ENGPHYS 2QM3

INTRODUCTION TO
QUANTUM MECHANICS

Lecture 14
 Subject Overview

Particle Properties of Particles

Wave Properties of Waves
1. Particle Properties of Light
2. Wave Properties of Particles
3. Quantum Mechanics
a) Schrödinger Equation
b) Potential wells and tunneling
4. Atomic Stability and Structure
5. Statistical Mechanics
6. Condensed Matter
 Travelling Waves
A typical 1-d wave equation looks like:

∂2P/∂x2 = (1/v2) ∂2P/∂t2

where v is the wave velocity.

Solutions look like:

P(x,t) = P0 sin(ωt – kx)
P(x,t) = P1 sin(ωt + kx)
P(x,t) = P2 cos(ωt – kx)
P(x,t) = P3 cos(ωt + kx)
 Travelling Waves
A travelling wave gives a simple solution to the
wave equation.

But, a travelling wave has a poor resemblance

to a particle. We’ll try to do better…

The solution to this particular wave equation is

a set that satisfies v = ω/k, and can have
different amplitudes and phases.

Linear combinations are also solutions.

 2 Travelling Waves
The simplest possible combination is
very elucidating.

Consider 2 travelling waves added:

y1(x,t) = Acos(ω1t – k1x)
y2(x,t) = Acos(ω2t – k2x)
y(x,t) = y1(x,t) + y2(x,t)

Let ω1 = ω k1 = k
ω2 = ω + ∆ω k2 = k + ∆k
 2 Travelling Waves
y1(x,t) = Acos(ωt – kx)
y2(x,t) = Acos[(ω + ∆ω)t – (k + ∆k)x]

y(x,t) = y1(x,t) + y2(x,t)

= Acos(ωt – kx)
+ Acos[(ω + ∆ω)t – (k + ∆k)x]
= A{cos(ωt – kx)
+ cos[(ω + ∆ω)t –(k + ∆k)x]}

Simplify via trigonometric identities.

 2 Travelling Waves
y(x,t) = A{cos(ωt – kx)
+ cos[(ω + ∆ω)t –(k+∆k)x]}
= 2A cos ½[(2ω + ∆ω)t – (2k + ∆k)x]
X cos ½(∆ωt – ∆kx)

Assume that:
∆ω << ω and ∆k << k
y(x,t) = 2A cos (ωt – kx) cos ½(∆ωt – ∆kx)
 2 Travelling Waves
y(x,t) = 2A cos (ωt – kx) cos ½(∆ωt – ∆kx)

a fast oscillation, modulated by a slow

oscillation.

The fast modulation has a velocity:

vp = ω/k

The slow modulation has a velocity:

vg = ∆ω/∆k = dω/dk
 2 Travelling Waves

The phase velocity:

vp = ω/k

The group velocity:

vg = dω/dk

Note: in general
vp ≠ vg

Though they are allowed to be

 2 Travelling Waves

y1(x,t) = Acos(ωt – kx)

y2(x,t) = Acos((ω + ∆ω)t – (k + ∆k)x)
y(x,t) = 2A cos (ωt – kx) cos ½(∆ωt – ∆kx)

Let t = 0
y1(x,t) = Acos(kx)
y2(x,t) = Acos((k + ∆k)x)
y(x,0) = 2A cos (kx) cos (½∆kx)
plot….
 2 Travelling Waves
1

0 A=1
λ = 1. 2
y1

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Position

0 A=1
y2

λ = 1. 0

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Position
 2 Travelling Waves
2

0
Sum

-1

-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Position
 2 Travelling Waves
2

0
Sum

-1

-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Position

0
Sum

-1

-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Position
 2 Travelling Waves

y(x,0) = 2A cos (kx) cos (½∆kx)

Find size of single “packet”,

Let cos (½∆kx1) = cos (–π/2)
Let cos (½∆kx2) = cos (+π/2)
½∆k(x2 – x1) = π/2 – –π/2
½∆k∆x = π
∆x = 2π/∆k
∆k∆x = 2π
 2 Travelling Waves

∆k∆x = 2π

A similar argument gives:

∆ω∆t = 2π

Both examples of the

classical uncertainty principle
 Wave Packets
While derived using only 2 waves, the
result is remarkably general.

Can use a distribution of k values to build

up a wave packet, with a narrow ∆x,
which then looks a lot like a particle.

Only 1 k value  infinite extent in x (travelling wave)

Distribution of k values  distribution of x values
Only 1 x value  infinite extent in k (‘perfect’ particle)
 Wave Packets
Can use a distribution of k values to build
up a wave packet, with a narrow ∆x,
which then looks a lot like a particle.

To illustrate this, choose 11 k values, with

amplitudes following a Gaussian
distribution, with this example:

−100 𝑘𝑘−1 2 /2
𝑃𝑃(𝑘𝑘) = 𝑒𝑒
 Wave Packets

1.0 −100 𝑘𝑘−1 2 /2

𝑃𝑃(𝑘𝑘) = 𝑒𝑒

0.8
Individual Wave Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Wave number, k
 Wave Packets
𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥) = � 𝑃𝑃 𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖 cos(𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥)
1.0
𝑖𝑖

0.5
Total Wave Amplitude

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Position, x
 Gaussian Wave packets

For a Gaussian wave packet:

∆k∆x = ½
σkσx = ½

Can show that this product is the lowest

for a Gaussian, i.e. in general:

∆k∆x ≥ ½
Quantum Uncertainty Principle

∆x∆k ≥ ½
∆x∆(ħk) ≥ ħ/2
p = ħk

∆x∆p ≥ ħ/2
σxσp ≥ ħ/2

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, v1

 Gaussian Wave packets
For a Gaussian wave packet:
∆ω∆t = ½
σωσt = ½

Can show that this product (½) is the lowest of

any function, i.e. in general:
∆ω∆t ≥ ½
∆ħω∆t ≥ ħ/2
∆E∆t ≥ ħ/2

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, v2

 Quantum Uncertainty Principle

For a standard wave packet the result

appears perfectly sensible.

But, when we incorporate the wave nature

of a particle it has major philosophical
consequences, since we relate our
physical reality to particles.

This forces us to view the world as

probabilistic and not deterministic!
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg wrote several important

papers in 1925, at the age of 23.

Werner Heisenberg received the Nobel

Prize in Physics 1932 "for the creation of
quantum mechanics, the application of
which has, inter alia, led to the discovery
of the allotropic forms of hydrogen"
 2 Travelling Waves

The phase velocity:

vp = ω/k

The group velocity:

vg = dω/dk

Note: in general
vp ≠ vg

Though they are allowed to be

 Light as a wave

phase velocity:
vp = ω/k
ω/k = fλ = c
vp = c

group velocity:
vg = dω/dk
ω/k = fλ = c
ω = ck
vg = c
 Generalize

For both particles and photons:

E = hf = ħω
p = h/λ = ħk
 Generalize

phase velocity:
vp = ω/k
E = ħω
p = ħk
ω/k = E/p
vp = E/p
 Generalize

group velocity:
vg = dω/dk
p = ħk
E = ħω
Therefore: dω/dk = dħω/dħk
dω/dk = dE/dp
vg = dE/dp
 Generalize
The phase velocity:
vp = ω/k = E/p

The group velocity:

vg = dω/dk = dE/dp

Note: in general
vp ≠ vg

Applies to light waves, photons & particles

 Light as a particle

phase velocity:
vp = E/p
E = pc
vp = c

group velocity:
vg = dE/dp
E = pc
vg = c
 Photon/Particle Properties

E = hf = ħω
p = h/λ = ħk
E2 = (pc)2 + (mc2)2
m = 0 (photon) m ≠ 0 (particle)

E = K = pc E ~ mc2 + p2/2m
E ~ E0 + K
E ≠ pc; K ≠ pc; E ≠ K
K = ½ mv2 = p2/2m
p ≠ mc p = mv
fλ = E/p = c fλ = E/p ≠ c or v (later)
 Particles
vp = E/p

E ≈ mc2 + p2/2m = E0 + K

a) vp = K/p = p/2m = mv/2m = v/2

b) vp ~ E0/p = mc2/p = mc2/mv = c2/v
“a” is wrong, but often cited.
“b” is correct, but gives vp > c.
No physical significance to phase velocity.
 Particles
vg = dE/dp = dK/dp

vg = dK/dp = p/m = mv/m

vg = v

i.e. the wave packet moves at the group

velocity, and is the physically significant
quantity.
Also true for a full relativistic calculation at
all velocities.
 Photon/Particle Properties

E = hf = ħω
p = h/λ = ħk
E2 = (pc)2 + (mc2)2
m = 0 (photon) m ≠ 0 (particle)

E = K = pc E ~ mc2 + p2/2m
E ~ E0 + K
E ≠ pc; K ≠ pc; E ≠ K
K = ½ mv2 = p2/2m
p ≠ mc p = mv
fλ = E/p = vp = c fλ = E/p = vp ≠ c or v
dE/dp = vg = c dE/dp = vg ≠ c
 Conclusion 1/2
Particles can be thought of as:

packets of waves of different frequencies

and wavelengths,

moving at the group velocity of the

packet.
 Conclusion 2/2

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

∆x∆p ≥ ħ/2
∆E∆t ≥ ħ/2

for a particle. We cannot know

everything about the particle.

This is in stark contrast to our classical

intuition that we can determine x and p
for a particle with arbitrary precision.