acceptance of the s h a m a n ' s v o c a t i o n a m o n g t h e S a o r a of Middle I n d i a (Elwin, 1 9 5 5 ) , this m a y result i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of what is essentially a liminal or e x t r a s t r u c t u r a l p h a s e i n t o a p e r m a n e n t con dition of sacred " o u t s i d e r h o o d . " T h e s h a m a n or p r o p h e t assumes a statusless status, external to t h e s e c u l a r social s t r u c t u r e , which gives

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him the right to criticize all structure-bound personae in terms of a moral order binding on all, and also to mediate between all segments or components of the structured system. In societies in which kinship is what Fortes calls a n "irreducible principle" of social organization, and where patrilineality is the basis of social structure, an individual's link to other members of his society through the mother, and hence by extension and abstraction " w o m e n " and "feminity," tends to symbolize that wider community and its ethical system that encompasses and pervades the politicolegal system. Fascinating correlations can be shown in many societies to exist between this conversion to the perspective of communitas and the assertion of individuality as against status incumbency. For example, Fortes (1949) has shown us the individuating functions of the tie between sister's son and mother's brother among the Tallensi, which, he says, "is an important breach in the genealogical fence enclosing the agnatic lineage; it is one of the main gateways of an individual's social relations with members of other clans than his o w n " (p. 3 1 ) . By matrilaterality, the individual, in his integral character, is emancipated from the segmental status incumbencies determined by patriliny into the wider life of a community which extends beyond the Tallensi proper into tribal groups of similar religious culture. Now for a look at a concrete example of the way in which the con secration of a bakologo shrine makes the wider Tallensi community visible and explicit through matrilateral ties. All rituals have this exemplary, model-displaying character; in a sense, they might be said to " c r e a t e " society, in m u c h the same way as Oscar Wilde held life to be " a n imitation of a r t . " In the case I cite (Fortes, 1949), a man named Naabdiya " a c c e p t e d " as his bakologo ancestors his mother's father, his mother's father's mother, and his mother's father's mother's mother. I t was the clansmen of the last-mentioned who came to set up the shrine for their classificatory " g r a n d s o n " Naabdiya. But, to reach them, Naabdiya had first to go to his mother's brother's people; they then escorted him to his mother's

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mother's brother's lineage, t w e l v e miles from his own settlement. At each place, h e h a d to s a c r i f i c e a fowl a n d a guinea fowli.e., a domesticated a n d a n u n d o m e s t i c a t e d birdto the lineage bogar, or shrine of its founding a n c e s t o r . T h e lineage of the d o m i n a n t ancestor, or, more often, the ancestress of the bakologo complex, n e a r l y always a matrilateral ancestress, has the responsibility for s e t t i n g u p t h e shrine for the afflicted person. T h e lineage head sacrifices t h e t w o birds provided by the patient at his lineage shrine, e x p l a i n i n g to the ancestors the nature of the occasion that has b r o u g h t t h e i r sister's son or matrilateral grandson to plead with t h e m . H e asks t h e m to bless the setting u p of the new shrine, to assist the c a n d i d a t e t o become a successful diviner, and to grant him prosperity, c h i l d r e n , a n d healthi.e., general good things. T h e n he scoops some s e d i m e n t from the b o t t o m of the pot, which is the most i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of a bogar shrine, into a tiny pot for the candidate to take h o m e t o a d d to his n e w shrine. " I n this way," says Fortes, " t h e direct c o n t i n u i t y of t h e n e w bakologo shrine with the matrilateral lineage bogar is tangibly s y m b o l i z e d " (p. 326). T h u s , two shrines t w e l v e m i l e s a p a r t a n d it must be remembered that Taleland itself is " s c a r c e l y t w e n t y miles w i d e " a n d several intervening shrines a r e d i r e c t l y a n d " t a n g i b l y " linked by the rites. T h e fact that c o n t i n u o u s p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t between the lineages involved is hardly possible is n o t ideologically important here, for the bakologo shrines a r e s y m b o l s a n d expressions of Tale community. " N i n e out o f t e n " m a t u r e m e n h a v e a cluster of bakologo ancestors each. All these m e n a r e r i t u a l l y c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h them to a plura lity of settlements. C o n v e r s e l y , e a c h lineage bogar has linked to it a n u m b e r of bakologo shrines t h r o u g h sororal or sisterly connections. Such linkages are p a t e n t l y i n their a g g r e g a t e a n d transection more than merely personal o r s p i r i t u a l ties; t h e y represent the ties of communitas c o u n t e r i n g t h e cleavages of s t r u c t u r e . T h e y are, more over, bonds created from t h e " s u b m e r g e d " side of kinship, the jurally weaker or inferior s i d e . O n c e m o r e w e h a v e manifested the inti m a t e connection b e t w e e n c o m m u n i t a s a n d the powers of the weak.

Liminality and Communitas

"9

2. Nuer It is this perennial tensed opposition between communitas and struc ture that, to my mind, lies at the back of both the sacred and "affectional" aspects of the mother's brother/sister's son relationship in many patrilineal societies. In these societies, as numerous scholars have shown, the mother's brother, who has weak j u r a l authority over his nephew, nevertheless may have a close personal tie of friendship with him, may give him sanctuary from paternal harsh ness, and, very often, has mystical powers of blessing and cursing over him. Here weak legal authority in a corporate group setting is countered by strong personal and mystical influences. Among the Nuer of the Sudan, the role of "leopard-skin priest" interestingly links the symbolic value of the mother's brother in patrilineal society with some of the other attributes of liminal, marginal, and politically weak figures we have already considered. According to Evans-Pritchard (1956), " i n some myths of the Jikany tribes [of the Nuer] the leopard-skin [insignium of priestly office] was given by the ancestors of the [territorially] dominant [agnatic] lineages to their maternal uncles that they might serve as tribal priests. The structurally opposed lineages of the clan were then in the common relationship of sisters' sons to the line of priests, which thus had a mediatory position between t h e m " (p. 293my emphasis). As well as being categorical mothers' brothers to the political segments, leopard-skin priests are " i n the category of ml, strangers, and not of diel, members of the clans which own the tribal territories. . . . [They] have no tribal territories of their own but live, as families and small lineages, in most or all territories owned by other clans. They are like Levi, divided in J a c o b and scattered in Israel" (p. 292). (Something of this priestly character adheres to the scat tered lineages of circumcisers and rain makers among the Gisu of Uganda.) Nuer leopard-skin priests have " a mystical relationship . . . with the earth in virtue of which their curses are thought to have special potency, for . . . they can affect not only a man's crops but

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his welfare generally, since h u m a n activities all take place on the e a r t h " (p. 2 9 1 ) . T h e priest's m a j o r role is in connection with homi cide, where he gives t h e slayer s a n c t u a r y , negotiates a settlement, performs sacrifice to e n a b l e n o r m a l social relations to be resumed, a n d rehabilitates the slayer. T h i s generalized mother's brother thus has m a n y of the attributes of c o m m u n i t a s with which we are becom ing familiar: he is a s t r a n g e r , a m e d i a t o r , acts for the whole com munity, has a mystical r e l a t i o n s h i p with the whole earth it dwells upon, represents peace as a g a i n s t feud, a n d is unaligned with any specific political segment.

3.

Ashanti

Lest it m a y b e t h o u g h t t h a t s t r u c t u r e is universally associated with patriliny a n d masculinity, a n d c o m m u n i t a s with matrilaterality and femininity, in societies a r t i c u l a t e d by the principle of unilineal descent, it is w o r t h t a k i n g a b r i e f g l a n c e a t a well-known matrilineal society, the Ashanti of G h a n a . T h e Ashanti belong to a group of West African societies w i t h h i g h l y developed political and religious systems. Yet, unilineal k i n s h i p still has considerable structural importance. T h e localized m a t r i l i n e a g e tracing descent from a known common ancestress for a p e r i o d of ten to twelve generations is the basic unit for political, r i t u a l , a n d legal purposes. Fortes (1950) has described the s e g m e n t a r y c h a r a c t e r of the lineage: " e a c h seg m e n t being defined in r e l a t i o n t o other segments of like order by reference to c o m m o n a n d differentiating ancestresses" (p. 255). Succession to office a n d i n h e r i t a n c e of p r o p e r t y are matrilineal, and the wards of sections of A s h a n t i villages a r e each inhabited by a nuclear matrilineage s u r r o u n d e d b y a fringe of cognates and affines. T h e n a m e for a m a t r i l i n e a g e is abusua, which, according to R a t t r a y , (1923) is " s y n o n y m o u s w i t h mogya, b l o o d " (p. 35)as in the proverb abusua bako mogya bako, " o n e clan one blood." It has sometimes been d e b a t e d w h e t h e r A s h a n t i kinship ought not to be classified as a system of " d o u b l e d e s c e n t . " T h i s view derives from

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Rattray's reports (1923, p. 45-46) on a mode of social categorization known by Ashanti as ntoro (literally, " s e m e n " ) , which he regarded as an exogamous division based on transmission by and through males only. Fortes (1950, p . 266) has emphasized the minimal significance of this patrilineal element for the kinship system, and for the politico-legal order. He speaks of the ntoro as " n a m e d quasiritual divisions," but these are neither exogamous nor organized groups in any sense. Yet, from the point of view of the present paper, the ntbro divisions are of the utmost importance. One of the reasons for the neglect of the communitas dimension of society, with its pro found implications for the understanding of many ritual, ethical, esthetic, and, indeed, political and legal phenomena and processes, has been a propensity to equate the " s o c i a l " with the "social structural." Let us then follow the clue of ntoro into many dark corners of Ashanti culture. In the first place, the father-son link, the basis of the ntoro division, is the structurally inferior link. Yet, the symbols with which it is associated build up into a picture of formidable communitas value. According to Rattray (1923), the Ashanti believe that it is the "male-transmitted ntoro or semen, mingling with the blood [a symbol of the matrilineage] in the female, which accounts for the physiological mysteries of conception . . . ntoro . . . is . . . used at times synonymously with sunsum, that spiritual element in a man or a woman upon which depends . . . that force, personal magnetism, character, personality, power, soul, call it what you will, upon which depend health, wealth, worldly power, success in any venture, in fact everything that makes life at all worth living" (p. 46). Once again, we are beginning to come across the peculiar linkages between personality, universal values, and " s p i r i t " or " s o u l " that appear to be the stigmata of communitas. Rattray (1923) was able to enumerate nine ntoro divisions, though he says there may have been more. These, of course, cut across the membership of the segmentary abusua matrilineages. O n e ntoro is traditionally considered to be " t h e first ntoro ever bestowed upon man, the Bosommuru ntoro" (p. 48). T h e myth told in connection

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with its establishment, in R a t t r a y ' s view, i l l u m i n a t e s the way in which Ashanti think about ntoro in general :
V e r y long ago one man and one w o m a n c a m e d o w n f r o m the sky and one woman came u p from the earth. F r o m the Sky G o d ( O n y a m e ) , also c a m e a p y t h o n (onini), home in the river now called Bosommuru. A t first these men and women did not b e a r c h i l d r e n , they had no desire, and conception and birth were not known at t h a t t i m e . One d a y the python asked them if they h a d n o offspring, and on being told that they had not, he said he would c a u s e t h e w o m e n to conceive. H e bade the couples stand face to face, then he p l u n g e d into the river, and rising up, sprayed water upon their bellies w i t h t h e w o r d s kus kus (used in most ceremonies in connection with ntoro a n d O n y a m e ) , a n d then ordered them to return home and lie together. T h e women conceived and brought forth the first c h i l d r e n in the world, w h o took Bosommuru as their ntoro, each m a l e p a s s i n g on this ntoro to his children. If a Bosommuru ntoro man or w o m a n sees a d e a d p y t h o n (they would never kill one) they sprinkle white clay u p o n it a n d b u r y it ( p p . 4 8 - 4 9 ) . and it made its

This myth symbolically relates ntoro, as b o t h s e m e n a n d a social division, with the Sky God (who is also a r a i n a n d w a t e r god), with water, with a river, a n d with the fertilization o f w o m e n . O t h e r ntoro divisions, such as Bosomtwe, which is a l a r g e l a k e i n c e n t r a l Ashanti, a n d Bosompra, a river rising in A s h a n t i , a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h bodies of water. T h e major Ashanti gods a r e male deities, t h e sons of O n y a m e , t h e male High G o d . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y a r e all connected with water, the master symbol of fertility, a n d b y extension of those good things the Ashanti hold in c o m m o n , r e g a r d l e s s of their sub group affiliations. R a t t r a y ( 1 9 2 3 ) quotes A s h a n t i a s s a y i n g : " O n y a m e decided to send those children of his o w n d o w n t o t h e e a r t h in order that they might receive benefits from, a n d c o n f e r t h e m u p o n , man kind. All these sons bore the names of w h a t a r e n o w rivers or lakes . . . and every other river or water of a n y i m p o r t a n c e . T h e tributaries of these again a r e their c h i l d r e n " ( p p . 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 ) . H e a d d s : " W h a t has been said is sufficient to show t h a t waters in A s h a n t i . . . a r e all looked

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upon as containing the power or spirit of the divine Creator, a n d thus as being a great life-giving force. 'As a woman gives birth to a child, so may water to a god,' once said a priest to m e " (p. 146). Other bodily fluids are symbolically connected with " t h e ntoro element in m a n , " says R a t t r a y (1923, p . 54), such as saliva; and water is sprayed from the mouth of the Ashanti king, during rites associated with the Bosommuru river, accompanied by the words: "Life to me, and may this nation prosper." T h e white symbolism in the Bosommuru myth recurs in many ritual contexts where the water gods are worshiped, while the priests of the High God and other deities regularly wear white vestments. I have discussed white symbolism and its connotations of semen, saliva, health, strength, and auspiciousness in m a n y African and other societies in several published works (Turner, 1961; 1962; 1967). Ashanti white sym bolism is not dissimilar in its semantics to N d e m b u white symbolism. To summarize our Ashanti findings to this point: T h e r e would appear to be a nexus between the father-child bond, ntoro (as semen, spirit, and social division with widely scattered member ship) ; masculinity (represented by the father image, Onyame, his sons, and the mythical python, a male symbol); saliva; water; blessing by blowing water; lakes; rivers; the sea; white symbolism; and priesthood. In addition, chiefs, and especially the king, are clearly associated, in the Adae and other ceremonies, with the Sky God and with rivers, especially the T a n o , as the messages of the talking drum played at the Adae rites suggest (Rattray, 1923, p. 101). The feminine principle and the abusua are linked, as we have seen, with blood and through blood, with a rich variety of red symbols. Nearly everywhere blood and redness have both auspicious and in auspicious connotations. In Ashanti, red is associated with war (Rattray, 1927, p. 134), with witchcraft (pp. 29, 30, 32, 34), with the revengeful ghosts of victims (p. 22), and with funerals (p. 150). In some cases there is a direct opposition between the white (male) symbolism and the red (female) symbolism. For example, the river god Tano or T a Kora, according to Rattray (1923), "seems especi ally indifferent or even hostile to women. They are ungrateful

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creatures (bonniaye), h e d e c l a r e s . N o women are allowed to touch his shrine, a n d h e has n o f e m a l e akomfo (priests) of his own. Men struating women a r e o n e o f h i s t a b o o s " (p. 183). It will be recalled that the T a n o River p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t role in the Adae rites of the Asantehene, p a r a m o u n t c h i e f of the nation. Witchcraft and the red symbolism of funerary r i t u a l h a v e a relationship with abusua membership, since it is m a t r i l i n e a l kin who accuse one another of witchcraft, a n d most d e a t h s a r e attributed to witchcraft. There is another sinister m e a n i n g h e r e concealed in notion of the blood tie. R e d symbolism is also a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the cult of the earth, Asase Ya, regarded as " a female d e i t y " ( R a t t r a y , 1927). According to Rattray, " s h e did not t a b o o m e n s t r u a t i o n {kyiri bara); she liked human b l o o d " (p. 342). I could multiply c i t a t i o n s from R a t t r a y ' s (1927) magnificently detailed d a t a on r e d s y m b o l i s m to demonstrate the relationship Ashanti make b e t w e e n f e m i n i n i t y , death, killing, witchcraft, inauspiciousness, m e n s t r u a l p o l l u t i o n , a n d the sacrifice of men and beasts. For example, t h e A s h a n t i have a " r e d " suman, or "fetish," which is " i n the n a t u r e of a s c a p e g o a t or something that takes upon itself the evils a n d sins of t h e w o r l d " (p. 1 3 ) . T h i s is steeped in red esono dye (made from t h e p o w d e r e d bark of the adwino tree, prob ably a species of Pterocarpus), w h i c h is " a substitute for human blood," a n d is used in t h e e a r t h cult. Esono also stands for menstrual blood. This so-called kunkuma fetish is also " s t a i n e d and clotted with the blood of sheep a n d fowls t h a t have b e e n sacrificed upon it," and in it is " h i d d e n a p i e c e o f fiber (baha) used b y a menstruating w o m a n " (p. 1 3 ) . H e r e w e see sacrificial blood and menstruation brought into relationship w i t h breaches of the natural and social orders"evils a n d s i n s . " O n e final e x a m p l e , perhaps the most interesting of all, m u s t suffice. O n c e a year t h e r e is a ritual violation of the original ntoro s h r i n e , t h e Bosommuru ntoro mentioned earlier. This ntoro is often t h a t of t h e A s a n t e h e n e himself. O n the day of the rites " t h e king is s m e a r e d w i t h t h e red esono d y e " (p. 136). In this way the whiteness of t h e ntoro a n d the river Bosommuru is violated. W h e n the shrine is l a t e r p u r i f i e d , water from a n u m b e r of sacred

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rivers is mixed with white clay in a bowl, and the shrine is sprinkled with it. In many patrilineal societies, especially those with the blood feud, it is descent through males that is associated with ambivalent blood symbolism. But, in Ashanti, where matriliny is the dominant articulating principle, the male-to-male link of descent is regarded as almost totally auspicious and connected with the Sky God and the great river gods, who preside over fertility, health, strength, and all the life values shared by everyone. Once more we meet with the structurally inferior as the morally and ritually superior, and secular weakness as sacred power.

L I M I N A L I T Y , L O W S T A T U S , A N D COMMUNITAS

The time has now come to make a careful review of a hypothesis that seeks to account for the attributes of such seemingly diverse phenomena as neophytes in the liminal phase of ritual, subjugated autochthones, small nations, court jesters, holy mendicants, good Samaritans, millenarian movements, " d h a r m a b u m s , " matrilaterality in patrilineal systems, patrilaterality in matrilineal systems, and monastic orders. Surely an ill-assorted bunch of social phenomena! Yet all have this common characteristic: they are persons or prin ciples that ( 1 ) fall in the interstices of social structure, (2) are on its margins, or (3) occupy its lowest rungs. This leads us back to the problem of the definition of social structure. O n e authoritative source of definitions is A Dictionary of the Social Sciences (Gould and Kolb, 1 9 6 4 ) , in which A. W. Eister reviews some major formulations of this conception. Spencer and many modern sociologists regard social structure as " a more or less distinctive arrangement (of which there may be more than one type) of specialized and mutually dependent institutions [Eister's emphasis] and the institutional organ izations of positions and/or of actors which they imply, all evolved in the natural course of events, as groups of h u m a n beings, with given needs and capacities, have interacted with each other (in various

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types or modes of i n t e r a c t i o n ) a n d sought to cope with their environ m e n t " (pp. 668-669). R a y m o n d F i r t h ' s ( 1 9 5 1 ) more analytical con ception runs as follows: " I n t h e types of societies ordinarily studied by anthropologists, t h e social s t r u c t u r e m a y include critical or basic relationships arising similarly f r o m a class system based on relations with the soil. O t h e r aspects of social structure arise through member ship in other kinds of persistent g r o u p s , such as clans, castes, age-sets, or secret societies. O t h e r b a s i c relations again are due to position in a kinship s y s t e m " (p. 3 2 ) . Most definitions c o n t a i n t h e n o t i o n of a n a r r a n g e m e n t of positions or statuses. Most involve t h e institutionalization a n d perdurance of groups a n d relationships. Classical mechanics, the morphology a n d physiology of a n i m a l s a n d plants, a n d , m o r e recently, with Levi-Strauss, structural linguistics h a v e been ransacked for con cepts, models, a n d h o m o l o g o u s forms b y social scientists. All share in common the n o t i o n of a s u p e r o r g a n i c a r r a n g e m e n t of parts or positions that continues, w i t h modifications m o r e or less gradual, through time. T h e c o n c e p t of " c o n f l i c t " has come to be connected with the concept of " s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , " since the differentiation of parts becomes opposition b e t w e e n parts, a n d scarce status becomes the object of struggles b e t w e e n persons a n d groups who lay claim to it. T h e other dimension of " s o c i e t y " w i t h which I have been con cerned is less easy to define. G . A. Hillery (1955) reviewed g4 definitions of t h e t e r m " c o m m u n i t y " a n d reached the conclusion that " b e y o n d the c o n c e p t t h a t people are involved in community, there is no complete a g r e e m e n t as to t h e n a t u r e of c o m m u n i t y " (p. 1 1 9 ) . T h e field w o u l d , therefore, seem to b e still open for new attempts! I h a v e tried to e s c h e w t h e notion t h a t communitas has a specific territorial locus, often limited in character, which pervades many definitions. F o r m e , c o m m u n i t a s emerges where social struc ture is not. P e r h a p s t h e b e s t w a y of p u t t i n g this difficult concept into words is M a r t i n B u b e r ' s t h o u g h I feel t h a t perhaps h e should b e regarded as a gifted n a t i v e informant r a t h e r than as a social scientist! Buber ( 1 9 6 1 ) uses t h e t e r m " c o m m u n i t y " for "com-

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m u n i t a s " : " C o m m u n i t y is the being no longer side by side (and, one might add, above and below) but with one another of a multitude of persons. And this multitude, though it moves towards one goal, yet experiences everywhere a turning to, a dynamic facing of, the others, a flowing from / to Thou. Community is where community happens" (p. 5 1 ) . Buber lays his finger on the spontaneous, immediate, concrete nature of communitas, as opposed to the norm-governed, institu tionalized, abstract nature of social structure. Yet, communitas is made evident or accessible, so to speak, only through its juxta position to, or hybridization with, aspects of social structure. Just as in Gestalt pyschology, figure and ground are mutually determina tive, or, as some rare elements are never found in nature in their purity but only as components of chemical compounds, so com munitas can be grasped only in some relation to structure. Just because the communitas component is elusive, hard to pin down, it is not unimportant. Here the story of Lao-tse's chariot wheel may be apposite. T h e spokes of the wheel and the nave (i.e., the central block of the wheel holding the axle and spokes) to which they are attached would be useless, he said, but for the hole, the gap, the emptiness at the center. Communitas, with its unstructured char acter, representing the " q u i c k " of h u m a n interrelatedness, what Buber has called das Zwischenmenschliche, might well be represented by the "emptiness at the center," which is nevertheless indispensable to the functioning of the structure of the wheel. It is neither by chance nor by lack of scientific precision that, along with others who have considered the conception of com munitas, I find myself forced to have recourse to metaphor and ana logy. For communitas has an existential quality; it involves the whole man in his relation to other whole men. Structure, on the other hand, has cognitive quality; as Levi-Strauss has perceived, it is essentially a set of classifications, a model for thinking about culture and nature and ordering one's public life. Communitas has also an aspect of potentiality; it is often in the subjunctive mood. Relations between total beings are generative of symbols and metaphors and

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comparisons; art a n d religion are their p r o d u c t s r a t h e r than legal a n d political structures. Bergson saw in t h e w o r d s a n d writings of prophets a n d great artists the creation of a n " o p e n morality," which was itself an expression of what h e called t h e Han vital, or evolution ary "life-force." Prophets a n d artists t e n d t o b e l i m i n a l a n d marginal people, " e d g e m e n , " who strive w i t h a p a s s i o n a t e sincerity to rid themselves of the cliches associated w i t h s t a t u s incumbency and role-playing a n d to enter into vital r e l a t i o n s w i t h other men in fact or imagination. I n their productions w e m a y c a t c h glimpses of that unused evolutionary potential in m a n k i n d w h i c h has not yet been externalized a n d fixed in structure. Communitas breaks in t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r s t i c e s of structure, in liminality; a t the edges of structure, i n m a r g i n a l i t y ; and from b e n e a t h structure, in inferiority. I t is a l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e held to be sacred or " h o l y , " possibly because it t r a n s g r e s s e s or dissolves the norms t h a t govern structured a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d relationships and is accompanied by experiences of u n p r e c e d e n t e d potency. T h e processes of " l e v e l i n g " a n d " s t r i p p i n g , " t o w h i c h Goffman has d r a w n our attention, often a p p e a r to flood t h e i r subjects with affect. Instinctual energies are surely liberated b y t h e s e processes, b u t I am now inclined to think that c o m m u n i t a s is n o t solely the product of biologically inherited drives released f r o m c u l t u r a l constraints. R a t h e r is it the product of peculiarly h u m a n faculties, which include rationality, volition, a n d memory, a n d w h i c h d e v e l o p with experi ence of life in societyjust as a m o n g t h e T a l l e n s i it is only m a t u r e m e n w h o undergo the experiences t h a t i n d u c e t h e m to receive bakologo shrines. T h e notion t h a t there is a generic b o n d b e t w e e n m e n , a n d its related sentiment of " h u m a n k i n d n e s s , " a r e n o t e p i p h e n o m e n a of some kind of herd instinct b u t a r e p r o d u c t s o f " m e n in their whole ness wholly a t t e n d i n g . " Liminality, m a r g i n a l i t y , a n d structural inferiority are conditions in which a r e f r e q u e n t l y generated myths, symbols, rituals, philosophical systems, a n d w o r k s of art. These cultural forms provide m e n w i t h a set of t e m p l a t e s or models which are, a t one level, periodical reclassifications o f reality a n d man's

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relationship to society, nature, and culture. But they are more than classifications, since they incite men to action as well as to thought. Each of these productions has a multivocal character, having many meanings, and each is capable of moving people at many psychobiological levels simultaneously. There is a dialectic here, for the immediacy of communitas gives way to the mediacy of structure, while, in rites de passage, m e n are released from structure into communitas only to return to structure revitalized by their experience of communitas. W h a t is certain is that no society can function adequately without this dialectic. Exaggeration of structure m a y well lead to pathological manifesta tions of communitas outside or against " t h e law." Exaggeration of communitas, in certain religious or political movements of the leveling type, may be speedily followed by despotism, overbureaucratization, or other modes of structural rigidification. For, like the neophytes in the African circumcision lodge, or the Benedictine monks, or the members of a millenarian movement, those living in community seem to require, sooner or later, an absolute authority, whether this be a religious commandment, a divinely inspired leader, or a dictator. Communitas cannot stand alone if the material and organizational needs of h u m a n beings are to be adequately met. Maximization of communitas provokes maximization of struc ture, which in its turn produces revolutionary strivings for renewed communitas. T h e history of any great society provides evidence at the political level for this oscillation. And the next chapter deals with two major examples. I mentioned earlier the close connection that exists between struc ture and property, whether this be privately or corporately owned, inherited, and managed. Thus, most millenarian movements try to abolish property or to hold all things in common. Usually this is possible only for a short timeuntil the date set for the coming of the millennium or the ancestral cargoes. W h e n prophecy fails, property and structure return and the movement becomes institu tionalized, or the movement disintegrates and its members merge into the environing structured order. I suspect that Lewis Henry

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M o r g a n (1877) himself longed for t h e c o m i n g of world-wide com munitas. For example, in t h e last s o n o r o u s paragraphs of Ancient Society, he has this to say: " A m e r e p r o p e r t y career is not the final destiny of mankind, if progress is to b e t h e law of the future as it has been of the past . . . the dissolution of society bids fair to become the termination of a career of w h i c h p r o p e r t y is the end a n d a i m ; because such a career contains t h e e l e m e n t s of self-destruction. Democracy in government, b r o t h e r h o o d in society, equality in rights a n d privileges, a n d u n i v e r s a l e d u c a t i o n , foreshadow the next higher plane of society to w h i c h e x p e r i e n c e , intelligence a n d know ledge are steadily t e n d i n g " (p. 5 5 2 ) . W h a t is this " h i g h e r p l a n e " ? I t is h e r e that M o r g a n seemingly succumbs to the error m a d e b y s u c h t h i n k e r s as Rousseau a n d M a r x : the confusion between c o m m u n i t a s , w h i c h is a dimension of all societies, past a n d present, a n d a r c h a i c o r primitive society. " I t will be a revival," he continues, " i n a h i g h e r f o r m , of the liberty, equality a n d fraternity of the ancient g e n t e s . " Y e t , as most anthropologists would now confirm, customary n o r m s a n d differences of status a n d prestige in preliterate societies a l l o w of little scope for individual liberty and choicethe individualist is often regarded as a w i t c h ; for true equality between, for e x a m p l e , m e n a n d w o m e n , elders and juniors, chiefs and c o m m o n e r s ; w h i l e fraternity itself frequently succumbs to the sharp distinction of s t a t u s b e t w e e n older a n d j u n i o r sibling. Membership of rivalrous s e g m e n t s in such societies as the Tallensi, Nuer, a n d Tiv does n o t a l l o w e v e n of tribal b r o t h e r h o o d : such membership commits t h e i n d i v i d u a l to structure a n d to the conflicts that are inseparable from s t r u c t u r a l differentiation. H o w ever, even in the simplest societies, t h e distinction between structure a n d communitas exists a n d o b t a i n s symbolic expression in the cultural attributes of liminality, m a r g i n a l i t y , a n d inferiority. I n different societies a n d at different p e r i o d s i n each society, one or the other of these " i m m o r t a l a n t a g o n i s t s " (to b o r r o w terms t h a t F r e u d used in a different sense) comes u p p e r m o s t . But together they con stitute the " h u m a n condition," as r e g a r d s m a n ' s relations w i t h his fellow m a n .

4
Communitas: Model and Process

M O D A L I T I E S OF GOMMUNITAS

This chapter springs fairly naturally from a seminar I ran at Cornell University with an interdisciplinary group of students a n d faculty, on various aspects of what m a y be called the meta-structural aspects of social relations. I was reared in the orthodox social-structuralist tradition of British anthropology, which, to p u t a complex argument with crude simplicity, regards a "society" as a system of social positions. Such a system m a y have a segmentary or a hierarchical structure, or both. W h a t I want to stress here is that the units of social structure are relationships between statuses, roles, a n d offices. (Here, of course, I a m not using " s t r u c t u r e " in the sense favored by Levi-Strauss.) T h e use of social-structural models has been ex tremely helpful in clarifying many dark areas of culture a n d society, but, like other major insights, the structural viewpoint has become _ in the course of time a fetter and a fetish. Fd^kij^xpejdjneejjmd
thr prjgjmH^rmTaniHp^ m e that the "social" is_notidentical with the "social-structural." There are . n t l i p r m o d a l i t i e s of social relationship. _^ Beyond the structural lies not only the Hobbesian " w a r of all against a l l " b u t also communitas, a mode of relationship already recognized as such by our seminar. Essentially, comBHmitas__is__a_ relationship between concrete, historical, idiosyncratic individuals.

g p n p r p l r p a H i n g in

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These individuals are not s ^ m e n t a l i z e d i n t o roles^and^ statuses but confront one another r a t h e r in .the r n ^ a n d T h o u . " Along with this d i r e c t , i m m e d i a t e , a n d total confronta tion of h u m a n identities, t h e r e tends to g o a j n o d e l of society as a homogeneous, u n s t r u c t u r e d c o m m u n i t a s , whose boundaries are" ideally coterminous w i t h those of t h e h u m a n species.) Communitas is in this respect strikingly different from D u r k h e i m i a n "solida.ri.tyJ' the force of which d e p e n d s u p o n a n i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p contrast. T o some extent, c o m m u n i t a s is to s o l i d a r i t y as H e n r i Bergson's " o p e n m o r a l i t y " is to his " c l o s e d m o r a l i t y . " Bm_th^^poju^neity_ amLJmmediac_y_of_caimmini^ thejur^political character_j3f_sj:rurture^^c^ji__s_eidpjn_be j x i a i n t a i n e d for very long.j Conmiunitas itself soon develops a s t r u c t u r e , in w h i c h free relation-' slugs between individuals b e c o m e c o n v e r t e d into norm-governed relaUonships_Jbetyy^eji_^ociai_p^r^on^.\ T h u s , it is necessary to distinguish b e t w e e n : ( i ) existential o r spontaneous communitas approximately w h a t the hippies t o d a y w o u l d call " a h a p p e n i n g , " and William Blake m i g h t h a v e called " t h e w i n g e d m o m e n t as it flies" or, later, " m u t u a l forgiveness of e a c h v i c e " ; ( 2 ) normative communitas, where, u n d e r t h e influence of time, t h e need to mobilize a n d .organize. r e s ^ u r c e ^ _ a n d j h e necessity for social control among_the_members of t h e g r o u p in p u r s u a n c e of these goals, the existential.communitas is o r g a n i z e d i n t o a p e r d u r i n g social system; .and (3) ideological c o m m u n i t a s , w h i c h is a l a b e l o n e can apply to a varietyof . U t o p i a n . m o d e l s , o f - s o c i e t i e s . . b a s e d - o n . existential comj n u n i t a s . ' Ideological communitas is a t o n c e a n a t t e m p t to describe the external and visible effectsthe o u t w a r d form, it m i g h t b e saidof an inward experience of existential c o m m u n i t a s , a n d to spell out the optimal social conditions u n d e r w h i c h s u c h experiences might be expected to flourish a n d m u l t i p l y . B o t h n o r m a t i v e a n d ideological communitas are already w i t h i n t h e d o m a i n of s t r u c t u r e , a n d it is the fate of all spontaneous c o m m u n i t a s in history to u n d e r g o what most people see as a " d e c l i n e a n d f a l l " i n t o s t r u c t u r e a n d law. In

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religious movements of the communitas type, it is not only the charisma of the leaders that is " r o u t i n i z e d " b u t also the com munitas of their first disciples and followers. It is m y intention to trace the broad outlines of this widely distributed process with reference to two well-known historical examples: the early Fran ciscans of medieval Europe, and the Sahajiyas of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century India. Furthermore, structure tends to be pragmatic a n d this-worldly; while communitas is often speculative and generates imagery a n d philosophical ideas. O n e example of this contrast, to which our seminar gave a great deal of attention, is that kind of normative communitas that characterizes the liminal phase of tribal initiation rites. Here there is usually a great simplification of social structure in the British anthropological sense, accompanied by a rich proli feration of ideological structure, in the form of myths a n d sacra, in the Levi-Strauss sense. Rules that abolish minutiae of structural differentiation in, for example, the domains of kinship, economics, and political structure liberate the h u m a n structural propensity and give it free reign in the cultural realm of myth, ritual, a n d symbol. It is not tribal initiation, however, b u t the genesis of religious movements that concerns us herethough both m a y possibly be said to exhibit a " l i m i n a l " character, in that they arise in times of radical social transition, when society itself seems to be moving from one fixed state to another, whether t h e terminus ad quern is believed to be on earth or in heaven. In our seminar, also, we frequently came across instances, in religion a n d literature, in which normative a n d ideological com munitas are symbolized by structurally inferior categories, groups, types, or individuals, ranging from the mother's brother in patrilineal societies, to conquered autochthonous peoples, Tolstoy's peasants, Gandhi's harijans, a n d the " holy poor " or " God's poor " of medieval Europe. For example, today's hippies, like yesterday's Franciscans, assume the attributes of the structurally inferior in order to achieve communitas.

Bilkent University
I-ihrarv

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IDEOLOGICAL AND SPONTANEOUS COMMUNITAS

T h e scattered clues a n d indications we have e n c o u n t e r e d in preliterate a n d preindustrial societies of the existence i n t h e i r cultures, notably in liminality a n d structural inferiority, of t h e egalitarian model we have called normative communitas, b e c o m e i n complex a n d literate societies, b o t h ancient a n d modern, a p o s i t i v e torrent of explicitly formulated views on how m e n m a y b e s t l i v e together in comradely h a r m o n y . Such views m a y be called, a s w e have just noted, ideological communitas. I n order to convey t h e w i d e gener ality of these formulations of the ideal structureless d o m a i n , I would like to adduce, almost at random, evidence from s o u r c e s f a r removed from one another in space a n d time. I n these s o u r c e s , b o t h religious a n d secular, a fairly regular connection is m a i n t a i n e d between liminality, structural inferiority, lowermost s t a t u s , a n d structural outsiderhood on the one hand, and, on the o t h e r , s u c h universal h u m a n values as peace a n d h a r m o n y between a l l m e n , fertility, health of m i n d a n d body, universal justice, c o m r a d e s h i p and brotherhood between all m e n , the equality before G o d , t h e law or the life force of m e n a n d women, young a n d old, a n d p e r s o n s of all races a n d ethnic groups. And of especial i m p o r t a n c e i n all these Utopian formulations is the persisting adhesion b e t w e e n equality a n d absence of property. T a k e , .for example, G o n z a l o ' s ideal com monwealth in Shakespeare's Tempest (Act I I , S c e n e i , lines 1 4 1 163), in which Gonzalo addresses the v i l l a i n o u s A n t o n i o and Sebastian t h u s : Gonzalo: V the commonwealth I would by contraries Execute all things; for no kind of traffic Would I admit; no name of magistrate; Letters should not be known; riches, poverty And use of service, none; contract, succession Bourn, bound of land, tilth, vineyard, none; No use of metal, corn, or wine, or oil;

Communitas: Model and Process No occupation; all men idle, all; And women too, but innocent and pure; No sovereignty; Sebastian: Yet he would be king on't. Antonio: The latter end of his commonwealth forgets the beginning. Gonzalo: All things in common nature should produce Without sweat or endeavour; treason, felony, Sword, pike, knife, gun, or need of any engine, Would I not have; but nature should bring forth, Of its own kind, all foison, all abundance, To feed my innocent people. Sebastian: No marrying 'mong his subjects? Antonio: None, man; all idle; whores and knaves. Gonzalo : I would with such perfection govern, sir, To excel the golden age.

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Gonzalo's commonwealth has many attributes of communitas. Society is seen as a seamless and structureless whole, rejecting alike status and contractthese evolutionary poles of Sir Henry Maine's entire system of societal developmenteschewing private property, with its bourns and bounds of land, tilth, and vineyard, and relying on nature's bounty to supply all needs. Here he is, of course, rather meretriciously accommodated by the Caribbean setting; in more spartan circumstances, m e n would have had to work if only to keep warm. Thus he circumvents the crucial difficulty of all Utopias that they have to produce life's necessities through workin economists' jargon, to mobilize resources. To mobilize resources also means to mobilize people. This implies social organization, with its " e n d s " and " m e a n s " and necessary "deferment of grati fications," and all these entail the establishment, however transient, of orderly structural relations between m a n and m a n . Since, under

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these conditions, some must initiate and c o m m a n d , a n d o t h e r s must respond and follow, a system for the p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of resources contains within it the seeds of s t r u c t u r a l s e g m e n t a t i o n and hierarchy. Gonzalo gets around this a w k w a r d fact b y a s s u m i n g an incredible fecundity of natureand thereby i n d i c a t i n g t h e absurdity of his whole noble dream. Shakespeare also, as h e o f t e n does, puts valid arguments into the mouths of less t h a n w o r t h y c h a r a c t e r s when he makes Sebastian say, " Y e t he would be k i n g o n ' t . " H e r e we may be able to detect the intuition that w h e n e v e r a p e r f e c t e q u a l i t y is assumed in one social dimension, it provokes a p e r f e c t inequality in another. A final communitas value stressed by G o n z a l o is t h a t of the innocence and purity of those who live w i t h o u t s o v e r e i g n t y . W e have the assumption here, later to be developed m o s t e l a b o r a t e l y by Rousseau, of the natural goodness of h u m a n b e i n g s l i v i n g in a propertyless, structureless state of a b s o l u t e e q u a l i t y . Indeed, Gonzalo suggests that among his innocent p e o p l e t h e r e w o u l d be no treason, felony, sword, pike, knife, g u n w i t h w h i c h h e appears to equate the need of any engine, as though w a r , c o n f l i c t , o r indeed any " p o l i t i c k i n g " were necessarily c o n n e c t e d w i t h technology, even of the most rudimentary sort. Gonzalo's commonwealth cleaves closer t h a n a l m o s t a n y other type of ideological communitas to w h a t B u b e r ( 1 9 5 8 , 1961) has called "das Zwischenmenschliche," or s p o n t a n e o u s c o m m u n i t a s . When Buber uses the term " c o m m u n i t y " he is n o t , i n t h e first place, talking about persisting social groups w i t h i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d struc tures. H e does believe, of course, that such g r o u p s c a n b e founded in community, a n d that some types of g r o u p s , l i k e t h e kvuzoth and kibbutzim of Israel, best preserve its spirit. Y e t , for B u b e r , com munity is quintessentially a mode of r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n total a n d concrete persons, between "I" a n d "Thou." T h i s relationship is always a " h a p p e n i n g , " something that arises i n i n s t a n t m u t u a l i t y , when each person fully experiences the b e i n g of t h e o t h e r . A s Buber (1961) puts i t : " O n l y when I have to d o w i t h a n o t h e r essentially, that is, in such a way that he is no longer a p h e n o m e n o n of my /,

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but instead is my Thou, do I experience reality of speech with anotherin the irrefragable genuineness of m u t u a l i t y " (p. 7 2 ) . But Buber does not restrict community to dyadic relationships. H e also speaks of an " essential We" by which he means " a community of several independent persons, who have a self and self-respon sibility. . . T h e We includes the Thou. Only men who are capable of truly saying Thou to one another can truly say We with one another. . . . No particular kind of group-formation as such can be adduced as an example of the essential We, but in many of t h e m the variety which is favourable to the arising of the We can be seen clearly enough. . . . It is enough to prevent the We arising, or being preserved, if a single m a n is accepted, who is greedy of power and uses others as a means to his own end, or who craves of importance and makes a show of himself " (pp. 2 1 3 - 2 1 4 ) . In this and other similar formulations, Buber makes it clear that the "essential We" is a transient, if highly potent, mode of relation ship between integral persons. T o my mind, the "essential We" has a liminal character, since perdurance implies institutionalization and repetition, while community (which roughly equals spontaneous communitas) is always completely unique, and hence socially tran sient. At times Buber appears to be misled about the feasibility of converting this experience of mutuality into structural forms. Spon taneous communitas can never be adequately expressed in a structural form, but it may arise unpredictably at any time between human beings who are institutionally reckoned or defined as m e m bers of any or all kinds of social groupings, or of none. Just as in preliterate society the social and individual developmental cycles are punctuated by more or less prolonged instants of ritually guarded and stimulated liminality, each with its core of potential com munitas, so the phase structure of social life in complex societies is also punctuated, but without institutionalized provocations and safeguards, by innumerable instants of spontaneous communitas. In preindustrial and early industrial societies with multiplex social relations, spontaneous communitas appears to be very fre quently associated with mystical power and to be regarded as a

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charism or grace sent b y t h e d e i t i e s o r ancestors. Nevertheless, by impetrative ritual m e a n s , a t t e m p t s a r e m a d e , mostly in the phases of liminal seclusion, to cause t h e d e i t i e s or ancestors to bring this charism of communitas a m o n g m e n . B u t t h e r e is no specific social form that is held to express s p o n t a n e o u s communitas. Rather is it expected best to arise in t h e i n t e r v a l s between incumbencies of social positions a n d statuses, in w h a t u s e d to b e known as " t h e inter stices of the social s t r u c t u r e . " I n c o m p l e x industrialized societies, we still find traces in t h e l i t u r g i e s o f c h u r c h e s and other religious organizations of institutionalized a t t e m p t s to prepare for the coming of spontaneous c o m m u n i t a s . T h i s m o d a l i t y of relationship, how ever, appears to flourish best i n s p o n t a n e o u s l y liminal situations phases betwixt a n d b e t w e e n s t a t e s w h e r e social-structural role-playing is dominant, a n d especially b e t w e e n s t a t u s equals. Some attempts h a v e b e e n m a d e fairly recently in America and Western Europe to r e - c r e a t e t h e r i t u a l conditions under which spontaneous c o m m u n i t a s m a y b e , d a r e o n e say it, invoked. The beats and the hippies, b y t h e e c l e c t i c a n d syncretic use of symbols and liturgical actions d r a w n f r o m t h e r e p e r t o i r e of many religions, and of " m i n d - e x p a n d i n g " d r u g s , " r o c k " music, and flashing lights, try to establish a " t o t a l " c o m m u n i o n w i t h one another. This, they hope and believe, will e n a b l e t h e m t o r e a c h one another through the "dereglement ordonne de tous les j e a r , " in tender, silent, cognizant mutuality and in all c o n c r e t e n e s s . T h e k i n d of communitas desired by tribesmen in their rites a n d b y h i p p i e s in their " h a p p e n i n g s " is not the pleasurable a n d effortless c o m r a d e s h i p that can arise between friends, coworkers, o r p r o f e s s i o n a l colleagues any day. What they seek is a transformative e x p e r i e n c e t h a t goes to the root of each person's being a n d finds i n t h a t r o o t something profoundly communal and shared. T h e often m a d e etymological h o m o l o g y between the nouns " exist e n c e " and " e c s t a s y " is p e r t i n e n t h e r e ; t o exist is to " s t a n d outside" i.e., to stand outside the t o t a l i t y o f s t r u c t u r a l positions one normally occupies in a social system. T o e x i s t is t o b e in ecstasy. But, for the hippiesas indeed for m a n y m i l l e n a r i a n a n d "enthusiastic" move-

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t h e ecstasy of spontaneous communitas is seen as the end of human endeavor. In the religion of preindustrial societies, this state is regarded rather as a means to the end of becoming more fully involved in the rich manifold of structural role-playing. In this there is perhaps a greater wisdom, for human beings are responsible to one another in the supplying of humble needs, such as food, drink, clothing, and the careful teaching of material and social techniques. Such responsibilities imply the careful ordering of human relation ships and of man's knowledge of nature. There is a mystery of mutual distance, what the poet Rilke called " t h e circumspection of human gesture," which is just as humanly important as the mystery of intimacy. Once more we come back to the necessity of seeing man's social life as a process, or rather as a multiplicity of processes, in which the character of one type of phasewhere communitas is paramount differs deeply, even abyssally, from that of all others. T h e great human temptation, found most prominently among Utopians, is to resist giving up the good and pleasurable qualities of that one phase to make way for what may be the necessary hardships and dangers of the next. Spontaneous communitas is richly charged with affects, mainly pleasurable ones. Life in " s t r u c t u r e " is filled with objective difficulties: decisions have to be made, inclinations sacrificed to the wishes and needs of the group, and physical and social obstacles overcome at some personal cost. Spontaneous communitas has something " m a g i c a l " about it. Subjectively there is in it the feeling of endless power. But this power untransformed cannot readily be applied to the organizational details of social existence. It is no substitute for lucid thought and sustained will. O n the other hand, structural action swiftly becomes arid and mechanical if those in volved in it are not periodically immersed in the regenerative abyss of communitas. Wisdom is always to find the appropriate relation ship between structure and communitas under the given circum stances of time and place, to accept each modality when it is para mount without rejecting the other, and not to cling to one when its present impetus is spent.

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Gonzalo's commonwealth, as Shakespeare appears i r o n i c a l l y t o indicate, is an Edenic fantasy. Spontaneous communitas is a p h a s e , a moment, not a p e r m a n e n t condition. T h e moment a d i g g i n g s t i c k is set in the earth, a colt broken in, a pack of wolves defended a g a i n s t , or a h u m a n enemy set by his heels, we have the germs of a s o c i a l structure. This is not merely the set of chains in which m e n e v e r y where are, but the very cultural means that preserve the d i g n i t y a n d liberty, as well as the bodily existence, of every m a n , w o m a n , a n d child. T h e r e m a y be manifold imperfections in the s t r u c t u r a l m e a n s employed and the ways in which they are used, b u t , s i n c e t h e beginnings of prehistory, the evidence suggests that such m e a n s a r e what makes m a n most evidently m a n . This is not to say t h a t s p o n taneous communitas is merely " n a t u r e . " Spontaneous c o m m u n i t a s is nature in dialogue with structure, married to it as a w o m a n is married to a m a n . Together they make u p one stream of life, t h e o n e affluent supplying power, the other alluvial fertility.

FRANCISCAN POVERTY AND COMMUNITAS

Between Gonzalo's commonwealth and models of closely i n t e g r a t e d structural systems lies an a b u n d a n c e of ideal social forms. A t t i t u d e s to property distinguish the communitas set of models from t h e m o r e empirically oriented models, which combine in varying p r o p o r t i o n s components of the communitas type with a clear recognition o f t h e organizational advantages of institutionalized structures. I t is e s s e n tial to distinguish between the ideal models of c o m m u n i t a s p r e s e n t e d in literature or proclaimed by founders of movements or a c t u a l c o m munities, and the social process that results from e n t h u s i a s t i c a t tempts by the founder and his followers to live in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h these models. It is only by studying social fields, of w h a t e v e r d o m i n ant character, over time, that one can become a w a r e of t h e i l l u minating nuances of behavior and decision that t h r o w i n t o l i g h t the developmental structure of the relationship b e t w e e n i d e a l a n d praxis, existential communitas and normative c o m m u n i t a s .

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One of the great classic instances of such a development may be found in the history of the Franciscan order of the Catholic Church. M. D. Lambert, in his recent book Franciscan Poverty (1961) which draws on the major primary and secondary sources of Franciscan history and doctrine, has made an admirably lucid reconstruction of the course of events that flowed from the attempt of St. Francis to live, and to encourage others to live, in terms of a certain view of poverty. H e examines the vicissitudes over time of the group that Francis founded, in their relationship to the structured Church and, implicitly, to the environing secular society. In so doing, he reveals a processual paradigm of the fate of spontaneous communitas when it enters social history. Subsequent movements, both religious and secular, tend to follow, a t varying tempi, the pattern of Franciscanism in its dealings with the world.

COMMUNITAS A N D S Y M B O L I C T H O U G H T

The gist of Lambert's cautious deductions about Francis's own way of thinking and his ideas on poverty goes something like this. I n the first placeand here Francis is like m a n y other founders of communitas-type groups"his thought was always immediate, personal and concrete. Ideas appeared to him as images. A sequence of thought for him . . . consists of leaping from one picture to the n e x t . . . . When, for instance, he wishes to explain his way of living to Pope Innocent I I I he turns his plea into a parable; on other occasions, when he wishes the brothers to understand his intentions, he chooses to do so by symbols. T h e luxury of the brothers' table is demonstrated by Francis disguised as a poor stranger. T h e wicked ness of touching money is conveyed by an acted parable imposed on an offender by Francis as a p e n a n c e " (p. 33). This concrete, per sonal, imagist mode of thinking is highly characteristic of those in love with existential communitas, with the direct relation between man and m a n , and m a n and nature. Abstractions appear as hostile to live contact. William Blake, for example, a great literary exponent

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of communitas in his Prophetic Books, w r o t e t h a t " h e w o u l d d o good to others must do it in M i n u t e P a r t i c u l a r s ; G e n e r a l Good is the plea of the Hypocrite a n d S c o u n d r e l . " Again, like other seers of c o m m u n i t a s a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n Francis m a d e several crucial decisions o n t h e b a s i s o f d r e a m sym bolism. For example, before he decided to resign t h e official leader ship of the O r d e r in 1220, h e " d r e a m t of a little b l a c k h e n , which, try as she might, was too small to c o v e r all h e r b r o o d w i t h h e r wings." A little later, his deficiencies as a l e g i s l a t o r w e r e revealed to him in another d r e a m , in w h i c h h e " t r i e d v a i n l y to feed his starving brothers with crumbs of b r e a d t h a t s l i p p e d t h r o u g h his fingers" (p. 34). I t was no d o u b t the v e r y c o n c r e t e n e s s of his think ing and, if we were in full possession of t h e facts a b o u t his social field environment, the multivocality of his s y m b o l i s m t h a t m a d e Francis a poor legislator. T h e creation of a social s t r u c t u r e , especially within the protobureaucratic frame of t h e R o m a n e c c l e s i a , w o u l d h a v e demanded a propensity for abstraction a n d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , a skill in the production of univocal concepts, a n d a g e n e r a l i z i n g foresightedness; and these would have r u n c o u n t e r to t h e i m m e d i a c y , spon taneity, and, indeed, downright e a r t h i n e s s of F r a n c i s ' s vision of communitas. Besides, Francis, like o t h e r s b e f o r e a n d after h i m , was never able to overcome the n u m e r i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t seem to b e set upon groups that maximize existential c o m m u n i t a s . " F r a n c i s was a supreme spiritual master of small g r o u p s : b u t h e was u n a b l e to provide the impersonal o r g a n i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n a world-wide o r d e r " (p. 36). Recently, M a r t i n Buber (1966) has c o n f r o n t e d t h i s p r o b l e m a n d has argued that " a n organic c o m m o n w e a l t h a n d o n l y such com monwealths can join together to form a s h a p e l y a n d articulated race of menwill never build itself u p o u t of i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t only out of small and even smaller c o m m u n i t i e s : a n a t i o n is a c o m m u n i t y to the degree that it is a c o m m u n i t y of c o m m u n i t i e s " (p. 1 3 6 ) . H e thus proposes to circumvent the p r o b l e m i m p o s e d o n F r a n c i s of drawing u p in advance a detailed c o n s t i t u t i o n b y a l l o w i n g his c o m munity of communities to struggle into g r a d u a l c o h e r e n c e . T h i s is to

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be achieved by " g r e a t spiritual t a c t " informing a relationship between centralism a n d decentralization and between idea a n d reality"with the constant and tireless weighing a n d measuring of the right proportion between t h e m " (p. 137). Buber, in short, wishes to preserve the concreteness of communitas even in the larger social units, in a process he regards as analogous to organic growth, or to what he has called " t h e life of dialogue."
Centralizationbut only so much as is indispensable in the given conditions of time and place. A n d if the authorities responsible for the drawing and re-drawing of lines of demarcation keep an alert conscience, the relations between the base and the apex of the power-pyramid will be very different from what they are now, even in states that call themselves Communist, i.e., struggling for community. There will have to be a system of representa tion, too, in the sort of social pattern I have in mind; but it will not, as now, be composed of the pseudorepresentatives of amorphous masses of electors but of representatives well tested in the life and work of the communes. T h e represented will not, as they are today, be bound to their representatives by some windy abstraction, by the mere phraseology of a party-programme, but concretely, through common action and common experience (p. 1 3 7 ) .

Buber's phraseology, which strikingly recalls that of many African leaders of one-party states, belongs to the perennial speech of communitas, not rejecting the possibility of structure, b u t conceiving of it merely as a n outgrowth of direct and immediate relations between integral individuals. Unlike Buber, St. Francis, as a member of the Catholic Church, was under the obligation of making a Rule for his new fraternity. And, as Sabatier (1905) said, " Never was m a n less capable of making a Rule than F r a n c i s " (p. 253). His Rule was in no sense a set of ethical or legal prescriptions and prohibitions; rather, it was a con crete model for what he considered should be the total "vitafratrum minorum." Elsewhere (see Turner, 1967, p p . 98-99), I have stressed the importance for liminarsas persons undergoing ritualized tran sitions may be termedof doing without property, structural status, privileges, material pleasures of various kinds, and often even cloth ing. Francis, who conceived of his friars as liminars in a life that was

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merely a passage to t h e u n c h a n g i n g state of heaven, laid great emphasis on the implications o f b e i n g " w i t h o u t " or " n o t having." This m a y be best expressed i n L a m b e r t ' s succinct formulation of Francis's position"spiritual d e n u d a t i o n . " Francis himself t h o u g h t i n t e r m s o f poverty, celebrated by him in troubadour fashion as " M y L a d y P o v e r t y . " As L a m b e r t writes, " W e can accept it as a n a x i o m t h a t t h e m o r e radical the version of poverty that is presented to us, t h e m o r e likely it is to reflect the true wishes of Francis." H e goes o n t o s a y " t h a t t h e R u l e of 1221, taken as a whole, gives the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t F r a n c i s wished his friars to cut adrift entirely from t h e c o m m e r c i a l s y s t e m of t h e world. He is in sistent, for example, t h a t t h e n e e d for giving advice to postulants about the disposal of t h e i r g o o d s s h o u l d n o t involve the brothers in secular business" (p. 38). I n C h a p t e r 9 of t h e Rule he tells the brothers that they should rejoice " w h e n t h e y find themselves among m e a n a n d despised persons, a m o n g s t t h e p o o r a n d weak and infirm a n d the lepers a n d those t h a t b e g i n t h e s t r e e t " (Boehmer, 1904, p . 10). Francis, in fact, h o l d s c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a t the poverty of Franciscans should b e t a k e n to t h e l i m i t s of necessity. A detailed example of this p r i n c i p l e m a y b e found in the prohi bition of money to t h e friars. " A n d if w e should find coins anywhere let us pay no more a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m t h a n to t h e dust that we tread u n d e r our feet" (Boehmer, 1904, p . 9). A l t h o u g h Francis here uses the term denarius, a n a c t u a l c o i n , for " m o n e y , " elsewhere he equates denarius with pecunia, " a n y t h i n g t h a t p l a y s t h e role of money." This equivalence involves a r a d i c a l w i t h d r a w a l from the world of buying a n d selling. I t went far b e y o n d t h e " p o v e r t y " recommended by the older religious orders, for t h e y still r e t a i n e d t h e i r communities to some extent within t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e secular economic system. Francis by his R u l e i n s u r e d t h a t , a s L a m b e r t says, " t h e normal sources for the m a i n t e n a n c e of life w e r e of a deliberately transient a n d insecure n a t u r e : t h e y c o n s i s t e d i n r e w a r d s in kind for menial labour outside the settlements e k e d o u t w i t h t h e products of begging expeditions." [Parallels w i t h t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e hippies of the Haight-Ashbury c o m m u n i t y i n S a n F r a n c i s c o will no doubt leap

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to the mind of the modern American reader!] " T h e Rule of 1221 forbids the friars to take posts of authority. . . . Early followers, like Brother Giles, always took on irregular tasks, such as grave-digging, basket-weaving, and water-carrying, none of them providing any security in times of dearth. T h e prescribed method of begging, pass ing indiscriminately from door to door . . . precluded mitigation of the instability through recourse to wealthy, regular p a t r o n s " (pp. 4-I-4 )2

FRANCIS A N D PERMANENT LIMINALITY

In all this, Francis appears quite deliberately to be compelling the friars to inhabit the fringes and interstices of the social structure of his time, and to keep t h e m in a permanently liminal state, where, so the argument in this book would suggest, the optimal conditions inhere for the realization of communitas. But, in keeping with his habit of thinking in " p r i m a r y , visual images," Francis nowhere defined in unambiguous j u r a l terms w h a t he meant by poverty and what this entailed with regard to property. For him the ideal model of poverty was Christ. For example, in the Rule of 1221, he said of the friars: And let them not be ashamed, but rather remember that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of the living omnipotent God, set his face as the hardest flint, and was not ashamed to be made a poor man and a stranger for us and lived on alms, himself and the blessed Virgin and his disciples (Boehmer, pp. 10, 1 1 , lines 6 - 1 0 ) . According to L a m b e r t : The key figure in Francis's mind . . . is the image of the naked Christ. . . . Nakedness was a symbol of great importance for Francis. He used it to mark the beginning and the end of his converted life. When he wished to repudiate his father's goods and enter religion, he did so by stripping him self naked in the bishop's palace at Assisi. At the end, dying in the Portiuncula, he forced his companions to strip him so that he could face death unclothed on the floor of the hut. . . . When he slept it had to be on the

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naked ground. . . . Twice he even chose to a b a n d o n the table of the friars to sit on the naked ground to eat his meal, i m p e l l e d on each occasion by the thought of Christ's poverty (p. 6 1 ) . Nakedness represented poverty, a n d p o v e r t y t h e literal absence of property. Francis declared t h a t j u s t a s C h r i s t a n d the apostles re nounced material goods in o r d e r to c a s t t h e m s e l v e s on providence a n d live on alms, so should the friars. A s L a m b e r t points out, " the one apostle who did not do this, a n d w h o k e p t a reserve in his bag, was the betrayer, J u d a s " (p. 66). T h e poverty of Christ clearly h a d " i m m e n s e emotional signi ficance" for Francis, who r e g a r d e d n a k e d n e s s as the master symbol of emancipation from structural a n d e c o n o m i c bondageas from the constraints set u p o n h i m b y h i s e a r t h l y father, the wealthy merchant of Assisi. Religion for h i m w a s c o m m u n i t a s , between man a n d God and m a n a n d m a n , v e r t i c a l l y a n d horizontally, so to speak, and poverty and nakedness w e r e b o t h e x p r e s s i v e symbols of com munitas and instruments for a t t a i n i n g i t . B u t his imaginative notion of poverty as the absolute p o v e r t y o f C h r i s t w a s hard to sustain in practice by a social group forced b y t h e C h u r c h to institutionalize its arrangements, routinize not m e r e l y t h e c h a r i s m a of its founder but also the communitas of its s p o n t a n e o u s b e g i n n i n g s , and formulate in precise legal terms its collective r e l a t i o n s h i p t o poverty. Property a n d structure are undisseverably i n t e r r e l a t e d , a n d the constitutions of persisting social units incorporate b o t h d i m e n s i o n s as well as the core values that legitimatize the existence a n d f o r m s of both. As the Franciscan O r d e r e n d u r e d , i n t i m e it developed in the direction of becoming a structural s y s t e m , a n d as it did so, the heartfelt simplicity of Francis's formulations o n p r o p e r t y in the original Rule gave way to more legalistic d e f i n i t i o n s . I n fact h e had given two laconic instructions only, in his first R u l e o f 1 2 2 1 a n d in his revised Rule of 1 2 2 3 . I n the former, h e s a y s o b l i q u e l y in a chapter con cerned primarily with the m a n u a l l a b o r o f the friars and with reference to the ownership of t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t s only: " L e t the brothers be careful, wherever t h e y m a y b e , i n hermitages or in other settlements, not to a p p r o p r i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t t o themselves or maintain

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it against a n y o n e " (Boehmer, pp. 8, 1 1 , lines 5-7). In 1 2 2 3 this was extended: " L e t the brothers appropriate nothing to themselves, neither a house nor a settlement nor anything." O n e might think this quite unequivocal, but any developing structure generates problems of organization and values that provoke redefinition of central concepts. This often seems like temporizing and hypocrisy, or loss of faith, but it is really no more than a reasoned response to an alteration in the scale a n d complexity of social relations, and with these, a change in the location of the group in the social field it occupies, with concomitant changes in its major goals and means of attaining them.

SPIRITUALS VERSUS C O N V E N T U A L S : CONCEPTUALIZATION AND STRUCTURE

From the first the Franciscan Order burgeoned, and within a few decades from the death of its founder, we find the brethren in many parts of Italy, Sicily, France, Spain and even undertaking missionary journeys to Armenia and Palestine. From the first, too, the poverty and vagabondageindeed, the enthusiasmof the friars h a d caused them to be viewed with suspicion by the secular clergy, organized in local divisions, such as sees a n d parishes. U n d e r these circumstances, as Lambert points out, Francis's idea of povertywhich, as we have seen, is associated with existential communitasis "so extreme as to cause immense difficulties as soon as it has to be applied, not to a band of wandering friars, but to a developing order with its prob lems of dwelling places, learning, sick friars, and the l i k e " (p. 68). More difficult than these were the problems of structural continuity concerning the manipulation of resources that threw into sharp relief the question of the nature of property. This latter question became almost an obsession with the order during the century following Francis's death, and resulted in its division into two major branches one might even call them camps or factions: the Conventuals, who in practice relaxed the rigor of Francis's ideal, and the Spirituals,

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a

who, with their doctrine oCusus pauper, practiced, if a n y t h i n g , more severe observance t h a n their founder. T o anticipate a little, it is significant that m a n y o f t h e l e a d e r s of the Spirituals h a d close contacts with J o a c h i m i s m , a m i l l e n a r i a n movement based on t h e genuine a n d spurious w o r k s o f a twelfthcentury Cistercian abbot, J o a c h i m of Flora. I t is c u r i o u s h o w often in history notions of catastrophe a n d crisis a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h what one might call " i n s t a n t c o m m u n i t a s . " Perhaps it is n o t r e a l l y so curious, for clearly if one anticipates the swift c o m i n g o f t h e world's end, there is n o point in legislating into e x i s t e n c e a n e l a b o r a t e system of social institutions designed to resist t h e i n c u r s i o n s o f time. O n e is tempted to speculate about t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the hippies a n d the H y d r o g e n b o m b . But at first this cleavage in t h e order h a d n o t b e c o m e p a l p a b l e , though every thing favored development a w a y f r o m t h e pristine poverty of Francis. As L a m b e r t writes:
T h e influence of successive popes was naturally e n o u g h d i r e c t e d ment of policy, both spiritual and political. F o r that p u r p o s e a n poverty tended generally to be an encumbrance. B e n e f a c t o r s towards extreme f r o m the

making the Franciscans, like the rival order of D o m i n i c a n s , a f i t t i n g instru

outside world, w h o were attracted by the austerity of F r a n c i s c a n poverty, played their part in weakening it b y donations often d i f f i c u l t t o r e f u s e . T h e friars themselves, the only true guardians of their o w n o b s e r v a n c e , too often were not sufficiently concerned to protect their p o v e r t y a g a i n s t t h o s e out side w h o from the highest motives wished to lighten their b u r d e n . I n d e e d it was the members of the order above all, and not a n y f i g u r e s , exalted, from the outside world, w h o were responsible f o r t h e the Franciscan ideal which in the first twenty years c a r r i e d t h e however e v o l u t i o n of b r o t h e r s so

far and so fast from the primitive life of Francis and his c o m p a n i o n s (p. 70).

Interestingly, for several years before his d e a t h , F r a n c i s h a d relin quished the government of his order a n d spent his t i m e l a r g e l y in the company of a small circle of companions in h e r m i t a g e s i n TJmbria a n d Tuscany. A m a n of direct a n d i m m e d i a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , com munitas, for h i m , h a d always to be concrete a n d s p o n t a n e o u s . He

Communitas: Model and Process

H9

may even have been dismayed at the success of his own movement, which already in his lifetime had shown signs of the structuring and routinization it was to undergo under the influence of successive generals and under the external formative force of a series of papal bulls. Francis's very first successor, Elias, was what Lambert calls "the essential organizing figure which in so many religious societies has translated the lofty ideals of their founders into terms acceptable to later followers" (p. 74). It is significant that it was Elias who was the driving force behind the building of the large basilica at Assisi to house St. Francis's body, for which good office the municipality of Assisi in 1937 erected a memorial to him. As Lambert says, " h e made a more lasting contribution to the development of the city then ever he did to the evolution of the Franciscan i d e a l " (p. 74). With Elias, structure, both material and abstract, had begun to replace communitas. As the new order grew in numbers and spread across Europe, it developed all the technical apparatus of vows and superiors along with the quasi-political structure characteristic of religious orders of the timesand, indeed, of later times. Thus, in their centralized government, the friars had a minister general at the top and below him a number of provincials, each of whom was the superior of a provincei.e., the division of a religious order that comprised all its houses and members in a given district; its territorial boundaries were very often but not necessarily coterminous with those of a civil state. The provincial was responsible to his superior general for the administration of his province and for the maintenance of religion in it, chiefly by means of visitations. H e convened the provincial chapter and was a m e m b e r of the general chapter of the order. Both types of chapter had legislative, disciplinary, and elective functions. Among the Franciscans some of the provinces, for example, were Provence, the M a r c h of Ancona, Genoa, Aragon, Tuscany, and England. Anthropologists who have studied centralized political systems both in preliterate and feudal societies will find little diffi culty in realizing the possibilities of structural opposition inherent within such a hierarchy. Furthermore the Franciscans were exempt

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religious who were subject to their o w n s u p e r i o r s only, not to the local ordinary (i.e., to clerics w i t h o r d i n a r y j u r i s d i c t i o n in the exter nal forum over a specified territory, s u c h a s b i s h o p s i n their dioceses). I n fact they were responsible directly a n d n o t m e d i a t e l y to the papacy. Structural conflict was therefore possible b e t w e e n t h e order and the secular clergy. Rivalries also existed with other o r d e r s , a n d d i s p u t e s between the Franciscans a n d Dominicans on points of t h e o l o g y a n d organization, as well as for influence with the p a p a c y , w e r e p r o m i n e n t features of medieval church history. And, of course, t h e e f f e c t i v e social field of the Franciscan O r d e r was not limited t o t h e c h u r c h b u t contained m a n y profane, political influences. F o r e x a m p l e , o n e is struck, in reading Lambert's narrative, by the i m p o r t a n c e of the support mustered by the Spiritual faction a m o n g t h e F r a n c i s c a n s from such monarchs as J a m e s I I of Aragon a n d F r e d e r i c k I I of Sicily as well as from such queens as Esclarmonde d e F o i x a n d Sancia, her daughter, who became the queen of R o b e r t t h e W i s e of Naples. At a time when the Conventual division of t h e o r d e r h a d most influence with the papacy a n d were e m b o l d e n e d b y t h i s t o p e r s e c u t e a n d im prison m a n y Spirituals, such m o n a r c h s g a v e s a n c t u a r y a n d protec tion to leaders of the Spiritual g r o u p .

DOMINIUM

AND

USTJS

Some day anthropologists should t u r n t h e i r full a t t e n t i o n to the often splendidly documented domain of m e d i e v a l r e l i g i o u s politics, where they would b e able to follow political p r o c e s s e s o v e r time in some detail for centuries. H e r e I wish merely to p o i n t o u t t h a t St. Francis's original b a n d of free companionsa g r o u p i n w h i c h normative communitas h a d hardly disengaged itself f r o m existential communitas^-could not have persisted if it h a d n o t o r g a n i z e d to endure in a complex political field. Yet the m e m o r y o f t h e original comm unitas, exemplified by the life, visions, a n d w o r d s of St. Francis, was always kept alive in the order, especially b y t h e Spiritualsnotably

Communitas: Model and Process such men as J o h n of Parma, Angelo da Clareno, Olivi, and Ubertino. But since, by successive papal bulls and by the writings of St. Bonaventura, the doctrine of absolute poverty had been juristically well as theologically defined, the Spirituals were forced into a "structural" attitude toward poverty.
a s

Under the formal definition, the notion of property had been separated into two aspects: dominium (or proprietas) and usus. Domin ium means essentially rights over property, usus the actual mani pulation and consumption of property. Now, Pope Gregory I X declared that the Franciscans should retain usus but renounce dominium of every kind. At first the Franciscans asked their original benefactors to keep dominium, but before long they found it more con venient to have a comprehensive arrangement, and put the dominium over all their goods into the hands of the papacy. It was over the practical consequences of usus that the ideological component of the split between the Conventuals and the Spirituals first took shape and became eventually a diacritical symbol of their opposition. For the Conventuals, more structurally oriented, took full cognizance of the needs of the order in a complex political milieu. Thus, to do their evangelical and charitable work effectively, they felt that they had to construct solid buildings, both churches and dwellings. T o defend the specific religious position of St. Francis, they had to train their more intellectual brethren in philosophy and theology, for they had to hold their own in the refined arenas of Paris and Florence against the subtle Dominicans and in face of the growing threat of the Inquisition. T h u s they needed resources, including pecuniary resources, even coins, to spend on bricks and books. Among the Conventuals it was more and more left to the discretion of the local superior to decide how far the friars might go in the exercise of usus. According to the Spiritualsand all this came out during the famous papal investigation of the affairs of the order in 39> 83 years after the death of the founderConventual " u s e " became " a b u s e . " Ubertino, their spokesman, brought forward much documentary evidence concerning the practice of cultivation for profit, the use of granaries and cellars for wine, the reception of
l

The Ritual

Process t h e m of exerting

bequests of horses and a r m s . H e e v e n a c c u s e d dominium:

Again in just the same way those who can, take w i t h t h e m bursarii, who are their servants, who so spend money at the o r d e r of t h e brothers, that in every respect the brothers appear to have d o m i n i o n not only over the money, but also over the servants spending it. A n d sometimes the brothers carry a box with the money inside; and on the o c c a s i o n s when this is carried by the boys, they often know nothing of the c o n t e n t s , a n d it is the brothers who carry the keys. And although the servants m a y sometimes be called nuntii (a nuntius was an official who was the a g e n t of t h e alms-giver in the original Papal definition) of those persons w h o g a v e the money for the brothers; yet neither the servants nor those w h o d e p o s i t with them, know that the money is in the dominion of anyone o t h e r t h a n the brothers . . . (Quoted by Lambert, 1 9 6 1 , p. 190). But the Spirituals' attitude t o w a r d usus w a s b e s t expressed in the doctrine of usus pauper, w h i c h h e l d in e f f e c t t h a t t h e friars' use of goods should be in effect restricted t o t h e b a r e m i n i m u m sufficient to sustain life; indeed, some S p i r i t u a l s p e r i s h e d from their own austerities. In this they claimed t h e y w e r e a d h e r i n g to the spirit of their great founder's view of p o v e r t y . O n e f e a t u r e of this apparently admirable attitude m a d e it u l t i m a t e l y i n t o l e r a b l e to the structured church. This was the Spirituals' e m p h a s i s o n t h e conscience of the individual as the supreme a r b i t e r of w h a t c o n s t i t u t e d poverty, although this conscience o p e r a t e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to the rigorous standards of usus pauper. Some Spirituals w e n t a s f a r as to imply that any relaxation of this rigor r a n c o u n t e r t o t h e i r profession of the vow of poverty a n d was thus a m o r t a l s i n . I f t h i s p o s i t i o n were valid, m a n y of the Conventuals could b e r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g in a permanent state of mortal sin. Such are t h e pitfalls o f e x c e s s i v e legalism! O n the other h a n d , the d o c t r i n e of usus pauper clearly impugned the church's view of the legitimate a u t h o r i t y p o s s e s s e d by a religious superior. If the head of a F r a n c i s c a n h o u s e , o r e v e n province, were to use his discretion a n d p e r m i t for p r a g m a t i c o r structural reasons the use of considerable quantities of g o o d s , t h e Spiritual friars, in terms of their own doctrine of usus pauper, m i g h t w e l l feel themselves

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in no way bound to obey him, thus setting the vow of poverty at odds with the vow of obedience. In fact this tacit challenge to the hierarchical structure of the church was one of the major factors in the ultimate extirpation of the Spirituals from the order by the severe measures of Pope J o h n X X I I in a series of bulls backed by the sanctioning power of the Inquisition. Nevertheless, their zeal was not altogether in vain, because later reforms of the Franciscan Order were infused by the spirit of poverty they had defended so obstinately.

A P O C A L Y P T I C COMMUNITAS

In considering the early history of the Franciscan Order, it becomes clear that social structure is intimately connected with history, be cause it is the way a group maintains its form over time. Structureless communitas can bind and bond people together only momentarily. In thehistory of religions, it is interesting to observe how often communitas-type movements develop an apocalyptic mythology, theology, or ideology. Among the Franciscan Spirituals, for example, even the rather dry theologian Olivi, appointed lector at Santa Croce in Florence, was strongly addicted to the millenarianism of the Joachimites. Indeed, Olivi equated Babylon, the great whore, with the papacy, which was to be destroyed in the sixth age of the world, while the Spiritual Franciscans, in their absolute poverty, constituted the true church founded by St. Francis and his twelve companions. If one is looking for structure in the communitas of crisis or catas trophe, one must find it not at the level of social interaction but in a Levi-Straussian way, underlying the lurid and colorful imagery of the apocalyptic myths generated in the milieu of existential com munitas. O n e finds, too, a characteristic polarization in movements of this type between, on the one hand, a rigorous simplicity and poverty of elected behavior"naked unaccommodated m a n " and, on the other, an almost febrile, visionary, and prophetic poetry as their main genre of cultural utterance. T i m e and history,

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however, bring s t r u c t u r e i n t o t h e i r social life a n d legalism into their cultural o u t p u t . Often, w h a t w a s o n c e seen as a literal and universal imminence of c a t a s t r o p h e b e c o m e s interpreted allegorically or mystically as the d r a m a of t h e i n d i v i d u a l soul or as the spiritual fate of the true c h u r c h o n e a r t h o r a s p o s t p o n e d to the remotest future. Communitas notions a r e b y n o m e a n s always associated with visions or theories of w o r l d c a t a s t r o p h e . I n tribal initiations, for example, we find implicitly a t l e a s t t h e notion of absolute poverty as a mark of liminal b e h a v i o r ; b u t w e d o not find the eschatological ideas of millenarian m o v e m e n t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , we very often do find that the concept of t h r e a t o r d a n g e r to the g r o u p a n d , indeed, there is usually real d a n g e r i n t h e f o r m of a circumciser's or cicatrizer's knife, m a n y ordeals, a n d s e v e r e disciplineis importantly present. A n d this d a n g e r is o n e o f t h e chief ingredients in the pro duction of existential c o m m u n i t a s , l i k e the possibility of a " b a d t r i p " for the narcotic c o m m u n i t a s o f c e r t a i n i n h a b i t a n t s of a modern city that bears St. Francis's n a m e . I n t r i b a l initiations, too, we find myths and their ritual e n a c t m e n t s i n l i m i n a l i t y t h a t relate to divine catas trophes and crises, such as t h e s l a y i n g or self-immolation of import a n t deities for the good of t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y , which locate crisis in the living past if n o t i n t h e i m m i n e n t future. But, when crisis tends to get p l a c e d b e f o r e r a t h e r t h a n after or within con temporary social experience, w e h a v e already b e g u n to move into the order of structure a n d t o r e g a r d c o m m u n i t a s as a moment of transition r a t h e r t h a n a n e s t a b l i s h e d m o d e of being or an ideal soon to be p e r m a n e n t l y a t t a i n e d .

T H E S A H A J I Y A M O V E M E N T OF B E N G A L

Not all communitas, h o w e v e r , is t h e c o m m u n i t a s of crisis. There is also the c o m m u n i t a s of w i t h d r a w a l a n d retreat. Sometimes these genres converge a n d o v e r l a p , b u t u s u a l l y they evince distinct styles. T h e communitas of w i t h d r a w a l is n o t so closely linked with belief in an imminent e n d of t h e w o r l d ; r a t h e r , it involves a total or partial

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withdrawal from participation in the structural relations of the world, which is, in any case, conceived of as a sort of permanent "disaster area." This kind of communitas tends to be more exclusive in membership, disciplined in its habits, and secretive about its practices than the apocalyptic genre just discussed. Although ex amples of it may be found in the Christian religion and in the secular Utopian movements that in so many ways derive from the Judaeo-Christian cultural tradition, perhaps it is within Hinduism that some of the clearest examples of the communitas of withdrawal may be found. I shall confine myself once more to the discussion of a single movement, that of the Vaisnavas of Bengal, described by Edward C. Dimock, J r . (1966a, 1966b). Dimock is a highly com petent and perceptive Bengali scholar who has published elegant translations of Bengali tales "from court and village," and his data and conclusions must be regarded with respect.

POETS OF R E L I G I O N : C A I T A N Y A A N D F R A N C I S

Dimock's work is concerned with a movement that was in some ways complementary to and in others divergent from the great bhakli (devo tional) religious movement that "swept across Northern India in the Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries and the older bhakti movements of the s o u t h " (1966b, p. 4 1 ) . Since we have already considered one Christian communitas-type movement in terms of a n outstanding founder, it would be worth repeating this approach with the Vaisnavas of Bengal and begin our case history with Caitanya (14861 5 3 3 ) , " t h e most significant figure of the Bengal movement." Just as in the previous instance we compared Franciscan doctrine with its practice, let us first consider Caitanya's teachings and then the history of the movement he inspired. Dimock tells us that Caitanya was the "revivalist," not the originator, of Krishna-bhakti (intense devotion) in eastern India. Vaisnavite movements had been known in Bengal since the eleventh or twelfth century A.D. i.e., for at least three centuries before Caitanya's time. Like St. Francis, Caitanya

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was not himself a theologian. H e left a total of eight v e r s e s i n his life time of a devotional, not theological, n a t u r e . H e r e a g a i n t h e parallel with Francis's canticle to " B r o t h e r S u n " is s t r i k i n g . Caitanya's devotion, too, like Francis's, was fostered by i m a g e s a n d identifi cations, in his case with the principal actors in t h e g r e a t Vaisnava sacred texts, especially the Bhagavata. T h e p r i n c i p a l t h e m e of these texts is the childhood, boyhood, a n d youth of K r i s h n a , w h o was thought to be a n avatdra (incarnation) of the god V i s h n u . I n his turn, Caitanya was thought by m a n y to be an avatara of K r i s h n a o r , rather, a joint incarnation of Krishna and his especially b e l o v e d milkmaid R a d h a , h u m a n completeness being represented in b i s e x u a l form transcending all cultural a n d social sex distinctions. T h e central episode of Krishna's early career w a s h i s love for a group of gopis, the cowherdesses of V r n d a v a n a . H e h i m s e l f h a d been reared as a cowherd in this sacred place, a n d after p l a y i n g all kinds of tender a n d erotic tricks on the gopis, w h e n h e c a m e t o manhood he charmed t h e m beyond caring by the sound of h i s flute in the forest, so that they left their homes, husbands, a n d f a m i l i e s a n d fled to him in the night. I n one celebrated incident, K r i s h n a d a n c e s with all the gopis in such a way that each regards h i m as h e r particular lover. This is sometimes represented in I n d i a n a r t as a r i n g of girls between each of w h o m is the blue and beautiful f o r m o f t h e i r divine lover. I n later Bengali elaboration R a d h a b e c o m e s t h e particular object of Krishna's love, a n d in a sense she e p i t o m i z e s a l l t h e rest. Gaitanya was entranced by Krishna's d a n c e a n d s u b s e q u e n t lovemaking with the gopis, a n d by his preaching he i n s p i r e d s o powerful a revival of devotional religion that " d u r i n g his l i f e t i m e a n d shortly after his death it encompassed the greater p a r t of E a s t e r n I n d i a " (Dimock, 1966b, p. 43). O n e of the m a i n enthusiastic p r a c t i c e s that he stressed was a n ardent meditation in which t h e w o r s h i p e r identi fied himself successively with the various relatives, f r i e n d s , a n d lovers of Krishna: for example, his foster parents, w h o h a v e for him parental affection; his brother, who considers h i m w i t h b o t h frater nal love and a comrade's loyalty; and, most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e gopis, for w h o m Krishna was lover and beloved. H e r e s o c i a l relationships were regarded as natural points of d e p a r t u r e for a d e v o t i o n t h a t was

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regarded as supernatural in character. T h e highly erotic tenor of the texts and devotions apparently presented similar problems to later Vaisnavite theologians as have confronted Jewish and Christian exegetes of the Song of Songs of Solomon. But the ritual solution of the Sahajiyas, as Caitanya's movement was called, was rather diffe rent from that of such Christian mystics as St. J o h n of the Cross and St. Teresa of Avila, who regarded the erotic language of Solomon's Canticles as purely metaphorical. T h e central ritual of the Sahajiyas was an elaborate and protracted series of liturgical actions, inter spersed with the repetitive recitation of mantras which culminated in the act of sexual intercourse between fully initiated devotees of the cult, a m a n and a woman, who simulated in their behavior the love-making of Krishna and R a d h a . This was no mere act of sensual indulgence, for it had to be preceded by all kinds of ascetical prac tices, meditations, and teachings by accredited gurus. It was essenti ally religious in nature, treating the act of sex as a kind of sacrament, " a n outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace." What is sociologically interesting about this ritual is that, just like the gopis, the female partners of the male Sahajiya initiates had to be married to other men (see also De, 1961, pp. 204-205). This was not regarded as adultery but, as Dimock points out, more after the fashion of the Courts of Love in medieval Europe, in which true love is regarded as "love in separation [of which] the logical exten sion is love apart from marriage [for] in marriage there is always a touch of the carnal. T h e son of the troubadour, says De Rougemont, 'quickens with noble emotions love outside marriage; for marriage implies no more than physical union, but " A m o r " t h e supreme Erosis the transport of the soul upwards to ultimate union with light' " (1966a, p. 8). St. Francis sang of his Lady Poverty in much the same way, incidentally, as a troubadour of his far-off lady, wedded to another earthly mate. My own view is that what is now being considered, in both sixteenth-century Bengal and twelfth-century Europe, as a love that is both divine and faintly illicitas contrasted with licit, marital loveis a symbol of communitas. Communitas is the link between the gopis, the blue god between each milkmaid. Communitas is also

i 8
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The Ritual Process

the friar's relationship to M y Lady Poverty. In terms of the symbolic opposition between romantic love and marriage, marriage is h o m o logous with property, just as love in separation is homologous w i t h poverty. Marriage, therefore, represents structure in this theologi cal-erotic language. T h e notion of personal possession or ownership is also antithetical to the kind of communitas-love epitomized b y the relationship between Krishna and the gopis. Dimock, for ex ample, cites a later Bengali text that "embellishes a story from t h e Bhdgavata." It seems that the gopis told Krishna they were filled with love for him, and then began the dance. " B u t during the d a n c e Krishna disappeared from them, for into the minds of all the Gopis had come the thought ' h e is mine,' and in the thought ' h e is m i n e , ' parakiya [i.e., true love in separation] cannot remain. . . . But w h e n longing again rose in the Gopis' minds, Krishna again a p p e a r e d to t h e m " (1966a, p . 1 2 ) . Sahajiya doctrine differed fromVaisnava orthodoxy in that the l a t t e r prescribed sacramental union between spouses, whereas the followers of Caitanya, as we have seen, prescribed ritual intercourse b e t w e e n a devotee and the wife of another. Caitanya himself had such a ritual mate, " t h e daughter of Sathi, whose mind and body were devoted to Caitanya." It is interesting to note that the ritual partners of t h e Gosvamins, the original companions of Caitanya and the expositors of Sahajiya theology, were " w o m e n of... casteless groups, washer women or women of other low castes" (ig66a, p. 1 2 7 ) . I n d e e d , t h e gopis themselves were cowherdesses, a n d hence not of the highest caste. This communitas quality of failing to recognize hierarchical structural distinctions is in fact quite typical of Sahajiya, a n d of Vaisnavism as a whole.

THE CLEAVAGE BETWEEN DEVOTIONALISTS AND CONSERVATIVES

Caitanya, then, like St. Francis, was a poet of devotional religion, humble and simple, living his faith rather than thinking a b o u t it. But his six Gosvamins were theologians and philosophers, w h o set

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u p an as'rama (a school of religious instruction) for Vaisnavas where the formal doctrine of their sect could be elegantly forged. Three of these Gosvamins were members of a single family. This family, though reputedly of Brahman origin, had lost caste by virtue of their high positions at the court of the Muslim ruler of Bengal at the time. They continued, in fact, to hold dialogue with certain Sufis, a group of Muslim mystics and poets who had strong affinities with the Sahajiyas themselves. These six scholars wrote in Sanskrit and "played the major role in the codification of the doctrine and ritual of the sect" (1966b, p . 45). But once more a devotional movement was doomed to founder on the rock of doctrinal formulation. After Caitanya's death, his followers in Bengal split into two branches. O n e branch followed the lead of Caitanya's friend and intimate com panion, Nityananda, known as the "casteless A v a d h u t a " (the Avadhutas were ascetics); the other followed Advaita-acarya, an early and leading devotee of Caitanya, a Brahman of Santapur. There are certain affinities between Nityananda and the Spiritual Franciscans. H e was not only casteless himself; while he "stayed with Siidras" (1966b, p . 53), and was "apostle to the Banyas" (both Sudras and Banyas were low-caste Hindus), he also allowed thousands of Buddhist monks and nuns into the Vaisnava fold. O n e of Caitanya's biographers has him say to Nityananda: " I t is my promise, made with my own mouth, that ignorant and low-caste and humble people will float upon the sea ofprema [love] . . . you can set them free by bhakti" (1966b, p. 54). Bhakti, or salvation through personal devotion to a deity, did not recommend itself to Advaitaacarya, who reverted to the " p a t h of knowledge" of orthodox monists, who in India had always taken mukti, release from the cycle of rebirths, as their primary concern. Advaita, being a Brah man, did not make light of this fact. It was consistent with this caste affiliation that he should revert to the doctrine of mukti, for release from rebirth, in orthodox Hinduism, is very much dependent upon a person's regular fulfillment of his caste duties. If he fulfills these duties, he may expect to be reborn in a higher caste; if, in addition, he lives a holy and self-sacrificial life, he may ultimately escape from

j5

The Ritual

Process

suffering a n d the power of maya, or t h e i l l u s o r y p h e n o m e n a l world. Monists, like Advaita, believed t h a t final r e l e a s e could best be secured by dispelling illusion t h r o u g h k n o w l e d g e of the single reality known as dtman-brahman. I n o t h e r w o r d s , for them salvation was through gnosis, not devotion, a n d it i n v o l v e d acceptance of the social structure in its present formfor a l l e x t e r n a l forms were equally illusory and void of ultimate r e a l i t y . B u t N i t y a n a n d a did not share this passive social conservatism. B e l i e v i n g a s h e did that every m a n , regardless of caste or creed, could o b t a i n s a l v a t i o n by personal devotion to Krishna and R a d h a , h e e m p h a s i z e d the missionary aspect of Vaisnavism. Caitanya a n d N i t y a n a n d a converted m a n y M u s l i m s a n d thus antagonized the Muslim reigning p o w e r a n d d e l i b e r a t e l y broke a a n u m b e r of orthodox H i n d u religious l a w s . F o r e x a m p l e , " Caitanya rejoiced when h e h a d persuaded V a s u d e v a t o t a k e prasadaremnants of food offerings to the deitywithout h a v i n g f i r s t w a s h e d his hands. ' N o w , ' said Caitanya, ' y o u h a v e truly b r o k e n t h e ties w i t h your b o d y ' " (1966b, p . 55). This saying r e m i n d s u s o f m a n y of those of Jesuse.g., that the Sabbath was m a d e for m a n a n d n o t m a n for the Sabbath, a n d that the t r u t h shall m a k e y o u f r e e . F o r Caitanya a n d the Nityananda b r a n c h of his followers, bhakti emancipated t h e m from laws and conventions: " t h e y d a n c e d ecstatically and sang; they were as if m a d " (1966b, p . 6 5 ) . I t is h a r d t o think that there is nothing in common between t h e e c s t a t i c c o m m u n i t a s of Dionysos and that of Krishna. I n d e e d , O v i d ' s puer aeternus came from "adusque decolor extremo qua cingitur India Gauge" ( " D a r k India girdled b y the farthest Ganges," Metamorphoses, I V , l i n e 2 1 ) .

HOMOLOGIES

BETWEEN

SAHAJIYA AND F R A N C I S C A N I S M

N i t y a n a n d a and his rival Advaita r e p r e s e n t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y the principles of normative communitas a n d s t r u c t u r e a t t h e level of group organization; their branches w e r e h o m o l o g o u s respectively

Communitas: Model and Process

161

with the Spiritual and Conventual Franciscans. In both the Euro pean and Indian cases the successors of the founder had had to cope with the problems of group continuity and of theological definition. The founders, Francis and Caitanya, were poets of religion; they lived out the colorful religious imagery that filled their meditations. In the case of the Vaisnava-Sahajiyas, it was the group of Gosvamins who assumed the task of defining the central concepts of the sect. Whereas the Franciscans had located their Archimedean point in the notion of poverty, and then gone on to discriminate between dominium and usus with regard to property, and had finally been led into factionalism around the doctrine of usus pauper, the Sahajiyas had centered their controversies on another aspect of possession, in this case sexual possessionthough, as we have seen, for them sexual union took on a sacramental character. The Vaisnavas' sacred books, the Bkagavata and the Gila Govinda, are full of the imagery of passion; they tell of the love of the gopis for Krishna. But, as Dimock points out, " t h e idea of trysting with the wives of other men is not one acceptable to most of Indian society" (1966b, p . 55), despite, one might add, its traditional religious toler ance, even though this tolerance depends on no Second Amend ment! Thus the Vaisnava exegetes, and especially the Sahajiyas, had many problems. Vaisnava doctrine had always borrowed freely from Sanskrit poetic theory, and one of the salient distinctions in this theory was to divide women into two classes: svakiya or sviya, she who is one's own, and parakiya, she who is another's. Parakiya women can be those who are unmarried and those who are another's by marriage. I n the Bhagavata text the cowherdesses were clearly of the latter kind. T h e first exegetical attempt by a Gosvamin, J i v a by name, was to deny that this could be meant literally. For one thing, standard poetic theory did not recognize parakiya women as acceptable for primary roles in d r a m a ; therefore the gopis, who were heroines, could not really be parakiya. Again, the gopis had never really consummated their marriages. "By the mdya-power of Krishna [his power to fabricate illusions], shapes like the gopis, not the gopis themselves, had slept with their husbands. Furthermore the

The Ritual Process gopis are really s'aktis [i.e., powers emanating from a deity c o n c e i v e d of as goddessesthus the sakti of the god Shiva is the g o d d e s s K a l i or Durga] of Krishna, essential to and in some way i d e n t i c a l w i t h , h i m " ( 1 9 6 6 b , p . 5 6 ) . Therefore, they fall into the class of svakiya really his own; they are only seemingly parakiya, t h e w o m e n f others.
Q

Gosvamin Jiva's kinsman, R u p a , accepted the parakiya i n t e r p r e t a tion, which strains the sense of the original texts less, b u t a r g u e d t h a t ordinary h u m a n ethical yardsticks could hardly be applied t o ' ' t h e ruler of all that is to be ruled." This argument has been r e s o r t e d to in Judaeo-Christian exegesis to explain some of the s t r a n g e r a c t s and commands of Jehovah, such as the c o m m a n d to A b r a h a m t o sacrifice Isaac. In the Bhdgavata itself, someone asks h o w K r i s h n a , described as the " u p h o l d e r of piety," could have i n d u l g e d i n l o v e play with the wives of others, and receives the reply: " F o r t h o s e who are free of egoism there is no personal advantage h e r e b y m e a n s of proper behavior, nor any disadvantage by means of the o p p o s i t e . " This view accords well with the attitudes of a sect w h o felt t h e y w e r e beyond the bounds and standards of ordinary, s t r u c t u r e d s o c i e t y . A similar freedom pervades the beliefs of m a n y other m o v e m e n t s and sects that stress enthusiastic or devotional c o m m u n i t a s a s t h e i r basic principle; one might mention the Hussites of P r a g u e o r t h e Oneida Community of New York State.

R A D H A , MY L A D Y P O V E R T Y , A N D

COMMUNITAS

But the later exegetes came to accept as orthodox the l i t e r a l v i e w that the love of the gopis for Krishna was consistent w i t h t h e i r parakiya conditionand that this condition m a d e it s o m e h o w m o r e pure and real. For, as Dimock notes, "svakiya leads to kdma, t o d e s i r e for the satisfaction of the self; only parakiya results in the prema, the intense desire for the satisfaction of the beloved, w h i c h i s t h e characteristic, to be emulated by the bhakta [the d e v o t e e ] , o f t h e love of the gopis. It is because the love of the gopis is a parakiya. l o v e

Communitas: Model and Process that it is so intense. T h e pain of separation, possible only in parakiya, d the resultant constant dwelling of the minds of the gopis on Krishna, is their salvation" (1966b, pp. 56-57). O n e is reminded again of certain passages in the Song of Songs and of the verses of St. John of the Cross, in which the soul pines for the absent lover, who is God. However, in the Sahajiya sect, such pining is not for ever; after the "discipline of the sixty-four devotional acts," which involves "activity, repetition of mantras, physical discipline, in tellectual knowledge, asceticism, meditation" (ig66a, p. 195), the Sahajiyas depart from Vaisnava orthodoxy by entering on the stage of the sexual ritual of vidhi-bhakti. In this the partners are both initiates and are regarded as gurus, teachers or spiritual guides of one another, and here as sacramental expressions of Krishna and R a d h a themselves. T h e partners are considered to be " o f one t y p e " (1966a, p. 220), in which case " t h e r e can be u n i o n " (p. 2 1 9 ) , and this type is the highest of their respective sexes. Clearly, the motives for this act are not dominantly sensual, for a rich erotic literature attests to the abundance of secular practices available to the Indian volup tuary of the period without any need at all for a long preliminary training by ascesis.
a n

In the era of depth psychology, we must of course be attentive for signs of the Oedipus complex in a love that is powerfully idealized and at its noblest at a distance. Again, the Jungians would have much to say about a union with a Great Mother archetype as a symbol of the union between conscious and unconscious components of the mind that precedes the wholeness of "individuation." But these " d e p t h s " may be socially and culturally "superficial" if our focus of attention is upon modalities of social relationships. T h e Sahajiyas seem to be intent upon utilizing various cultural and biological means to attain a structureless state of pure social com munitas. Even in the sexual ritual the aim is to unite not merely a male with a female but the male and female within each individual; thus, as Caitanya himself was said to be, each devotee would be a n incarnation simultaneously of Krishna and R a d h a , a complete human being. Symbolically, however, the tie of marriageand with

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The Ritual Process

it the family, that basic cell of social structurewas dissolved b y parakiyd love. At its very source, therefore, in a society largely structured by kinship and caste, structure was rendered nugatory, for the lovers broke all caste rules, too. T h e Franciscans denied themselves property, one pillar of social structure, the Sahajiyas marriage and the family, another major pillar. It is significant t h a t the anthropologist E d m u n d Leach, who gave the influential R e i t h Lectures on the BBC's T h i r d Programme in 1967, should also h a v e returned to the attack on the familyregarding it as the source of all neuroses and mental cripplementonly in order to praise collectives and communities, like the Israeli kibbutzim, with their creches. Dr. Leach is very familiar with South I n d i a n as well as Singhalese literature. Perhaps there is a T a n t r i c echo in his attack. At any rate, he seems to b e striking a blow for communitas!

BOB D Y L A N A N D T H E B A U L S

T h e successors of Caitanya failed because Advaita's group b e c a m e absorbed in the caste system, and Nityananda's group, exclusivist and full of missionary fervor, encountered persecution a n d gradually lost heart. Historically, the tide of Sahajiyaism seems slowly to h a v e ebbed in the seventeenth a n d eighteenth centuries, though Vaisnavism is still an active force, Dimock notes, in Bengal. F o r example, the sect of musicians known as Bauls, w h o play a " p r i m i t i v e b u t haunting one-stringed instrument, called ek-tara," a n d sing "songs as gentle and as stirring as the wind which is their h o m e , " claim to be " m a d d e n e d by the sound of Krishna's flute, and, like a Gopi, caring nothing for home or for the respect of the world, they follow i t " (1966a, p . 252). A fascinating example of the convergence, u n d e r modern conditions of transportation and communication, of Western and Eastern liminars and communitas-bearers m a y b e found in m a n y music shops today. T h e cover of a recent recording of Bob Dylan's songs shows the American folk singer a n d spokesman of the structurally inferior flanked by Bauls, these musical vagabonds of

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165

Bengal: guitar and ek-tara have come together. It is even more fascinating to consider how often expressions of communitas are culturally linked with simple wind instruments (flutes and har monicas) and stringed instruments. Perhaps, in addition to their ready portability, it is their capacity to convey in music the quality of spontaneous h u m a n communitas that is responsible for this. T h e Bauls, like St. Francis, were "troubadours of G o d , " a n d it might be fitting to close this chapter with one of their songs, which clearly indicates how the spirit of Vaisnava communitas has persisted into the world today:
Hindu, Muslimthere is no difference, N o r are there differences in caste. K a b i r the

but drunk with

bhakta [devotee] was by caste a J o l a , prema-bhakti [true love, best expressed,

as w e have seen, b y extramarital love] he seized the Black Jewel's feet [i.e., Krishna's feet]. One moon is lantern to this world, and from one seed is the whole creation sprung ( 1 9 6 6 a , p. 2 6 4 ) .

This is the authentic voice of spontaneous communitas.

5
Humility and Hierarchy: The Liminality of Status Elevation and Reversal

R I T U A L S OF S T A T U S

ELEVATION

A N D STATUS R E V E R S A L

V a n Gennep, the father of formal processual anlysis, u s e d t w o s e t s of terms to describe the three phases of passage from o n e c u l t u r a l l y defined state or status to another. Not only did h e use, w i t h p r i m a r y reference to ritual, the serial terms separation, margin, a n d reaggregation; he also, with primary reference to spatial t r a n s i t i o n s , e m p l o y e d the terms preliminal, liminal, and postliminal. W h e n h e d i s c u s s e s his first set of terms and applies them to d a t a , van G e n n e p l a y s e m p h a s i s on what I would call the " s t r u c t u r a l " aspects of p a s s a g e . W h e r e a s his use of the second set indicates his basic concern w i t h u n i t s of space and time in which behavior a n d symbolism a r e m o m e n t a r i l y enfranchised from the norms and values that govern t h e p u b l i c lives of incumbents of structural positions. H e r e l i m i n a l i t y b e c o m e s central and he employs prefixes attached to t h e a d j e c t i v e " l i m i n a l " to indicate the peripheral position of structure. By " s t r u c t u r e " I mean, as before, "social structure," as used by t h e m a j o r i t y of British social anthropologists, that is, as a m o r e or less d i s t i n c t i v e arrangement of specialized mutually d e p e n d e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e
166

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167

institutional organization of positions and/or of actors which they imply- I a m not referring to " s t r u c t u r e " in the sense currently made popular by Levi-Strauss, i.e., as concerned with logical cate gories and the form of the relations between them. As a matter of fact, in the liminal phases of ritual, one often finds a simplification, even elimination, of social structure in the British sense and an amplification of structure in Levi-Strauss's sense. W e find social relationships simplified, while myth and ritual are elaborated. T h a t this is so is really quite simple to understand: if liminality is regarded as a time and place of withdrawal from normal modes of social action, it can be seen as potentially a period of scrutinization of the central values and axioms of the culture in which it occurs. In this chapter the primary focus w ' hp on liminality,_.as both phase and state. I n complex large-scale societies, liminality itself, as a result of the advancing division of labor, has often become a religious or quasi-reTigious state, and, by virtue of this crystalliza tion, has tended to reenter structure and acquire a full complement of structural roles and positions. Instead of the seclusion lodge, we have the church. More than this, I wish to distinguish two m a i n types of liminalitythough many others will undoubtedly be dismveredC-first, ^the liminality that characterizes rituals of status elevation, in which the ritual subject or novice is being conveyed irreversibly from a lower^to a higher position in an institutionalized system of such positions^Secondiy) the liminality frequently found in cyclical and calendrical ritual, usually of a collective kind, in which, at certain culturally defined points in the seasonal cycle, groups or categories of persons who Jiabitually occupy low status positions in the social structure are positively enjoined to exercise ritual authority over their superiors; and they, in their turn, must accept with good will their ritual degradation. Such rites may be described as rituals of status reversal. T h e y are often accompanied by robust verbal and nonverbal behavior, in which inferiors revile and even physically maltreat superiors. A common variant of this type of ritual is when inferiors affect the rank and style of superiors, sometimes even to the extent of
11

The Ritual

Process

arraying themselves in a h i e r a r c h y m i m i c k i n g t h e secular hierarchy of their so-called betters. Briefly p u t , o n e m i g h t c o n t r a s t the limin ality of the strong (and getting s t r o n g e r ) w i t h t h a t of the perman ently weak. T h e liminality of those g o i n g u p usually involves a putting down or h u m b l i n g of t h e n o v i c e a s i t s p r i n c i p a l cultural constituent; at t h e same time, t h e l i m i n a l i t y o f t h e permanently structural inferior contains as its key s o c i a l e l e m e n t a symbolic or make-believe elevation of t h e r i t u a l s u b j e c t s t o p o s i t i o n s of eminent authority. T h e stronger a r e m a d e w e a k e r ; t h e w e a k act as though they were strong. T h e liminality of t h e s t r o n g is socially unstruc tured or simply s t r u c t u r e d ; t h a t of t h e w e a k r e p r e s e n t s a fantasy of structural superiority.

LIFE CRISIS R I T E S AND C A L E N D R I C A L RITES

N o w t h a t I have p u t my cards o n t h e t a b l e , s o t o s p e a k , I will supply some facts to support these assertions, b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e traditional anthropological distinction b e t w e e n life-crisis r i t e s a n d seasonal or calendrical rites. Life-crisis rites a r e those i n w h i c h t h e ritual subject 0subjects move, as Lloyd Warner_lxQ'SQ) h a s p u t it, from " a fixed placental placement within his m o t h e r ' s w o m b , t o his death and ultimate fixed p o i n t of his t o m b s t o n e a n d final c o n t a i n m e n t in his grave as a dead o r g a n i s m p u n c t u a t e d b y a n u m b e r of critical moments of transition which all societies r i t u a l i z e a n d publicly m a r k with suitable observances to i m p r e s s t h e significance of tEe"" individual a n d t h e g r o u p o n living m e m b e r s o f t h e community. These a r e the i m p o r t a n t times of b i r t h , p u b e r t y , m a r r i a g e and d e a t h " (p. 3 0 3 ) . I would a d d to these t h e r i t e s t h a t concern entry into a higher achieved status, w h e t h e r t h i s b e a political office or membership of a n exclusive club or secret s o c i e t y . T h e s e rites may be either individual or collective, b u t t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y for them to be performed m o r e frequently for i n d i v i d u a l s . C a l e n d r i c a l rites, on the other h a n d , almost always refer to l a r g e g r o u p s a n d quite often ^

Humility and Hierarchy embrace whotesorierijs^Often, too, they are performed at welldelineated points in the axmual productive cycle., and attest to the passage from scarcity to plenty (as at first fruits or harvest festivals) or from plenty to scarcity (as when the hardships of winter are antici pated and magically warded against). T o these also one should add all rites de passage, which accompany any change of a collective sort from one state to another, as when a whole tribe goes to war, or a large local community performs ritual to reverse the effects of famine, drought, or plague. Life-crisis rites and rituals of induction^ into office are almost always rites of status eTevatioriTcalendrical rites and r i t e s e D F j j r o u r ^ reversal. ^ f h a v e written elsewhere (1967, pp. 9 3 - 1 1 1 ) about those symbols of liminality that indicate the structural invisibility of novices undergoing life-crisis ritualshow, for example, they are secluded from the spheres of everyday life, how they may be disguised in pig ments or masks, or rendered inaudible by rules of silence. And I have shown above (p. 108) how, to use Goffman's terms (1962, p. 1 4 ) , they are "leveled" and "stripped" of all secular distinctions of status and rights over property. Furthermore, they are subjected to trials and ordeals to teach them humility. O n e example of such treatment should be sufficient. In the Tsonga boys' circumcision rites, described by H e n r i Junod (1962, Vol I, pp. 82-85), . b are "severely beaten by the shepherds . . . on the slightest pretext" (p. 84); subjected to cold, they must sleep naked on their backs all night during the chilly months ofJune to August; they are absolutely forbidden to drink a drop of water during the whole initiation; they must eat insipid or unsavory food, which "nauseates them at first" to the point of vomiting; they are severely punished by having sticks introduced between the separated fingers of both hands while a strong man, taking both ends of the sticks in his hands, presses them together and lifts the poor boys, squeezing and half crushing their fingers; and, finally, the circumcised must also be prepared to die if their wound does not heal properly. These trials are not only, as Junod supposed, to teach the boys endurance, obedience, and
t n e v s

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The Ritual Process

manliness. Manifold evidence from other societies suggests t h a t t h e y have the social significance of rendering them down into s o m e k i n d of h u m a n prima materia, divested of specific form a n d r e d u c e d t o a condition that, although it is still social, is without or b e n e a t h a l l accepted forms of status. T h e implication is that for a n i n d i v i d u a l to go higher on the status ladder, he must go lower t h a n t h e s t a t u s ladder.

STATUS E L E V A T I O N

T h e liminality of life crisis, therefore, humbles a n d g e n e r a l i z e s _th<^ aspirant to higher-structural status. T h e same processes a r e p a r t i c u 1arly~vividly exemplified in m a n y African installation r i t u a l s . T h e future incumbent of the chieftainship or h e a d m a n s h i p is f i r s t separated from the commonalty and then must u n d e r g o l i m i n a l rites that rudely abase him before, in the reaggregation c e r e m o n i e s , he is installed on his stool in final glory. I have a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d the N d e m b u installation rites (Chapter 3) where t h e c h i e f - t o - b e and his ritual wife are abased and reprimanded d u r i n g a n i g h t ' s seclusion in a small h u t by many of their future subjects. A n o t h e r African example of the same pattern is vividly p r e s e n t e d i n D u Chaillu's (1868) account of the election of " a king in G a b o o n . " After a description of the funerary rites for the old king, D u G h a i l l u describes how the elders " o f the village" secretly choose a n e w k i n g , who is himself " k e p t ignorant of his good fortune to t h e l a s t . " It happened that Njogoni, a good friend of my own, was elected. T h e choice fell on him, in part because he came of a good family, b u t c h i e f l y because he was a favourite of the people and could get the most votes. I d o not think that Njogoni had the slightest suspicion of his elevation. A s h e was walking on the shore on the morning of the seventh day [after t h e d e a t h of the former king] he was suddenly set upon by the entire populace, w h o proceeded to a ceremony which is preliminary to the crowning [ a n d m u s t be considered as liminal in the total funerary installation complex of r i t e s ] and must deter any but the most ambitious man from aspiring to the c r o w n .

Humility and Hierarchy

iji

They surrounded him in a dense crowd, and then began to heap upon him every manner of abuse that the worst of mobs could imagine. Some spat in his face; some beat him with their fists; some kicked him; others threw disgusting objects at him; while those unlucky ones who stood on the out side, and could reach the poor fellow only with their voices, assiduously cursed him, his father, his mother, his sisters and brothers, and all his ancestors to the remotest generation. A stranger would not have given a cent for the life of him who was presently to be crowned. Amid all the noise and struggle, I caught the words which explained all this to me; for every few minutes some fellow, administering a specially severe blow or kick, would shout out, " Y o u are not our king yet; for a little while we will do what w e please with you. By-and-by we shall have to do your will." Njogoni bore himself like a man and prospective K i n g . H e kept his temper, and took all the abuse with a smiling face. W h e n it had lasted about half an hour they took him to the house of the old king. Here he was seated, and became again for a little while the victim of his people's curses. Then all became silent; and the elders of the people rose and said, solemnly (the people repeating after t h e m ) , " N o w we choose you for our king; we engage to listen to you and to obey you." A silence followed, presently the silk hat, which is the emblem of royalty, was brought in and placed on Njogoni's head. H e was then dressed in a red gown, and received the greatest marks of respect from all who had just now abused him (pp. 4 3 - 4 4 ) -

This account not only illustrates the humbling of a candidate in a rite of status elevation; it also exemplifies the power of structural inferiors in_a rite..ostajjisJreveri^in a"cycle of political rituals. Tt is one of those composite rituals that contain aspects ofstatus elevation along with aspects of status reversal. I n the first aspect, an individual's permanent structural elevation is emphasized; in the second, stress is laid upon the temporary reversal of the statuses of rulers and ruled. An individual's status is irreversibly changed, but the collective status of his subjects remains unchanged. Ordeals in rituals of status elevation are features of our own society, as the^ "Eazings in fraternity and military-academy initiations attest. _P_ne modern ritual pf status reversal at least comes to m y r n i n d . In the
r

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The Ritual

Process

British Army on Christmas D a y , privates a r e w a i t e d on at dinner by officers and N . C . O . ' s . After this rite t h e s t a t u s of the privates remains u n c h a n g e d ; indeed, the s e r g e a n t - m a j o r m a y b a w l them out all the more stridently for having b e e n m a d e t o r u n about with turkey at their behest. T h e ritual, in fact, h a s t h e l o n g - t e r m effect of emphasizing all the more _trenchjmriy ^ t h e _ s o c i a l definitions~oTTne~ group.

STATUS R E V E R S A L : T H E M A S K I N G

FUNCTION

I n Western society, the traces of rites of a g e - a n d sex-role reversal persist in such customs as H a l l o w e e n , w h e n t h e powers of the structurally inferior are manifested in t h e l i m i n a l d o m i n a n c e of preadolescent children. T h e monstrous masks t h e y o f t e n w e a r in dis guise represent mainly chthonic or e a r t h - d e m o n i c powerswitches who blast fertility; corpses or skeletons from u n d e r g r o u n d ; indigen ous peoples, such as I n d i a n s ; troglodytes, s u c h a s d w a r v e s or gnomes; hoboes or anti-authoritarian figures, such a s p i r a t e s o r traditional Western gun fighters. These tiny e a r t h p o w e r s , i f n o t propitiated bytreats or dainties, will work fantastic a n d c a p r i c i o u s tricks on the authority-holding generation of h o u s e h o l d e r s t r i c k s similar to those once believed to be the work of e a r t h s p i r i t s , s u c h as hobgoblins, boggarts, elves, fairies, a n d trolls. I n a s e n s e , t o o , these children mediate between the dead a n d t h e l i v i n g ; t h e y a r e n o t long from the w o m b , which is in m a n y cultures e q u a t e d w i t h t h e tomb, as both are associated with the earth, t h e s o u r c e o f f r u i t s a n d receiver of leavings. T h e Halloween children e x e m p l i f y s e v e r a l . liminal motifs.Lj:heir masks insure t h e m , a n o n y m i t y , f o r n o o n e knows just whose particular children thev a r e . But, a s w i t h m o s t rituals of reversal, anonymity here i s f o r purposes of a g g r e s s i o n ^ n o t . humili ation. T h e child's mask is like t h e h i g h w a y m a n ' s m a s k a n d , indeed, children at Halloween often w e a r t h e masks o f b u r g l a r s o r execution ers. Masking endows t h e m with t h e p o w e r s o f f e r a l , c r i m i n a l auto chthonous and supernatural beings.

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In all these respects there is something of the character of theranthropic beings in primitive myth, for example, the male and female jaguars of the " f i r e " myths of the Ge-speaking Amazonian peoples described by Levi-Strauss in Le Cru el le Cuit ( 1 9 6 4 ) . Terence Turner, of the University of Chicago, has recently reanalyzed the Ge myths (in press). From his precise and complex analysis of Kayapo myths of the origin of domestic fire, he concludes that the j a g u a r form is a kind of mask that both reveals and conceals a process of structural realignment. This process concerns the movement of a boy from the nuclear family to the men's house. T h e j a g u a r figures here represent not merely the statuses of father and mother but also changes in the boy's relationships to each of these parentschanges, moreover, that involve the possibility of painful social and psychical conflict. Thus, the male j a g u a r of the myth begins by being genuinely terri fying and ends as benevolent, while the female jaguar, always ambivalent, ends as malevolent and is slain by the boy on the advice of the male jaguar. Each j a g u a r is a multivocal symbol: while the male j a g u a r repre sents both the pains and the joys of specific fatherhood, he also stands for fatherhood in general. T h e r e is in fact among the Kayapo the ritual role of "surrogate father," who removes the boy from the domestic sphere at about the age of seven to assimilate him into the wider male moral community. Symbolically, this appears to be correlated with the " d e a t h " or extirpation of a n important aspect of the mother-son relationship, which corresponds with the mythical account of the slaying of the female j a g u a r by the boywhose will to kill has been fortified by the male jaguar. Clearly the mythical account is not concerned with concrete individuals but with social personae; yet, so delicately interwoven are structural and historical considerations that the direct representation, in h u m a n form, of mother and father in myth and ritual may well be situationally blocked by the powerful affects always aroused in crucial social transitions. There may well be another aspect of the masking function both in American Halloweens and in Kayapo myths and ritualsand

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The Ritual Process

in many other cultural manifestations as well. A n n a F r e u d h a s had much that is illuminating to say about the frequent p l a y i d e n t i f i . tion of children with fierce animals and other t h r e a t e n i n g m o n s t r o u s beings. Miss Freud's argumentwhich derives its force, a d m i t t e d l y , from the theoretical position of her own mighty f a t h e r i s c o m p l e x but coherent. W h a t is being given animal guise in c h i l d f a n t a s y is the aggressive and punitive power of the parents, p a r t i c u l a r l y the father, and especially with regard to the well-known p a t e r n a l castra tion threat. She points out how small children a r e q u i t e i r r a t i o n a l l y terrified of animalsdogs, horses, and pigs, for e x a m p l e n o r m a l fear, she explains, overdetermined by unconscious f e a r o f the menacing aspect of the parents. She then goes on to a r g u e t h a t one of the most effective defense mechanisms utilized b y t h e e g o a g a i n s t such unconscious fear is to identify with the terrifying o b j e c t . In this way it is felt to be robbed of its power; a n d p e r h a p s p o w e r mayeven be drained from it.
c a

For many depth psychologists, too, identification a l s o m e a n s replacement. T o draw off power from a strong b e i n g is t o w e a k e n that being. So, children often play at being tigers, l i o n s , o r c o u g a r s , or gunmen, Indians, or monsters. T h e y are thus, a c c o r d i n g t o A n n a Freud, unconsciously identifying themselves w i t h t h e v e r y p o w e r s that deeply threaten them, and, by a species of j u j i t s u , e n h a n c i n g their own powers by the very power that t h r e a t e n s t o e n f e e b l e them. T h e r e is in all this, of course, a traitor-like q u a l i t y u n c o n sciously one aims " to kill the thing one l o v e s " a n d t h i s is p r e c i s e l y the quality of behavior that generalized parents m u s t e x p e c t from generalized children in the customs of the A m e r i c a n H a l l o w e e n . Tricks are played and property is damaged or m a d e t o l o o k as though it has been damaged. In the same way, i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with the j a g u a r figure in the myth may indicate the p o t e n t i a l f a t h e r h o o d of the initiand and hence his capacity to replace s t r u c t u r a l l y his own father. It is interesting that this relationship b e t w e e n t h e r a n t h r o p i c entities and masks and aspects of the parental role s h o u l d b e m a d e both at rituals of status elevation and at culturally d e f i n e d p o i n t s

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of change in the annual cycle. O n e might speculate that feral repre sentation of the parents concerns only those aspects of the total parent-child relationship, in its full longitudinal spread, that pro voke strong affects and volitions of an illicit libidinal, and particu larly aggressive, character. Such aspects are likely to be structurally determined; they may set at odds the child's apergu of his parent's individual nature and the behavior he must direct toward and expect from his parent in terms of cultural prescription. " F a t h e r , " he must think, "is not acting like a h u m a n being," when he acts in accord ance with authoritarian norms rather than with what is usually called " h u m a n i t y . " Therefore, in terms of subliminal appreciation of cultural classifications, he may be thought to be acting like some thing outside humanity, most frequently an animal. "And if, as an animal, rather than the person I know, he exercises power over me, then I may borrow or drain that power if I too assume the culturally defined attributes of the animal I feel him to b e . " Life crises provide rituals in and by means of which relations between structural positions and between the incumbents of such positions are restructured, often drastically. Seniors take the respon sibility for actually making the changes prescribed by custom; they, at least, have the satisfaction of taking an initiative. But juniors, with less understanding of the social rationale of such changes, find that their expectations with regard to the behavior of seniors toward them are falsified by reality during times of change. From their structural perspective, therefore, the changed behavior of their parents and other elders seems threatening and even mendacious, perhaps even reviving unconscious fears of physical mutilation and other punishments for behavior not in accordance with parental will. Thus, while the behavior of seniors is within the power of that age groupand to some extent the structural changes they promote are for them predictablethe same behavior and changes are beyond the power of juniors either to grasp or to prevent. To compensate for these cognitive deficiencies, juniors and infe riors, in ritual situations, may mobilize affect-loaded symbols of great power. Rituals of status reversal, according to this principle, mask

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The Ritual Process

the weak in strength and d e m a n d of the strong t h a t t h e y b e passive and patiently endure the symbolic and even r e a l a g g r e s s i o n shown against them by structural inferiors. H o w e v e r , it is n e c e s s a r y here to revert to the distinction m a d e earlier b e t w e e n r i t u a l s o f status elevation and rituals of status reversal. I n t h e f o r m e r , aggressive behavior by candidates for higher status, t h o u g h o f t e n present tends to be muted a n d constrained; after all, t h e c a n d i d a t e is " g o i n g u p " symbolically, a n d , at the end of t h e r i t u a l , w i l l enjoy more benefits and rights t h a n heretofore. But, in t h e l a t t e r , t h e group or category that is permitted to act as if it w e r e s t r u c t u r a l l y superior a n d in this capacity to berate a n d belabor its p r a g m a t i c superiors is, in fact, perpetually of a lower status. Clearly, both sociological a n d psychological m o d e s o f e x p l a n a t i o n are pertinent here. W h a t is structurally "visible " to a t r a i n e d a n t h r o p ological observer is psychologically " unconscious " t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r of the observed society; yet his orectic r e s p o n s e s t o s t r u c t u r a l changes a n d regularities, multiplied by t h e n u m b e r o f m e m b e r s exposed to change generation after generation, h a v e t o b e t a k e n into cultural, notably ritual, account if the society is to s u r v i v e w i t h o u t disruptive tension. Life-crisis rites a n d rituals of r e v e r s a l t a k e these responses into account in different ways. T h r o u g h s u c c e s s i v e life crises and rites of status elevation, individuals a s c e n d s t r u c t u r a l l y . But rituals of status reversal m a k e visible i n t h e i r s y m b o l i c a n d behavioral patterns social categories a n d forms of g r o u p i n g t h a t are considered to be axiomatic a n d u n c h a n g i n g b o t h in e s s e n c e a n d in relationships to one another. Cognitively, nothing underlines regularity so well a s a b s u r d i t y or paradox. Emotionally, nothing satisfies as m u c h as e x t r a v a g a n t or temporarily permitted illicit behavior. R i t u a l s of s t a t u s r e v e r s a l accommodate both aspects. By m a k i n g t h e low high a n d t h e h i g h low they reaffirm the hierarchical p r i n c i p l e . By m a k i n g t h e low mimic (often to the point of caricature) t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e h i g h , and by restraining the initiatives of t h e p r o u d , t h e y u n d e r l i n e t h e reasonableness of everyday culturally p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v i o r b e t w e e n the various estates of society. O n this a c c o u n t , it is a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t
T

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rituals of status reversal are often located either at fixed points in the annual cycle or in relation to movable feasts that vary within a limited period of time, for structural regularity is here reflected in temporal order. It might be argued that rituals of status reversal are also found contingently, when calamity threatens the total community. But one can cogently reply by saying that it is precisely because the whole community is threatened that such countervailing rites are performedbecause it is believed that concrete historical irregularities alter the natural balance between what are conceived to be permanent structural categories.

COMMUNITAS AND STRUCTURE IN R I T U A L S OF S T A T U S R E V E R S A L

To return to rituals of status reversal. Not only do they reaffirm the order "of structure,- they aIso~~restore relations between the actual ' historical individuals who occupy positions in that structure. All human societies implicitly or explicitly refer to two contrasting social models. One, as we have seen, is of society as a structure of j u r a l , _
fiiiiWtf . ' '

political, and ^economic positions, offices, statuses, and roles, in which the individual is only ambiguously_gr^rjgdJie]iixicLthe_so.cial persona. The^olher is of society as a communitas of concrete idio syncratic individualsTwho, thbugrTcliflermgTn^^sical and mental endowment, are nevertheless regarded as equal in terms of shared humanity. T h e first model is of a differentiated, culturally structured, segmented, and often hierarchical_system of institutionalized posi^ tigns, T h e secqnd presents_society as an undifferentiated, homo geneous whole,qri^hjehJrdividuals confront one another integrally, and not as " s e g m e n t a t e d " into statuses and roles. In the process of social life, behavior in accordance with one model tends to "drift a w a y " from behavior in terms of the other. T h e ultimate desideratum, however, is to act in terms of communitas values even while playing structural roles, where what one culturally does is conceived of as merely instrumental to the aim of attaining

1 8
7

The Ritual Process

and maintaining communitas. Seen from t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , the seasonal cycle may be regarded as a measure of t h e d e g r e e of drift of structure from communitas. This is particularly t r u e o f t h e relations between very high- and very low-ranked social c a t e g o r i e s a n d groups, though it holds good for relations between i n c u m b e n t s o f a n y rank or social position. M e n use the authority vested i n t h e i r office to misuse and abuse the incumbents of lower p o s i t i o n s a n d confuse position w i t h its incumbent. Rituals of status r e v e r s a l , e i t h e r placed at strategic points in the annual circle or g e n e r a t e d b y disasters conceived of as being the result of grave social sins, a r e t h o u g h t of as bringing social structure and c o m m u n i t a s i n t o r i g h t m u t u a l relation once again.

T H E A P O C E R E M O N Y OF T H E

ASHANTI

T o illustrate, I quote a familiar example from a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l literature concerning the Apo ceremony of t h e n o r t h e r n A s h a n t i of G h a n a . This ceremony, which R a t t r a y (1923) o b s e r v e d a m o n g the Tekiman peoples, takes place during the eight d a y s i m m e d i a t e l y preceding the T e k i m a n new year, which begins o n A p r i l 1 8 . B o s m a n (1705), the early D u t c h historian of the Coast of G u i n e a , d e s c r i b e s what R a t t r a y calls " u n d o u b t e d l y one a n d t h e s a m e c e r e m o n y " (p. 1 5 1 ) in the following terms: there is " . . . a F e a s t o f e i g h t days accompanied with all m a n n e r of Singing, S k i p p i n g , D a n c i n g , Mirth, a n d Jollity; in which time a perfect l a m p o o n i n g l i b e r t y is allowed, and Scandal so highly exalted, t h a t t h e y m a y f r e e l y say of all Faults, Villainies, and Frauds of their S u p e r i o r s , a s w e l l as Inferiours without Punishment or so m u c h as t h e least i n t e r r u p t i o n " (Bosman, Letter X ) . Rattray's observations abundantly confirm B o s m a n ' s c h a r a c t e r ization. H e derives the term Apo from a root m e a n i n g " t o s p e a k roughly or harshly t o , " and points out that a n a l t e r n a t i v e t e r m for the ceremony ahorohorua is possibly derived from t h e v e r b horo, " t o wash," " t o cleanse." T h a t the Ashanti m a k e a positive c o n n e c t i o n

Humility and Hierarchy between frank, rough speech and purification is demonstrated by the words of the old high priest of the god T a Kese at Tekiman as told to and literally translated by R a t t r a y : You know that every one has a sunsum (soul) that may get hurt or knocked about or become sick and so make the body ill. Very often, although there may be other causes, e.g., witchcraft, ill health is caused by the evil and the hate that another has in his head against you. Again, you too may have hatred in your heart against another, because of something that person has done to you, and that, too, causes your sunsum to fret and become sick. Our forbears knew this to be the case, and so they ordained a time, once every year, when every man and woman, free man and slave, should have free dom to speak out just what was in their head, to tell their neighbours just what they thought of them, and of their actions, and not only to their neighbours, but also the king or chief. When a man has spoken freely thus, he will feel his sunsum cool and quieted, and the sunsum of the other person against whom he has now openly spoken will be quieted also. The King of Ashanti may have killed your children, and you hate him. This has made him ill, and you ill; when you are allowed to say before his face what you think you both benefit (p. 1 5 3 ) . It can be seen at once from this indigenous interpretation that leveling is one of the principal functions of the Apo rites. T h e high must submit to being h u m b l e d ; the humble are exalted through the privilege of plain speaking. But there is much more to the ritual than this. Structural differentiation, both vertical and horizontal, is the foundation of strife and factionalism, and of struggles in dyadic relations between incumbents of positions or rivals for positions. In religious systems that are themselves structuredmost commonly by the intercalated segmentations of the solar and lunar year and by climatic nodal points of changequarrels and dissensions are not dealt with ad hoc as they emerge, but in generic and omnibus fashion at some regularly recurrent point in the ritual cycle. T h e Apo ceremony takes place, as the Ashanti say, " w h e n the cycle of the year has come round " or when " the edges of the year have m e t . " It provides, in effect, a discharge of all the ill-feeling that has accum ulated in structural relationships during the previous year. T o purge

The Ritual Process or purify structure by plain speaking is to reanimate the spirit of communitas. Here the widespread sub-Saharan African belief t h a t grudges nourished in the head or heart physically h a r m b o t h those who hold t h e m and those against whom they are directed o p e r a t e s to insure that wrongs are ventilated and wrongdoers refrain from taking reprisals against those who proclaim their misdeeds. Since it is more probable that persons of high rank wrong those of low rank t h a n the reverse, it is not surprising that chiefs a n d aristocrats are regarded as the typical targets for public accusation. Paradoxically, the ritual reduction of structure to c o m m u n i t a s through the purifying power of m u t u a l honesty has the effect of regenerating the principles of classification and ordering o n w h i c h social structure rests. O n the last day of the Apo ritual, for e x a m p l e , just before the new year begins, the shrines of all the local a n d s o m e of the national Ashanti gods are carried in procession from t h e i r local temples, each with an entourage of priests, priestesses, a n d other religious officials, to the sacred T a n o River. T h e r e the shrines and the blackened stools of deceased priests are sprinkled a n d p u r i fied with a mixture of water and powdered white clay. T h e political head of Tekiman, the chief, is not personally present. T h e Q u e e n Mother attends, however, for this is an affair of gods a n d priests, representing the universal aspects of Ashanti culture a n d society r a t h e r t h a n of chieftainship in its more narrowly structural aspect. This universal quality is expressed in the prayer of t h e priestly spokesman of one of the gods as he sprinkles the shrine of T a Kesi, the greatest of the local gods: " W e beg you for life; w h e n h u n t e r s go to the forest, permit them to kill m e a t ; may the bearers of child ren bear children: life to Yao K r a m o [the chief], life for all h u n t e r s , life to all priests, we have taken the apo of this year a n d p u t it in the r i v e r " (pp. 1 6 4 - 1 6 6 ) . W a t e r is sprinkled upon all the stools a n d on all those present, a n d after cleansing the shrines, everyone r e t u r n s to t h e village while the shrines are replaced in the temples t h a t a r e their homes. This solemn observance, which ends such a S a t u r n a l i a n ritual, is in reality a most complex manifestation of T e k i m a n A s h a n t i cosmology, for each of the gods represents a whole constellation of

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values and ideas and is associated with a place in a cycle of myths. Moreover, the entourage of each replicates that of a chief and bodies forth the Ashanti concept of structural hierarchy. It is as though structure, scoured and purified by communitas, is displayed white and shining again to begin a new cycle of structural time. It is significant that the first ritual of the new year, performed on the following day, is officiated over by the chief, and that no women, not even the Queen Mother, are allowed to be present. T h e rites take place inside the temple of T a Kesi, the local god; the chief prays to him alone and then sacrifices a sheep. This stands in marked contrast to the rites of the previous day, which are attended by members of both sexes, held in the open air by the waters of the T a n o River (important for all Ashanti), involve no bloody sacrifice, and entail the exclusion of the chief. Communitas is the solemn note on which the old year ends; structure, purified by communitas and nourished by the blood of sacrifice, is reborn on the first day of the new year. Thus, what is in many ways a ritual of reversal seems to have the effect, not only of temporarily inverting the "pecking order," but of first segregating the principle of group unity from the principles of hierarchy and segmentation and then of dramatically indicating that the unity of Tekimanand, more t h a n Tekiman, of the Ashanti state itselfis a hierarchical and segmentary unity.

SAMHAIN, A L L SOULS, AND A L L SAINTS

As noted, the emphasis on the purificatory powers of the structurally inferior and the connection of such powers with fertility and other universal h u m a n interests and values precede the emphasis on fixed and particularistic structure in xh&Apo case. Similarly, Hallow een in Western culture, with its emphases on the powers of children and earth spirits, precedes two traditional Christian feasts that represent structural levels of Christian cosmologyi.e., All Saints' and All Souls'. Of All Saints' Day, the French theologian M . Olier (quoted in Attwater, i g 6 i ) has said: " I t is in some sort greater

The Ritual Process than the Feast of Easter or of the Ascension, [for] Christ is perfected in this mystery, because, as our Head, He is only perfect and ful filled when H e is united to all His members the saints (canonized and uncanonized, known and u n k n o w n ) . " Here again we meet with the notion of a perfect synthesis of communitas and hierarchial structure. It was not only D a n t e a n d T h o m a s Aquinas who pictured heaven as a hierarchical structure with many levels of sanctity and, at the same time, as a luminous unity or communitas in which no lesser saint felt envy of a greater nor greater saint any pride of position. Equality and hierarchy were there mysteriously one. All Souls' Day, which follows, com memorates the souls in purgatory, emphasizing at once their lower hierarchical position to the souls in heaven, and the active c o m m u n itas of the living, who ask the saints to intercede for those under going liminal ordeal in purgatory and the saved dead both in heaven and in purgatory. But it would appear that, as in the " l a m p o o n i n g l i b e r t y " and status reversals of the Apo ceremony, the rude power that energizes both the virtuous hierarchy and the good communitas of the Saints and Souls of the calendrical cycle is derived from p r e Christian and autochthonous sources that are often given infernal status at the level of folk Christianity. It was not until the seventh century that November i began to be observed as a Christian festival, while All Souls' Day was brought into the R o m a n Rite only in the tenth century. I n Celtic regions, some aspects of the p a g a n winter festival of Samhain (our November i) were attached to these Christian feasts. Samhain, which means " s u m m e r e n d , " according to J . A. MacCulloch (1948) " n a t u r a l l y pointed to the fact that the powers of blight, typified by winter, were beginning their reign. But it m a y have been partly a harvest festival, while it had connections with pastoral activities, for the killing and preserving of animals for food for winter was associated with it. . . . A bonfire was lit and repre sented the sun, the power of which was now waning, and the fire would b e intended to strengthen it magically. . . . I n dwellings the the fires were extinguished, a practice perhaps connected with the

Humility and Hierarchy seasonal expulsion of evils. Branches were lit at the bonfire and carried into the houses to kindle the new fires. There is some evidence that a sacrifice, possibly human, occurred at Samhain, laden as the victim would be with the ills of the community, like the Hebrew scapegoat" (pp. 58-59)Here, too, it would appear that, like the Apo ceremony, Samhain represented a seasonal expulsion of evils, and a renewal of fertility associated with cosmic and chthonic powers. I n European folk beliefs, the midnight of October 3 1 has become associated with gatherings of the hellish powers of witchcraft and the devil, as in Walpurgisnacht and T a m o' Shanter's near-fatal Halloween. Subse quently, a strange alliance has been formed between the innocent and the wicked, children and witches, who purge the community by the mock pity and terror of trick or treat and prepare the way for communitas feasts of sunlike pumpkin pieat least in the United States. Somehow, as dramatists and novelists well know, a touch of sin and evil seems to be necessary tinder for the fires of communitasalthough elaborate ritual mechanisms have to be provided to transmute those fires from devouring to domestic uses. There is always a felix culpa at the heart of any religious system that is closely bound up with h u m a n structural cycles of development.

THE SEXES, STATUS R E V E R S A L , A N D COMMUNITAS

Other rituals of status reversal involve the supersession by women of masculine authority and roles. They may be held at some node of calendrical change as in the case of the Zulu Nomkubulwana cere mony, analyzed by M a x Gluckman (1954) where " a dominant role was ascribed to the women and a subordinate role to the men at rites performed in local districts in Zululand when the crops had begun to g r o w " (pp. 4 - 1 1 ) . (Similar rites, in which girls wear men's garments and herd and milk the cattle, are found in many southern and central Bantu societies.) More frequently, rituals of this type

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Process

m a y be performed when a major territorial d i v i s i o n of a tribal society is threatened b y some n a t u r a l c a l a m i t y , s u c h as a plague of insects or famine a n d drought. D r . Peter R i g b y ( 1 9 6 8 ) has recently published a detailed description of w o m e n ' s r i t e s of this variety a m o n g the Gogo of T a n z a n i a . These rites h a v e b e e n elaborately dis cussed elsewhere by such authorities as E i l e e n I C r i g e , Gluckman, and J u n o d . T h u s , I shall point out only t h a t i n a l l t h e situations in which they occur, there is a belief that t h e m e n , some of whom occupy key positions in the social structure, h a v e s o m e h o w incurred the displeasure of the gods or ancestors, or, a l t e r n a t i v e l y , have so altered the mystical balance between society a n d n a t u r e that dis turbances in the former have provoked a b n o r m a l i t i e s in the latter. Put briefly, structural superiors, t h r o u g h t h e i r dissensions over particularistic or segmental interests, h a v e b r o u g h t disaster on the local community. I t is for structural inferiors, t h e n ( i n the Zulu case, young women, who are normally u n d e r t h e patria poteslas of fathers or the manus of husbands), r e p r e s e n t i n g communitas, or global community transcending all internal d i v i s i o n s t o set things right again. T h e y do this by symbolically u s u r p i n g for a short while the weapons, dress, accouterments, and b e h a v i o r a l s t y l e of structural superiorsi.e., m e n . But a n old form n o w h a s a new content. Authority is now wielded by c o m m u n i t a s i t s e l f m a s q u e r a d i n g as structure. Structural form is divested of selfish a t t r i b u t e s and puri fied by association with the values of c o m m u n i t a s . T h e unity that has been sundered b y selfish strife a n d c o n c e a l e d ill-feeling is restored by those who are normally t h o u g h t of a s b e n e a t h the battle for j u r a l a n d political status. But " b e n e a t h " h a s t w o senses: it is not only that which is structurally inferior; it is a l s o the common basis of all social lifethe earth a n d its fruits. I n o t h e r words, what is law on one social dimension m a y be basic o n a n o t h e r . I t is perhaps significant t h a t y o u n g m a i d e n s a r e often the main protagonists: they have not yet b e c o m e t h e m o t h e r s of children whose structural positions will once m o r e p r o v i d e bases for opposi tion and competition. Yet, inevitably, r e v e r s a l is ephemeral and transitory ( " l i m i n a l , " if you like), for t h e t w o m o d e s of social inter-

Humility and Hierarchy relationship are here culturally polarized. For girls to herd is a paradox for classification, one of those paradoxes that can exist only in the liminality of ritual. Communitas cannot manipulate re sources or exercise social control without changing its own nature and ceasing to be communitas. But it can, through brief revelation, " b u r n o u t " or " w a s h away"whatever metaphor of purification is usedthe accumulated sins and sunderings of structure.
S T A T U S R E V E R S A L IN " T H E F E A S T OF L O V E " IN V I L L A G E I N D I A

To summarize our findings so far on rituals of status reversal: the masking of the weak in aggressive strength and the concomitant masking of the strong in humility and passivity are devices that cleanse society of its structurally engendered " s i n s " and what hippies might call " h a n g - u p s . " T h e stage is then set for an ecstatic experience of communitas, followed by a sober return to a now purged and reanimated structure. O n e of the best " i n s i d e " accounts of this ritual process is provided in an article by the usually sober and dis passionate analyst of Indian village society, Professor M c K i m Marriott ( 1 9 6 6 ) . He is discussing the Holi festival in the village of Kishan Garhi, "located across the J u m a n from M a t h u r a and Vrindaban, a day's walk from the youthful Krishna's fabled land of Vraja." Indeed, the presiding deity of the rites was Krishna, and the rites described to Marriott as " t h e feast of l o v e " were a spring festival, the "greatest religious celebration of the year." As a green field worker, Marriott had been plunged into the rites the previous year, inveigled into drinking a concoction containing marijuana, smeared with ochre, and cheerfully drubbed. In the intervening year, he reflected on what might be the social function, a la RadcliffeBrown, of these turbulent rites: Now a full year has passed in my investigations, and the Festival of Love was again approaching. Again I was apprehensive for my physical person, but was forewarned with social structural knowledge that might yield better understanding of the events to come. This time, without the draft of

The Ritual Process

marijuana, I began to see the pandemonium of Holi falling i n t o a n extraordi narily regular social ordering. But this w a s an order p r e c i s e l y i n v e r s e to the social and ritual principles of routine life. E a c h riotous a c t a t H o l i implied some opposite, positive rule or fact of e v e r y d a y social o r g a n i z a t i o n in the village. W h o were those smiling men whose shins were being m o s t mercilessly

beaten b y the w o m e n ? T h e y were the wealthier B r a h m a n a n d J a t farmers of the village, and the beaters were those ardent local R a d h a s , t h e "wives of the village," figuring b y both the real and fictional intercaste s y s t e m of kin ship. T h e wife of an " e l d e r b r o t h e r " w a s properly a m a n ' s j o k i n g mate while the wife of a " y o u n g e r b r o t h e r " w a s properly r e m o v e d f r o m him by rules of extreme respect, but both w e r e merged here w i t h a m a n ' s mothersurrogates, the wives of his " father's y o u n g e r brothers," in o n e revolutionary cabal of" wives " that cut across all lesser lines and links. T h e b o l d e s t beaters in this veiled battalion were often in fact the wives of the f a r m e r s ' low-caste field-laborers, artisans, or menialsthe concubines a n d k i t c h e n help of the flattered victim, victims. " G o and bake b r e a d ! " teased one farmer, e g g i n g h i s assailant on. " D o you w a n t some seed from m e ? " shouted another smarting under the blows, but standing his ground. S i x B r a h m a n men in their fifties, pillars of village society, limped past in p a n t i n g f l i g h t from the quarter staff wielded b y a massive y o u n g Bhangin, s w e e p e r o f their latrines. F r o m this carnage suffered b y their village brothers, all d a u g h t e r s of the village stood apart, yet held themselves in readiness to a t t a c k a n y potential husband w h o might w a n d e r in from another, m a r r i a g e a b l e v i l l a g e to pay a holiday call. W h o was that " K i n g of the H o l i " riding backwards o n t h e donkey? It was an older boy of high caste, a famous bully, put there b y his organized victims (but seeming to relish the prominence of his d i s g r a c e ) . W h o was in that chorus singing so lustily in the potters' l a n e ? Not just the resident caste fellows, but six washermen, a tailor, a n d t h r e e Brahmans, joined each y e a r for this d a y only in a n idealistic musical c o m p a n y patterned on friendships of the gods. W h o were those transfigured " c o w h e r d s " heaping m u d a n d dust on all the leading citizens? T h e y were the w a t e r carrier, t w o y o u n g Brahman priests, and a barber's son, avid experts in the daily r o u t i n e s o f purification. Whose household temple was festooned with goats' b o n e s b y unknown merrymakers? It w a s the temple of the B r a h m a n w i d o w w h o h a d constantly harassed neighbors and kinsmen with actions at law.

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In front of whose house was a burlesque dirge being sung b y a professional ascetic of the village? It was the house of a very much alive moneylender, notorious for his punctual collections and his insufficient charities. W h o was it who had his head fondly anointed, not only with handfuls of the sublime red powders, but also with a gallon of diesel oil ? It was the village landlord, the anointer was his cousin and archrival, the police head man of Kishan Garhi. W h o was it w h o was made to dance in the streets, fluting like L o r d Krishna, with a garland of old shoes around his neck? It was I , the visiting anthropologist, w h o had asked far too m a n y questions, and had always to receive respectful answers. Here indeed were the m a n y village kinds of love confoundedrespectful regard for parents and patrons; the idealized affection for brothers, sisters, and comrades; the longing of m a n for union with the divine; and the rugged lust of sexual matesall broken suddenly out of their usual, narrow channels by a simultaneous increase of intensity. Boundless, unilateral love of every kind flooded over the usual compartmentalization and indifference among separated castes and families. Insubordinate libido inundated all established hierarchies of age, sex, caste, wealth, and power. Thesocial meaning of Krishna's doctrine in its rural North Indian recension is not unlike one conservative social implication of Jesus' Sermon on the Mount. T h e Sermon admonishes severely, but at the same time postpones the destruction of the secular social order until a distant future. Krishna does not postpone the reckoning of the mighty until an ultimate J u d g m e n t Day, but schedules it regularly as a masque at the full moon of every M a r c h . A n d the Holi of Krishna is no mere doctrine of love: rather it is the script for a drama that must be acted out b y each devotee passionately, joyfully. T h e dramatic balancing of Holithe world destruction and world

renewal, the world pollution followed by world purificationoccurs not only on the abstract level of structural principles, but also in the person of each participant. U n d e r the tutelage of Krishna, each person plays and for the moment m a y experience the role of his opposite; the servile wife acts the domineering husband, and vice versa; the ravisher acts the ravished; the menial acts the master; the enemy acts the friend; the strictured youths act the rulers of the republic. T h e observing anthropologist, inquiring and reflecting on the forces that move men in their orbits, finds himself pressed.to act the witless bumpkin. E a c h actor playfully takes the role of others in relation to his own usual self. E a c h m a y thereby learn to play his own

The Ritual Process

routine roles afresh, surely with renewed understanding, possibly witjj

greater grace, perhaps with a reciprocating love (pp. 2 1 0 - 2 1 2 ) .

I have one or two small cavils with Marriott's o t h e r w i s e a d m i r a b l e and empathetic account. I t is not the biological drive o f " l i b i d o " that " i n u n d a t e s all established hierarchies of age, sex, c a s t e , w e a l t h , and power," but the liberated experience of c o m m u n i t a s , w h i c h , ^ Blake might have said, is " a n intellectual t h i n g " i . e . , i t i n v o l v e s total cognizance of another's h u m a n total. C o m m u n i t a s is not merely instinctual; it involves consciousness a n d v o l i t i o n . S t a t u s reversal in the Holi festival liberates the m a n (and w o m a n ) from the status. U n d e r certain conditions this c a n b e a n " e c s t a t i c " experience, in the etymological sense of the individual's " s t a n d i n g outside" his structural status. " E c s t a s y " = " e x i s t e n c e . " A g a i n , I would not altogether derive t h e "reciprocating l o v e " s e n s e d by Marriott from the actor's taking the role of a n alter. R a t h e r , I w o u l d regard this mock role-playing merely as a device to d e s t r o y all roles and prepare for t h e emergence of communitas. But M a r r i o t t has well described a n d grasped t h e salient characteristics o f a r i t u a l of status reversal: the ritual dominance of structural i n f e r i o r s , their blunt speaking a n d rough doing; the symbolic humility a n d a c t u a l humiliation of their status superiors; the way in which t h o s e struc turally " b e l o w " represent a communitas that floods across s t r u c t u r a l boundaries, that begins with force a n d ends with love; a n d , finally, the stressing, not the overthrowing of the principle of h i e r a r c h y (i.e., of graded organization), undoubtedly purifiedeven, p a r a d o x i c a l l y , by the breach of many H i n d u pollution rulesthrough r e v e r s a l , a process whereby it remains t h e structural vertebra of v i l l a g e life.

R E L I G I O N S OF H U M I L I T Y A N D OF S T A T U S R E V E R S A L

I have thus far been discussing liminal rites in religious systems belonging to societies that a r e highly structured, cyclical, a n d repeti tive. I would like to continue b y tentatively suggesting t h a t a dis-

Humility and Hierarchy tinction similar to the one we have been making between the liminality of rites of status elevation and the liminality of rites of status reversal may be found, at least in their early stages, in religions of wider than tribal scope, especially during periods of rapid and unpre cedented social changewhich themselves have liminal attributes. In other words, some religions resemble the liminality of status elevation: T h e y emphasize humility, patience, and the unimport ance of distinctions of status, property, age, sex, and other natural and cultural differentiae. Furthermore, they stress mystical union, numinosity, a n d undifferentiated communitas. This is because many of them regard this life as itself constituting a liminal phase and the funerary rites as preparing for the reaggregation of initiands to a higher level or plane of existence, such as heaven or nirvana. Other religious movements, on the contrary, exhibit many of the attributes of tribal and peasant rituals of status reversal. T h e limin ality of reversal did not so much eliminate as underline structural distinctions, even to the point of (often unconscious) caricature. Similarly, these religions are conspicuous for their emphasis on functional differentiation in the religious sphere, and/or the religious reversal of secular status.

S T A T U S R E V E R S A L IN SOUTH AFRICAN SEPARATISM

One particularly clear example of a religion of status reversal can be found in Sundkler's study of Bantu separatism in South Africa ( 1 9 6 1 ) . As is well known, there are now well over a thousand more or less small African-organized churches and sects in South Africa, which have broken off either from white mission churches or from one another. Sundkler, who studied African independent churches in Zululand, has this to say about " t h e reversed colour b a r in heaven":
In a country where some irresponsible Whites tell the African that Jesus is only for the W h i t e man, the African takes his revenge b y projecting the colour bar right into heavenly places. T h e colour-complex has painted their

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that. Shembe [
a

very heaven black, and die Black Christ has to see t o

famous Z u l u prophet] at the gates turns a w a y the W h i t e s , b e c a u s e they, as the rich man, have already in their lifetime received t h e i r g o o d thing, and he opens the gate only to his faithful followers. T h e fate o f t h e African who belonged to the W h i t e mission churches is l a m e n t a b l e : " O n e race cannot enter by the gate of another r a c e , " on the arrival at t h e W h i t e people's gate they are turned a w a y . . . . T h e colour-complex takes t h e p a r a b l e s of Jesus into its service. H e r e is one to which I have heard r e f e r e n c e s i n some Zionist churches: " T h e r e were ten virgins. A n d five of t h e m w e r e W h i t e , and five were Black. T h e five Whites were foolish, but the five B l a c k s w e r e wise, they had oil in their lamps. A l l ten c a m e to the gate. B u t t h e five W h i t e virgins received the same answer as the rich m a n r e c e i v e d : B e c a u s e the Whites rule on earth, the Blacks do so in H e a v e n . T h e W h i t e s w i l l g o a-begging to dip the tip of their finger in cool water. B u t they will g e t a s a r e p l y : ' Hhayyi (no)nobody can rule t w i c e " ' (p. 2 9 0 ) .

I t will be noted that here status reversal is n o t p a r t of a total system of rituals, t h e final effect of which is to p r o m o t e reconciliation between the different strata of t h e structural h i e r a r c h y . W e are not dealing with a n integrated social system in w h i c h s t r u c t u r e is per vaded by communitas; thus, w e h a v e only t h e r e v e r s a l aspect em phasized, with every hope t h a t this will b e m a n ' s u l t i m a t e state. Nevertheless, t h e example is instructive in t h a t i t s u g g e s t s that reli gions that stress hierarchy, whether direct or i n v e r t e d , as a general attribute of religious life, a r e generated from t h e m i d s t of the struc turally inferior in a socio-political system t h a t r e s t s a s m u c h upon force as on consensus. I t rnight b e w o r t h p o i n t i n g o u t h e r e too that m a n y of these South African sects, small t h o u g h t h e y are, have elaborate clerical hierarchies, a n d t h a t w o m e n o f t e n o c c u p y import a n t ritual roles.

PSEUD O HIERARCHIES IN MELANESIAN MILLENARIANISM

Although the literature on religious a n d s e m i r e l i g i o u s movements does not lend complete support to t h e view I h a v e b e e n taking, and m a n y problems a n d difficulties remain, there is nevertheless strong

Humility and Hierarchy evidence that religious forms clearly attributable to the generative activities of structurally inferior groups or categories soon assume many of the external characteristics of hierarchies. Such hierarchies may merely reverse secular ranking, or they may altogether replace the secular framework either in the ecclesiastical structure of the movement or in its eschatological beliefs. A good example of a movement that, in its organizational form, attempted to replicate the European social structure may be found in Peter Lawrence's Road Belong Cargo ( 1 9 6 4 ) . I n the program of Yali, one of the M a d a n g Melanesian prophets: The people were to give up living in hamlets and come together in large "camps," which were to have their houses built along streets, and to be beautified with flowers and shrubs. Each " camp " was to have a new " Rest House," which was no longer to be called a haus kiap, but a hausyali. It was to be used by Yali when he visited the people in his capacity as an Admini stration Officer. Each " camp " had to have proper latrines, and new roads had to be cut throughout the area. . . . The old headmen would have to be superseded by " boss boys," who would supervise the work of reconstruction and also see that Yali's orders were carried out. Monogamy was enjoined, second wives would be divorced and married to bachelors (p. 160). Other features imitating European administrative structure and material and religious culture were introduced into this " C a r g o cult." M a n y other Cargo cults, of course, have similar organizational features, and, in addition, hold to the belief that the Europeans will be driven out or destroyed, but that their own ancestors and living prophets will govern them in a pseudo-bureaucratic structure. It is not at all certain, however, that the liminal-religious generation of pseudohierarchies is solely the outcome of structural inferiority. T h e factor of status reversal is, I a m convinced, correlated with permanent structural inferiority. But, it may well be that elaborately ranked ritual or ceremonial hierarchies represent the liminality of secularly egalitarian groups, regardless of the rank of such groups in the wider society. O n e could instance the Freemasons, the Rosicrucians, the Elks, the Sicilian Mafia, a n d other kinds of secret societies and

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brotherhoods, with elaborate ritual a n d c e r e m o n i a l , a n d with gener ally a strong religious tinge. T h e m e m b e r s h i p o f s u c h groups is often drawn from socio-political communities of s i m i l a r l y r a n k e d persons, with shared egalitarian values a n d a s i m i l a r l e v e l of economic consumption. I t is true that in these cases there is an a s p e c t o f reversal, toofor secular equality is contradicted by liminal h i e r a r c h y b u t this is not so m u c h a reversal of rank order w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r structural system as the substitution of one type of s y s t e m ( a hierarchical one) for another (an egalitarian one). I n some c a s e s , a s w i t h the Mafia, the K u K l u x K l a n , and some Chinese secret s o c i e t i e s , liminal hier archy acquires instrumental political values a n d f u n c t i o n s and loses its " p l a y - a c t i n g , " fantastical quality. W h e n t h i s happens, the directed, purposive character of political o r q u a s i - m i l i t a r y action m a y well find the hierarchical form c o n g e n i a l t o its organizational requirements. T h a t is why it is so i m p o r t a n t , w h e n studying such groups as the Freemasons a n d the Hell's A n g e l s motorcycle gangs of California a n d comparing t h e m with o n e a n o t h e r , to specify what phase they have reached in their d e v e l o p m e n t a l cycle and under what social field conditions they c u r r e n t l y exist.

SOME M O D E R N OF R E V E R S A L A N D

EXAMPLES

PSEUDO-HIERARCHY

It may be objected that in these liminal m o v e m e n t s hierarchical organization necessarily develops as t h e n u m b e r of members in creases; however, m a n y examples show t h a t s u c h m o v e m e n t s have a multitude of offices b u t a small n u m b e r of m e m b e r s . For example, Allan C. Speirs, of Cornell University ( u n p u b l i s h e d thesis, 1 9 6 6 ) , describes how the Aaronites' c o m m u n i t y o f U t a h , a Mormon separatist sect n u m b e r i n g not m a n y m o r e t h a n t w o hundred souls, nevertheless possessed " a complicated h i e r a r c h i c a l structure some what similar to that of M o r m o n i s m . . . h a v i n g such positions as First H i g h Priest, Second H i g h Priest, P r e s i d e n t , First Vice-Presi-

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dent, Second Vice-President, Priests of Branches, Bishops of Coun cils, Teachers, and D e a c o n s " (p. 2 2 ) . A rather different kind of group, described in several published articles and unpublished manuscripts by R.Lincoln Keiser,of the Universityof Rochester,is the Conservative Vice Lords, a gang or " c l u b " or " n a t i o n " of adolescent Negro youths in Chicago. M r . Keiser generously gave me access to the colorful autobiography of " T e d d y , " one of the leaders of the Vice Lords. T h e Vice Lords had a number of ceremonial activities, such as a " W i n e C e r e m o n y " for their dead and those in penitentiaries, and on these and other occasions they wore black and red capes as ceremonial dress. What is particularly striking about the Vice Lords and such other gangs as the Egyptian Cobras and the Imperial Chaplains is the complex and hierarchical nature of their organization. For example, the Vice Lords were divided into "Seniors," " J u n i o r s , " and " M i d gets," depending on the time ofjoining, and into territorial branches, the sum of which constituted the " V i c e Lord Nation." " T e d d y " describes the organizational structure of the St. Thomas b r a n c h : "Everybody in the group at St. Thomas when they first started had some kind of position. T h e officers were President, Vice-President, Secretary-Treasurer, Chief W a r Councilor, W a r Councilor, and they had Sergeants-at-Arms" (p. 1 7 ) . In the main, the behavior of the gang members was fairly casual and egalitarian, when they were not fighting among themselves over the control of territory. But their structure in formal and ceremonial situations was the reverse of egalitarian. T h e r e was a strict pecking order, while branches that sought to become independent of the original " c l u b " were swiftly brought into line. Another contemporary example of the tendency for structurally inferior categories to have hierarchical liminality is provided by the young motorcycle riders of California known as the Hell's Angels. Hunter S. Thompson (1966) claims that most of the members are sons of people who came to California before World W a r IIhill billies, Okies, Arkies, and Appalachians (p. 2 0 2 ) . Today the men are "longshoremen, warehousemen, truck drivers, mechanics, clerks,

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and casual laborers at any work that pays quick wages a n d t h a t requires no allegiance. Perhaps one in ten has a steady j o b a n d a decent i n c o m e " (pp. 73-74). T h e y call themselves the o n e - p e r c e n ters, " t h e one percent that don't fit and d o n ' t c a r e " (p. 1 3 ) . T h e y refer to members of the " s t r a i g h t " world as " c i t i z e n s , " w h i c h implies that they themselves are not. T h e y have opted o u t o f t h e structural system. Nevertheless, like the Negro Vice L o r d s , t h e y constitute a formal organization with complex initiation c e r e m o n i e s and grades of membership emblematized by badges. T h e y h a v e a set of bylaws, an executive committee, consisting of p r e s i d e n t , v i c e president, secretary, treasurer, and sergeant-at-arms, a n d f o r m a l weekly meetings. Among the Hell's Angels we find replication of the s t r u c t u r e of secular associational organization, rather t h a n status r e v e r s a l . B u t we do find elements of status reversal in their initiation c e r e m o n i e s , during which the Angel recruits bring clean new Levis a n d j a c k e t s to the rite, only to steep them in dung, urine, and oil. T h e i r d i r t y and ragged condition, " r i p e n e d " to the point of d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , is a sign of status that reverses the " n e a t and c l e a n " s t a n d a r d of " c i t i z e n s " trapped in status and structure. But, despite their p s e u d o hierarchies, both the Vice Lords and the Angels stress the v a l u e s of communitas. T h e Vice Lord " T e d d y , " for example, said o f t h e general public: "And then pretty soon they said we h a d a n o r g a n i zation. But all we thought, we just b u d d y - b u d d y . " ( K e i s e r , 1 9 6 6 ) . Thompson, too, frequently stresses the "togetherness g r o u p " c h a r acter of the Hell's Angels. T h u s pseudostructure does not a p p e a r to be inconsistent with real communitas. These groups are p l a y i n g t h e game of structure rather than engaging in the s o c i o e c o n o m i c structure in real earnest. Their structure is " expressive " in t h e m a i n , though it has instrumental aspects. But expressive structures o f t h i s type may under certain circumstances be converted into p r a g m a t i c structures, as in the case of Chinese secret societies, such as t h e T r i a d society discussed in Gustaaf Schlegel's The Hung League ( 1 8 6 6 ) . Similarly, the ceremonial structure of the Poro society of S i e r r a Leone was used as the basis of a politically rebellious o r g a n i z a t i o n in the M e n d e Rising of 1898 (Little, 1965, passim).

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R E L I G I O N S OF H U M I L I T Y WITH HIGH-STATUS FOUNDERS

There are many examples of religions and ideological and ethical movements that have been founded by persons of high, or, if not high, of solidly respectable, structural status. Significantly, the basic teachings of these founders are full of references to the stripping off of worldly distinctions, property, status, and the like, and many of them stress the " s p i r i t u a l " or " s u b s t a n t i a l " identity of male and female. In these and in many other respects the liminal religious condition they seek to bring about, in which their followers are withdrawn from the world, has close affinities with that found in the liminality of seclusion in tribal life-crisis ritesand, indeed, in other rituals of status elevation. Abasement and humility are regarded not as the final goal of these religions but simply as attributes of the liminal phase through which believers must pass on their way to the final and absolute states of heaven, nirvana, or Utopia. It is a case of reculer pour mieux sauter. When religions of this type become popular and embrace the structurally inferior masses, there is often a significant shift in the direction of hierarchical organization. In a way, these hierarchies are " i n v e r t e d " a t any rate in terms of the prevalent belief systemfor the leader or leaders are represented, like the Pope, as "servants of the servants of G o d " rather than as tyrants or despots. Status is acquired through the stripping of worldly authority from the incumbent and the putting on of meek ness, humility, and responsible care for members of the religion, even for all men. Nevertheless, just as in the South African Separa tist sects, the Melanesian Cargo cults, the Order of Aaron, Negro adolescent gangs, and the Hell's Angels, the popular expansion of a religion or a ceremonial group often leads to its becoming hierarchical. In the first place, there is the problem of organizing large numbers. In the secondand this is seen in small sects with complex hier archiesthe liminality of the poor or weak assumes the trappings of secular structure and is masked in parental power, as we saw earlier in the discussion of animal and monstrous disguises.

19.6

The Ritual Process

The Buddha As examples of structurally superior or w e l l - e n t r e n c h e d religious founders who preached the values of humility a n d c o m m u n i t a s , one might cite the Buddha, St. Francis, Tolstoy, and G a n d h i . T h e case of Jesus is less clear-cut: while M a t t h e w a n d Luke t r a c e t h e descent of his pater Joseph to K i n g David, a n d while the i m p o r t a n c e a n d status of a carpenter are high in m a n y peasant societies, J e s u s is usually considered to be " a m a n of the p e o p l e . " T h e B u d d h a ' s father was reported to be an important chief a m o n g the t r i b e o f t h e Sakiyas, while his mother, M a h a M a y a , was the d a u g h t e r of a neighboring king in a region to the southeast of the Himalayas. A c c o r d i n g to the received account, Siddhartha, as the prince was k n o w n , led a shel tered life for 29 years behind the protective walls of t h e r o y a l palace, waiting to succeed his father. Next comes the c e l e b r a t e d tale of his three ventures into the world beyond the gates w i t h h i s coachman Channa, during which he encountered successively a n old man worn out with labor, a leper, and a rotting corpse, a n d s a w at first hand the lot of structural inferiors. After his first e x p e r i e n c e of death, on his return to the palace, he was met by the s o u n d o f m u s i c cele brating the arrival of his first-born son and h e i r a s s u r a n c e of the structural continuity of his line. F a r from being d e l i g h t e d , he was disturbed by this further commitment to the d o m a i n o f a u t h o r i t y and power. W i t h C h a n n a he stole away from the p a l a c e a n d wandered for many years among the c o m m o n people of I n d i a , l e a r n i n g much about the realities of the caste system. For a while h e b e c a m e a severe ascetic with five disciples. But this modality of s t r u c t u r e , t o o , did not satisfy him. And when he entered his celebrated m e d i t a t i o n for forty days under the Bo tree, he h a d already c o n s i d e r a b l y modified the rigors of the religious life. H a v i n g attained e n l i g h t e n m e n t , he spent the last 45 years of his life teaching w h a t was i n effect a simple lesson of submission a n d meekness to all people, i r r e s p e c t i v e of race, class, sex, or age. H e did not p r e a c h his doctrines for t h e benefit of a single class or caste, a n d even the lowest Pariah m i g h t , a n d some times did, call himself his disciple.

Humility and Hierarchy

197

I n the Buddha we have a classic case of a " s t r u c t u r a l l y " wellendowed religious founder who underwent initiation into communi tas through stripping and equalizing and putting on the behavior of weakness and poverty. I n India itself, one could cite many further examples of structural superiors who renounced wealth and position and preached holy poverty, such as Caitanya (see Chapter 4 ) ; Mahavlra, the founder of Jainism, who was a n older contemporary of the B u d d h a ; and Nanak, the founder of Sikhism.

Gandhi In recent times, we have had the impressive spectacle of the life and martyrdom of Mohandas K a r a m c h a n d Gandhi, who was at least as much a religious as a political leader. Like the others just men tioned, Gandhi came from a respectable segment of the social hier archy. As he writes in his autobiography ( 1 9 4 8 ) : " T h e Gandhis . . . for three generations from my grandfather . . . had been prime min isters in several Kathiawad States" (p. 1 1 ) . His father, K a b a Gandhi, was for some time Prime Minister in Rajkot and then in Vankaner. Gandhi studied law in London and afterward went to South Africa on legal business. But soon he renounced wealth and position to lead the South African Indians in their struggle for greater justice, developing the doctrine of nonviolence and " t r u t h - f o r c e " into a powerful political and economic instrument. Gandhi's later career as m a i n leader of the National Independence movement in India is well known to all. Here I would merely like to quote from his autobiography ( 1 9 4 8 ) some of his thoughts o n the virtues of stripping oneself of property and making oneself equal to all. Gandhi was always devoted to the great spiritual guide of Hinduism, the Bhagavad Gita, and in his spiritual crises he used to turn to " t h i s dictionary of c o n d u c t " for solutions of his inner difficulties: Words like aparigraha [nonpossession] and sambhava [equability] gripped me. How to cultivate and preserve that equability was the question. How was one to treat alike insulting, insolent and corrupt officials, co-workers of

The Ritual Process

yesterday raising meaningless opposition and men w h o h a d a l w a y s been

good to one ? H o w was one to divest oneself of all possessions ? W a s n o t t h e body itself possession enough? W e r e not wife and children possessions? W a s I to destroy all the cupboards of books I had ? W a s I to g i v e u p a l l I h a d and follow H i m ? Straight came the answer: I could not follow H i m u n l e s s I gave up all I had (p. 3 2 3 ) .

Eventually, and partly t h r o u g h his study of English l a w ( n o t a b l y Snell's discussions of the maxims of equity), G a n d h i c a m e t o u n d e r stand the deeper teaching of nonpossession to m e a n t h a t t h o s e w h o desired salvation " s h o u l d act like t h e trustee, w h o , t h o u g h h a v i n g control over great possessions, regards n o t a n iota of t h e m a s his o w n " (p. 324). I t was thus, though by a different route, t h a t G a n d h i came to t h e same conclusion as t h e Catholic C h u r c h in its c o n s i d e r ation of t h e problem of Franciscan p o v e r t y : a juridical d i s t i n c t i o n was m a d e between dominium (possession) a n d usus ( t r u s t e e s h i p ) . Gandhi, true to his new conviction, allowed his insurance p o l i c y t o lapse, since h e became certain t h a t " G o d , w h o created m y w i f e a n d children as well as myself, would take care of t h e m " ( p . 3 2 4 ) .

Christian

Leaders

I n the Christian tradition, too, there have been i n n u m e r a b l e founders of religious orders a n d sects w h o came from t h e u p p e r half of the social cone, yet preached t h e style of life-crisis l i m i n a l i t y a s t h e p a t h of salvation. As a minimal list, o n e might cite Saints B e n e d i c t , Francis, Dominic, Clare, a n d Teresa of Avila in the C a t h o l i c s p h e r e ; and the Wesleys, with their " p l a i n living a n d h i g h t h i n k i n g , " George Fox, founder of t h e Quakers, a n d (to quote a n A m e r i c a n example) Alexander Campbell, leader of the Disciples o f C h r i s t , who sought to restore primitive Christianity a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e primitive conditions of Christian fellowship, in t h e P r o t e s t a n t sphere. These Protestant leaders came from solid m i d d l e c l a s s b a c k grounds, yet sought to develop i n their followers a s i m p l e , u n o s t e n -

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tatious life-style without distinctions of worldly status. T h a t their movements subsequently succumbed to " t h e world"and, indeed, as Weber shows, throve in itin no way impugns their pristine intents. In fact, as we have seen, the regular course of such move ments is to reduce communitas from a state to a phase between in cumbencies of positions in an ever developing structure.

Tolstoy Gandhi was strongly influenced, not only by aspects of Hinduism, but also by the words and work of the great Christian anarchist and novelist Leo Tolstoy. The Kingdom of God Is Wilkin You, wrote Gandhi (1948), "overwhelmed me and left an abiding impression on m e " (p. 1 7 2 ) . Tolstoy, who was a wealthy nobleman as well as a famous novelist, went through a religious crisis when he was about 50 years old, in the course of which he even contemplated suicide as an escape from the meaninglessness and superficiality of life among the upper class and intellectuals and esthetes. It came to him then that " i n order to understand life I must understand not an excep tional life such as ours who are parasites on life, but the life of the simple labouring folkthose who make lifeand the meaning which they attribute to it. T h e simplest labouring people around me were the Russian people, and I turned to them and the meaning of life which they give. T h a t meaning, if one can put it into words, was as follows: Every man has come into this world by the will of God. And God has so made man that every man can destroy his soul or save it. T h e aim of man in life is to save his soul, and to save his soul he must live 'godly' and to live 'godly' he must renounce all the pleasures of life, must labour, humble himself, suffer, and be merciful" (1940, p . 6 7 ) . As most people know, Tolstoy m a d e strenuous efforts to replicate his beliefs in his life, and lived in peasant fashion until his life's end.

200

The Ritual Process

SOME P R O B L E M S OF E L E V A T I O N A N D R E V E R S A L

Enough has been said to underline, on the one hand, the affinity between the liminality of rituals of status elevation and the religious teachings of structurally superior prophets, saints, and teachers, and, on the other, the affinity between the liminality of calendrical or n a t u r a l crisis rituals of status reversal and the religious beliefs and practices of movements dominated by structural inferiors. Crudely put, the liminality of the strong is weaknessof the weak, strength. O r again, the liminality of wealth and nobility is poverty a n d p a u p e r ismof poverty, ostentation and pseudohierarchy. Clearly, there are m a n y problems here. Why is it, for instance, that in the intervals between occupying their culturally defined socioeconomic positions a n d statuses, men, women, a n d children should in some cases be enjoined and in others choose to act and feel in ways opposite to or different from their standardized modes of behavior ? Do they under go all these penances and reversals merely out of boredom as a colorful change from daily routines, or in response to resurgent repressed sexual or aggressive drives, or to satisfy certain cognitive needs for binary discrimination, or for some other set of reasons ? Like all rituals, those of humility and those of hierarchy are im mensely complex and resonate on many dimensions. Perhaps, how ever, one important clue to their understanding is the distinction m a d e earlier between the two modalities of social interrelatedness known as communitas and structure. Those who feel the burdens of office, who have by birth or achievement come to occupy control positions in structure, may well feel that rituals and religious beliefs that stress the stripping or dissolution of structural ties and obliga tions offer what many historical religions call " r e l e a s e . " I t may well be that such release is compensated for by ordeals, penances, a n d other hardships. But, nevertheless, such physical burdens m a y well be preferable to the mental burdens of giving and receiving com m a n d s a n d acting always in the masks of role and status. O n the other

Humility and Hierarchy

201

hand, such liminality may also, when it appears in rites de passage, humble the neophyte precisely because he is to be structurally exalted at the end of the rites. Ordeals and penances, therefore, m a y subserve antithetical functions, on the one hand punishing the neophyte for rejoicing in liminal freedom, and, on the other, temper ing him for the incumbency of still higher office, with its greater privileges as well as more exacting obligations. Such ambiguity need not by now surprise us, for it is a property of all centrally liminal processes and institutions. But, while the structurally wellendowed seek release, structural underlings may well seek, in their liminality, deeper involvement in a structure that, though fantastic and simulacral only, nevertheless enables them to experience for a legitimated while a different kind of " r e l e a s e " from a different kind of lot. Now they can lord it, and " s t r u t and stare and a' t h a t , " and very frequently the targets of their blows and abuse are the very persons whom they must normally defer to and obey. Both these types of rituals reinforce structure. In the first, the system of social positions is not challenged. T h e gaps between the positions, the interstices, are necessary to the structure. If there were no intervals, there would be no structure, and it is precisely the gaps that are reaffirmed in this kind of liminality. T h e structure of the whole equation depends on its negative as well as its positive signs. Thus, humility reinforces a just pride in position, poverty affirms wealth, and penance sustains virility and health. We have seen how, on the other hand, status reversal does not mean " a n o m i e " but simply a new perspective from which to observe structure. Its topsyturviness may even give a humorous warmth to this ritual viewpoint. If the liminality of life-crisis rites may be, perhaps audaciously, compared to tragedyfor both imply humbling, stripping, and painthe liminality of status reversal may be compared to comedy, for both involve mockery and inversion, but not destruction, of structural rules and overzealous adherents to them. Again, we might regard the psychopathology of these ritual types as involving i n the first case a masochistic set of attitudes for the neophytes, and, in the second, a sadistic component.

202

The Ritual Process

As regards the relationship of communitas, t h e r e a r e t h o s e who, in the exercise of daily authority or as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of major structural groupings, have little opportunity to deal w i t h t h e i r fellow m e n as concrete individuals and equals. Perhaps, i n t h e liminality of life crises and status changes, they might find a n o p p o r t u n i t y to strip themselves of all outward tokens a n d i n w a r d s e n t i m e n t s of status distinction and merge with the masses, or even t o b e symbolic ally at least regarded as the servants of the masses. As f o r those who are normally at the bottom of the pecking o r d e r a n d experience the comradeship and equality of joint subordinates, t h e liminality of status reversal might provide a n opportunity to e s c a p e from the communitas of necessity (which is therefore i n a u t h e n t i c ) into a pseudostructure where all behavioral extravagances a r e possible. Yet, in a curious way, these bluff c o m m u n i t a s - b e a r e r s are able through jest and mockery to infuse c o m m u n i t a s t h r o u g h o u t the whole society. For here too there is not only reversal b u t leveling, since the incumbent of each status with a n excess of r i g h t s is bullied by one with a deficiency of rights. W h a t is left is a k i n d of social average, or something like the neutral position in a g e a r box, from which it is possible to proceed in different directions a n d a t different speeds in a new bout of movement. Both types of rites we have been considering seem t o b e b o u n d up with cyclical repetitive systems of multiplex social r e l a t i o n s . Here there appears to b e a n intimate b o n d of r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n an institutionalized a n d only slowly changing structure a n d a particular mode of communitas which tends to b e localized in t h a t particular kind of structure. Undoubtedly, in large-scale c o m p l e x societies, with a high degree of specialization a n d division of l a b o r , and with many single-interest, associational ties a n d a g e n e r a l w e a k e n i n g of close corporate bonds, the situation is likely to b e v e r y different. I n a n effort to experience communitas, individuals w i l l seek mem bership of would-be universal ideological m o v e m e n t s , w h o s e motto might well be T o m Paine's " t h e world is m y v i l l a g e . " O r , they will join small-scale " w i t h d r a w a l " groups, like t h e h i p p i e a n d digger communities of San Francisco a n d N e w York, w h e r e " t h e village

Humility and Hierarchy

203

[Greenwich or otherwise] is my world." T h e difficulty that these groups have so far failed to resolve is that tribal communitas is the complement and obverse of tribal structure, and, unlike the New World Utopians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, they have not yet developed a structure capable of maintaining social and economic order over long periods of time. T h e very flexibility a n d mobility of social relations in modern industrial societies, however, may provide better conditions for the emergence of existential com munitas, even if only in countless a n d transient encounters, than any previous forms of social order. Perhaps this was what Walt W h i t m a n m e a n t when he wrote:
One's-self I sing, a simple separate person, Y e t utter the word Democratic, the word E n - M a s s e .

O n e final comment: Society (societas) seems to be a process rather than a thinga dialectical process with successive phases of structure and communitas. There would seem to beif one can use such a controversial terma h u m a n " n e e d " to participate in both modali ties. Persons starved of one in their functional day-to-day activities seek it in ritual liminality. T h e structurally inferior aspire to symbolic structural superiority in ritual; the structurally superior aspire to symbolic communitas and undergo penance to achieve it.

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Index

All Saints, I 8 I All Souls, 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 Angelo da Clareno, 1 5 1 Apthorpe, Raymond, 5 , 2 0 4 Aquinas, Thomas, 1 8 2 Ashanti, 4 6 Apo ceremony, 1 7 8 - 1 8 1 community in kinship based societies,
120-125

Bosman, William, 178 Boys' circumcision rites, 1 6 , 1 7 , 2 5 , 3 5 ,

4>> 5 2 . 6 5 , 9 .
6

i7

and St. Benedict, 1 0 8 Buber, Martin, 1 3 2 , 2 0 4 on community, 1 2 6 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 6 , 1 3 7 ,

142, 143

Buddha, as a leader, 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 Buddhism; See Zen Buddhism

Attwater, Donald, 1 0 7 , 1 8 1 , 2 0 4 Bachofen, Johann J . , 2 Bantu societies, 1 1 , 4 8 , 1 8 3 Barnard, Helen, 8 4 n . Bauls musicians, 1 6 4 Baumann, H., 4 6 and Westermann, D., 4 6 , 2 0 4 Beidelman, T . O., 4 0 Bemba; See Rites of the Bemba Bengal the Sahajiya movement of, 1 5 4 - 1 5 5 Vaisnavas of, 1 5 5 See also Francis and Sahajiya Bergson, Henri, 1 1 0 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 2 Blake, William, 1 3 2 , 1 4 1 , 1 8 8 Boas, Franz, 3 Boehmer, Hans, 1 4 4 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 2 0 4 Caitanya, 1 5 5 - 1 6 5 , 1 9 7 See also Francis Campbell, Alexander, 1 9 8 Cargo cults, Melanesian, 1 9 1 - 1 9 2 , 1 9 5 Central Africa, population, 9 See also Ritual studies in Central Africa Chokwe people, 4 , 1 4 Circumcision; See Boys' circumcision rites Chekhov, Anton, 1 1 0 Chief Ikelenge, 7 , 8 Christian leaders, 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 Clare; See Christian leaders Cohn, Norman, i n , 2 0 4 Colson, Elizabeth, 5

209

210

Index
Firth, Raymond, 1 2 6 , 2 0 5 Fortes, Meyer, 9 7 , 9 9 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 ,
117, 118, 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 , 205

" Communitas," (community), 9 6 , 9 7 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 9 ff. apocalyptic, 1 5 3 - 1 5 4 developmental cycle, 9 7 and " hippies," 1 1 2 , 1 3 8 ideological and spontaneous, 1 3 4 , 1 4 0 in kinship based societies; See Tallensi; Nuer; Ashanti and liminality, 9 5 liminality and low status, 1 2 5 - 1 3 0 modalities of, 1 3 1 - 1 3 3 musicians in; See Bauls and the sexes, 1 8 3 - 1 8 5 and structure in rituals of status reversal, 1 7 7 - 1 7 8 and symbolic thought, 1 4 1 - 1 4 5 See also Bengal; Martin Buber; Franciscan, conceptualization and structure; Franciscan poverty; Franciscan, rights over and consumption of property Congo; See Suku of Congo Cults; See Women's cults

Fowl, meaning o f white and red; See Rites with f o w l Fox, George, 1 9 8 Francis, 1 4 0 - 1 4 5 , 1 5 5 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 8 and Caitanya, 1 5 5 - 1 6 0 and permanent liminality, 1 4 5 - 1 4 7 and Sahajiya, 1 6 1 - 1 6 2 Franoiscan, 1 3 3 conceptualization and structure,
147-150

poverty, 1 9 8 poverty and " communitas," 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 right over a n d consumption of property, 1 5 0 - 1 5 3 See also " C o m m u n i t a s " and symbolic thought Frazer, Sir J a m e s George, 3 Freud, S i g m u n d , 3 , 1 3 0 Freud, A n n a , 1 7 4 Gandhi, M o h a n d a s K . , 1 3 3 , i g 6 , 1 9 9 ,
205

Dante, A . , 1 8 2 Deardorff, Merle H., 1 , 2 , ' 2 0 5 De Rougement, D., 1 5 7 De, Sushil Jumar, 1 5 7 , 2 0 5 Developmental cycle; See " Com munitas," developmental cycle Dieterlen, Germaine, 3 Dimock, Edward C , J r . , 1 5 5 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 7 ,
158, 161, 164, 205

as leader, 1 9 7 1 9 8 Gennep, A r n o l d v a n , 3 , 1 4 , 4 8 , 9 4 ,
166, 206

Ghana; See T a l l e n s i ; Ashanti Ginsberg, Allen, 1 1 3 Girls' puberty rites, 7 , 2 1 , 4 1 , 4 6 , 5 2 ,

63, 184,206 65, 66

Gluckman, M a x , 5 , 7 8 , 8 1 , 1 0 9 , 1 8 3 , Goffman, E r v i n g , 1 0 8 , 1 2 8 , 1 6 9 , 2 0 6 Golib Festival, 9 9 , 1 1 6 Gould, J . , a n d W . L . Kolb, 1 2 5 , 2 0 6 Griaule, M . , 3 Halloween, A m e r i c a n , 1 7 2 - 1 7 4 Hegel, G . , 8 3 Herz, R . , 3 , 4 0 Hierarchies, p s e u d o modern e x a m p l e s of reversal and,
192-194

Dominic; See Christian leaders Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 1 1 0 Douglas, Mary, 1 0 9 , 2 0 5 Du Chaillu, Paul B., 1 7 0 , 2 0 5 Durkheim, Emil, 3 , 5 3 , 1 3 2 Dylan, Bob; See Bauls musicians Eister, A . W . , 1 2 5 Eliade, M . , 3 8 Elwin, Verrier, 1 1 6 , 2 0 5 Evans-Pritchard, Edward E . , 2 , 4 6 ,
92, 119, 205

"Feast of Love, T h e , " 1 8 5 - 1 8 8 Fenton, William, 2 , 2 0 5 Fernandez, James, 1 0 3

and secret societies, 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 Hillery, G . A . , 1 2 6 , 2 0 6 "Hippies"; See "Communitas" Hobbes, T h o m a s , 1 3 1 Hockett, C h a r l e s , 2

Index
Homans, G., 1 5 5 Hubert, H., 3 Humbu Kafwana, headman of, 9 8 - 1 0 1 See also Mbwela people Hume, David, 1 1 1 Humility; See Religion of humility Hunters' cults, 8, 3 5 Installation rite, 97 ff. "The Reviling of the Chief-Elect," 100 ff. Iroquois, 2 , 4 Isoma, 9 - 4 3 , 96 aims of, 1 8 - 2 0 classificatory structure: Dyads, 38 classificatory structure: Triads, 3 7 38 curative process, 3 3 - 3 7 medicines, collecting of, 2 4 - 2 7 the name, 1 5 - 1 6 planes of classification, 4 1 - 4 2 preparation of site, 20 processual form, 1 3 - 1 4 reasons for performing, 1 1 - 1 3 ritual symbolism, 4 2 - 4 3 situation and classification, 41 symbols of, 1 4 - 1 5 See also Twinship rite John of Parma, 1 5 1 Jung, Carl, 163 Junod, Henry, 169, 184, 206 Kafwana; See Humbu Kalahari, Bushmen of, 46 Kanongesha, senior chief, g8, 99, 100, 102 and medicines of witchcraft, 98 Katanga; See Lunda of Katanga Keiser, R. Lincoln, 1 9 3 , 194, 206 Kolb, W . L . , See Gould, J . Krige, Eileen, 184, 206 Krishna, 1 5 5 - 1 6 5 Kumukindyila; See Installation rite Lamba, 5, 109 Lambert, M . D., 206 on Franciscans, 1 4 1 , 144, 1 4 5 , 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 1 5 2

211

Lawrence, Peter, 1 9 1 , 206 Leach, Edmund, 164 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 3 , 20, 3 1 , 42, 69, 106, 126, 127, 1 3 1 , 1 3 3 , 1 5 3 , 1 7 3 . 206 L^vy-Bruhl, Lucien, 3 Lewis, Iowan M . , 99, 206 Little, Kenneth, 206 Livingstone, David, 9 Lowie, Robert, 3 Luchazi, 4, 14 Lunda of Katanga, 4, g8, 99, 100 Luvale, 4, 14 MacCulloch, John A . , 182, 206 Mair, Lucy, 5, 206 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 3 Marriott, McKim, 1 8 5 , 188, 207 Marx, Karl, 83 Mauss, M . , 3 Mbwela people, 98, 99 Medicines, 41 collecting of, 5 3 ff.; See also Isoma; Wubwang'u hot and cold (life and death), 2 7 - 3 1 Mitchell, Clyde, 5 Morgan, Lewis Henry, 130, 207 and religion, 1 - 4 Lectures for 1966, 1 Muchona (informant), 69 Mukanda; See Boys' circumcision rites Nadel, S. F . , 9 Namoos people, gg Needham, J . , 40 Ndembu divorce, 12 forms of duality among, 91 marriage, 1 2 , 82 as matrilineal society, 8 obscenity, 92 religious characteristics, compared to Christianity and other religions, 107 residential filiation (village), 21 woman's role of, 1 1 See also "Communitas"; Rituals; Rites Nietzsche, F . , 1 1 0 Nkang'a; See Girls' puberty rites Nkula rite, 7, 18

212

Index
Ritual of status elevation, 1 6 6 - 1 6 8 , 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 of status reversal, 1 7 7 - 1 7 8 , 1 8 3 - 1 8 5 ; See also "Feast of Love"; Religions of humility studies of, in Central Africa, 4 - 6 symbols of, 5 2 women's 1 1 See also Ndembu; Twinship Robertson-Smith, William, 3 Roscoe, John, 4 8 , 2 0 7 Rousseau, J . J . , 1 3 6 Sabatier, Paul, 1 4 3 , 2 0 7 St. Benedict, 1 0 7 , 1 9 8 monks of, 1 0 8 See also Boys' circumcision rite St. Bonaventura, 1 5 1 Samhain, 1 8 1 - 1 8 3 Schapera, I . , 4 5 Schneider, D., 1 1 5 Secret societies; See Hierarchies and secret societies Seneca Indian, 2 Separatism, South African; See Religion of status reversal Sexes contest of, 7 5 ft, 8 4 equality between, 8 1 See also " Communitas " Shakespeare, William, 1 3 4 , 1 3 6 , 1 4 0 Schlegel, Gustaaf, 1 9 4 , 2 0 7 Singer, Milton, 2 0 7 Soja; See Uganda Speirs, Allan C, 1 9 2 , 2 0 7 Spencer, Herbert, 3 , 1 2 5 Suku of the Congo, 4 8 Sundkler, Bengt, 1 8 9 , 2 0 7 Symbolism, ritual; See Isotna, ritual symbolism; Twinship rite Symbols; See Ritual; Isoma, symbols Tale, 9 9 land and community, 1 1 9 Tallensi, 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 community in kinship based societies,
113-118

Nuer, 1 3 0 community in kinship based societies,

119-120

of the Nilotic Sudan, 4 6 , 4 7 Nyakyusa people, 6 rites, 4 8 Oedipus complex, i 63 Olier, M . , 1 8 1 Olivi, 1 5 1 , 1 5 3 Paine, Thomas, 2 0 2 Parker, Ely S., 2 Prince Philip, 9 7 Pope Gregory I X , 1 5 1 Pope John X X I I , 1 5 3 Radcliffe-Brown, A . R . , 3 , 1 8 5 Rattray, R . S., 4 6 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 3 ,
124, 1 7 8 , 179, 207

Reith Lectures, 1 6 4 Religions, 11 of humility with high status founders,

195

of

humility
188-189

and

status

reversal,

of status reversal and separatism, 1 8 9 See also Rituals; Rites Rhodes-Livingstone Institute for Social Research, 5 Paper, 9 Richards, Audrey, 1 0 3 , 2 0 7 Rigby, Peter, 6, 4 0 , 1 8 4 , 2 0 7 Rilke, R . M . , 1 3 9 Rites of the Bemba, 1 0 3 divining, initiation into, 3 5 with fowl, 3 1 - 3 3 funerary initiation, 3 5 hunters'; See Hunters' cults ilembi, 2 1 installation; See Installation rite life crisis and calendrical, 1 6 8 , 1 7 0 masks and myths, 1 7 2 - 1 7 7 " of separation," 2 1 ff. See also Rites of the River Source; Boys' circumcision rites; Girls' puberty rites Rites of the River Source, the, 5 3 - 6 0 ,
71,84

the stream and the arch, 6 3 ff.

of northern Ghana, gg Tanzania, Gogo of, 1 8 4 Tekiman people, 1 7 8 , 1 8 0

Index
Teresa of Avila; See Christian leaders Thompson, Hunter S., ig3, 194, 207 Tolstoy, Leo, 1 3 3 , 196, 207 his influence and beliefs, 199 Tongo, chief of, gg Trobriand Islanders, 12 Turner, Terence, 1 7 3 , 207 Turner, Victor, W., 1 8 , 25n., 40, 59, 8 1 , 85, 94, 1 2 3 , 143, 208 Twain, Mark, 1 1 0 Twinship rite, 7, 4 4 - 9 3 and isoma, difference, 85 medicine collecting for, 5 1 mystery and absurdity, 84, 85 and Ndembu view of, 86 recognition of duality, 91 ritual symbols, 52 shrine in the village, 69 Tylor, E . , 3 Ubertino, 151 Uganda Soja of, 48 Gisu of, 1 1 9 Warner, Lloyd, 168, 208

213

Weber, Max, 3, 6, 198 Weinstock, Steven, 208 Westermann; See Baumann Whitman, Walt, 203 Wilde, Oscar, 1 1 7 Wilson, Godfrey, 5, 6, 208 Wilson, Monica, 6, g, 1 1 , 48, 102, 208 Witchcraft, ig, 28, 38, 40 anti, 64 See also Kanongesha, medicines of witchcraft Woman and miscarriages, 16, 20 unfruitful, 26 See also "Rites of separation " Women cults, 1 4 , 21 rituals; See Isoma Wubinda rite, 7 Wubwang'u rite; See Twinship rite Wundt, W., 3 Wuyang'a; See Hunters' cults Zen Buddhism, 1 1 3 Zulu, 183, 184 land, churches in, 189

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