Physical Quantities Measurements

(Ch1)

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 Definition of Transducer (or Sensor)
• It converts the physical quantity (such as:
position, displacement, temperature, force,
velocity, …etc.) into corresponding electrical signal
which is ready to be used for measurement,
amplification, transmission, and control.
• Therefore the function of transducer is:
(1) Sensing the presence, magnitude, and
frequency of the physical quantity.
(2) Providing an electrical output that gives
accurate quantitative data about its input physical
quantity.

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 Classification of the Transducers
• According to their application (based on the
measured physical quantity), for example:
pressure, temperature, displacement, velocity,
Light, etc transducers.
• According to their operating principles, For
example: Variable resistance slide wire,
resistance strain gauge, resistance
thermometer, differential transformer,
condenser microphone.

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• According to their need to an external power supply
(Or according to the method of transduction):
o Passive transducers: in this case the physical quantity
changes one or more electrical parameter such as:
resistance, capacitance, or inductance. Therefore, it
is required an external power supply to generate an
electrical signal (voltage or current) proportional to
the changed parameter of the transducer.
o Active transducers: this type of transducers directly
generate the corresponding electrical signal without
need of an external power supply, such as: moving
coil generator, thermocouple, photovoltaic cell,….etc.

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 Selection of a Transducer
• transducer has to be physically compatible with
its intended application. It is selected according
to the following criteria:
(1) Operating range : it must cover the range of
the input quantity.
(2) Sensitivity : it should be sensitive enough to
its input physical quantity changes and have
minimum sensitivity to the other physical
quantities which not are intended to be
measured.
(3) Frequency response : its frequency response
must be flat over the needed frequency range of
measurement.
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 (4) Accuracy : it must satisfy the required
accuracy of measurement.
(5) Electrical Requirements : the required
length of cables, the required signal to noise
ratio.
(6) Environmental capability : its temperature
range, pressures, and chocks…
(7) Usage and ruggedness : its ruggedness
versus its size and weight.

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 Resistive Displacement Transducers
• The object whose position or displacement is to
be measured is directly coupled to a sliding
contact of a variable resistor (potentiometer)
• Therefore the resistance is changed according to
the position or displacement of the object.
• If an external power supply is used, the voltage
drop between the sliding contact and one end of
the resistance is changed proportional to the
position (displacement) of the object from this
end.
• This type of transducers is passive.
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 Unipolar displacement transducer
Disp. = 0 when wiper W at the reference
point B, V0 = VWB

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 Bipolar displacement transducer
-The reference point is such that R1 = R2 (i.e., the shaft is at mid-
stroke), and R3 = R4.
-The output voltage VE between the moving wiper W & the fixed
wiper C (i.e. VE = VWC).
- disp. = 0 when wiper W at the middle of the transducer
resistance AB.
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Example:
• A unipolar displacement transducer with a shaft
stroke of 3.0 in. has a total resistance of the
potentiometer (R1R2) of 5k, and supply voltage VS
of 5.0V. Calculate:
a- the value of R2, and its output voltage VO When
the wiper is 0.9 in. from the reference point B.
b- the displacement of the wiper if the output
voltage is 4 V.

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Solution:
a- V0/VS = Disp/Stroke = R2/(R1+R2)
R2 = (Disp/Stroke) X (R1+R2)
= (0.9 in/3 in) x 5000  = 1500 
V0 = [R2/(R1+R2)] x Vs
= (1500/5000) x 5 V = 1.5 V
b- Disp = (V0/Vs) x Stroke
= (4/5) x 3 in = 2.4 in

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 Capacitive Transducers
• The capacitance C between two conductive
plates separated by an insulating material of
dielectric constant (), of depth (d), and the
common area of the plates is A is:
C =  A/ d [F, F/m, m2, m]

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• If , A, or d is changed, then the capacitance
between the two conductive materials will be
changed.
• This type of transducers uses the physical
quantity to change the dielectric material (),
area of the conductive materials (A), or their
separation distance (d).
• Since these transducers require an external
power supply to convert the change of the
capacitance to an electrical signal, they are
passive transducers.

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 Methods used to change the common area A

using a rectilinear capacitor by using a rotary capacitor

moving a rod inside a fixed (radial displacement transducer)
conducting cylinder .
(linear displacement transducer)
.

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 Methods used to change the dielectric constant ε

When the tank is full of fuel it is represented as a fuel

dielectric capacitor. When it is empty it is represented
by an air dielectric capacitor. But if it is partially empty
it is represented by two parallel connected capacitors.
air dielectric and fuel dielectric capacitors
(fuel level transducer)

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 Methods used to change the dielectric depth d

The speech pressure moves a movable conducting

diaphragm against a fixed conducting plate, therefore
the distance (d) is changed. Therefore the capacitance
between the fixed plate and the movable plate is
changed according to the pressure of the speech.
(Acoustic pressure microphone transducer)

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 d is changed by moving the movable conducting
plate according to the relative difference between
the fluid pressure P1 and the atmosphere
pressure P0. Therefore its capacitance changes
according to the value of P1
(Fluid pressure transducer)
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• Any of the previous transducers can be placed in
an AC bridge in order to convert the change of
the transducer capacitance into a voltage VO.
• This voltage VO can be used to measure directly
the applied non-electrical quantity.
• For example the fluid pressure can be measured
as shown in the next figure:

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• The capacitive fluid pressure transducer is connected
as one arm (C) of AC bridge then the unbalance voltage
(VO) indicates the pressure of the fluid.
• When P1 = P0, C = C0, the bridge is balanced, and VO = 0V
• If P1 > P0, C > C0, therefore VO < 0V, and vice versa.

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 Inductive Transducers
This type of transducers include both types:
Passive and Active transducers
Passive Inductive Transducers
• If a core is displaced in proximity to a coil, the
self inductance (L) of the coil will be changed
proportionally to the distance of the core from
the coil.
• If this inductance is used in an AC bridge the
output voltage VO will be changed according to
the change of the coil inductance (L), i.e., due to
the change of the distance of its core (X).
• This is the principle of operation of an electronic
micrometer.
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 Electronic Micrometer circuit diagram
If X = R , then L4 = L3 , VL4 = VL3 , and VO = 0V
If X > R , then L4 < L3 , VL4 < VL3 , and VO > 0V
If X < R , then L4 > L3 , VL4 > VL3 , and VO < 0V
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Self Generating Inductive Transducers
• If a coil (rotor) is rotated in a permanent
magnet (PM), or a PM is rotated inside a coil,
a voltage is induced in the coil.
• This voltage is proportional to the velocity of
rotation of the rotor (E = BLV) , where :
o E is the induced voltage [V],
o B is the magnetic field strength of PM [Tesla],
o L is the length of the coil [m]
o V is the velocity of rotation of the rotor [m/Sec]

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• If the object whose velocity is to be measured
is mechanically coupled to the rotor, the output
voltage (E) is directly proportional to the RPM
of the object. This is the idea of the tachometer.
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 Temperature Transducers

They can be divided into the following categories:

• Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
• Thermistors
• Thermo-couples
Note : The conversion between the temperature
scales is as follows :
• (F-32) = C = K-273.15
• Water freezes at: 0 C, 32 F, or 273.15 K,
• Water boils at: 100 C, 212 F, or 373.15 
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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
• They are resistive elements which have a positive
temperature coefficient (+ve TCR)
• It is also called Temperature Dependent Resistor
(TDR). It is a passive transducer.
R = R0 (1+  ∆ T)
• Where : R is its resistance at the measured
temperature T [Ω].
• R0 is its resistance at the reference temperature
T0 [Ω].
•  is its TCR coefficient = (∆R/ ) / R0
• ∆T is the difference between the measured and
reference temperatures = T - T0
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- The temperature can be measured using an RTD
transducer.
- The voltage VRTD across the RTD resistor is proportional
to the temperature to be measured, and VO = VRTD.
- Therefore VO can be used to measure directly this
temperature.
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Thermistors
• It is a semiconductor resistive materials, which have a
negative temperature coefficient of resistance (-ve TCR).
• It is a passive transducer since an external power supply is
needed to convert the change of resistance to a voltage or
current.
• It is a non-linear over the temperature range but it may be
available with better than 0.2% linearity over (0 to 100°C)
temperature range.
– R = R0 (1+  ∆ T) = R0 (1-  ∆ T)
– Where : R is its resistance at the measured temperature T
[Ω].
– R0 is its resistance at the reference temperature T0 [Ω].
–  = (Δ R/  ) / R0, it is its TCR coefficient
– ∆T = T-T0, it is the difference between the measured and
reference temperatures [].
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• The resistance RT of the thermistor is inversely
proportional to the temperature to be measured, and the
current I is inversely proportional to the resistance RT.
• Therefore I can be used to directly measure this
temperature.

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Thermocouples
• When a pair of wires made of different metals are
joined together at one end, a voltage difference
between the wires at the other end is found.
• This voltage depends on the temperature difference
between the two ends of the wires and on the wire
materials
• This type of transducers is a self-generating transducer.

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• The reference junction is kept at room
temperature T0 and the sensing junction is put
where the temperature T is being measured.
• Then the induced voltage is connected to a
measuring instrument which is calibrated to
measure the temperature directly instead of
voltage.
• The produced emf (E) is given by:
E= C (T-T0) + K (T2-T20)
– Where: E is the induced EMF in [mV] ,
– C and K are thermocouple constants in [mV/C], and
[mV/C2] respectively.
– T and T0 are temperatures at the hot and cold
junctions in [C] respectively.

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 Photoelectric Transducers

Phototubes
It operates on the principle of photoemission:
• Incident photons enter the tube and strike its
photo cathode, and electrons are emitted from
the surface of the photo cathode.
• These photo emitted electrons are attracted to
a positively charged anode, and a current
(proportional to the incident light) passes in
the external biasing circuitry as shown in the
next figure

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• The phototube transducer is a self generating
transducer.
• Its advantages are its linearity (induced current versus
the incident light) and simplicity.
• But its main disadvantage is its low sensitivity which is
overcome by the photo-multiplier tubes.

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Photo-Voltaic Cell (Solar Cell)
• It is sometimes called solar cell. It provides a
current if it is connected to a load.
• Its application is sensing light in the punched
cards or as infrared detectors.
• It is a self generating active transducer.

Photo-Conductive Cells (Photocells)

• It is a passive transducer, whose resistance is
decreased upon striking by a light, its symbol
and characteristics are shown in the next figure
•

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Note :
•The incident illumination is measured in lumen/m2
(Lm/m2) or Lux.
•But for the invisible light it is measured in [watt /m2].

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The main photocells application is controlling
a relay circuit. :
• Upon striking a light, the resistance of the
photocell decreases and the current passing
through it increases, consequently the relay is
energized.
• When the light is interrupted, the resistance of
photocell increases and the current passing
through it decreases to a level that the relay is
deenergized, as shown in the next figure:

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Example
• The circuit of controlling a relay consists of : 30V supply (VS),
a photocell, resistance R, and a relay (ignore its resistant).
• Calculate the resistance R if VS delivers 10 mA when the cell is
illuminated with 400 Lm/m2
• The relay is deenergized when the photocell is dark
(illuminated with 0 Lm/m2), find the level of dark current, if
the characteristics of the photocell is given as follows:

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Solution:

• When the photocell is illuminated with 400 Lm/m2 : Rcell = 1 k,

I = 10 mA, and the relay is energized
Since I = Vs / (R + Rcell)
The resistance R = (Vs/I) – Rcell = (30V / 10 mA ) – 1 k = 2 k

• When the photocell is dark : Rcell = 100 k

I = Vs / (R + Rcell) = 30/ (2 k + 100 k) = 0.3 mA
and the relay is deenergized

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Photodiodes and Phototransistors
• If the normal semiconductor diode is reversed
biased, a very small reverse current ( 1A in case of
silicon diodes) passes.
• But in case of photodiodes if it is reversed biased, a
reverse current passes proportional to the intensity
of light striking the diode (its V-I characteristics is
shifted)

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• If the diode does not reverse biased and is illuminated
a voltage drop is established across it, therefore, it
behaves as a photovoltaic device(solar cell). But if it is
reverse biased it behaves as a photoconductive device
• Thus, the photodiode behaves as a passive transducer
when it is reverse biased, and as an self generating
transducer when it is forward (or not) biased.
• The main advantage of the photodiode as a
photoconductive over the photoconductive cell is its
faster time response, so it is used in high frequency
applications. Its main disadvantage is its low
sensitivity, which is overcome by the phototransistors.

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• The Photodiode illumination characteristics shows
that : for the same load R the polarity of diode voltage
VD is changed from negative to positive at the highest
level of illumination.

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Example:
• A photodiode is connected in series with a 200 
resistance and a 0.5 V supply. The supply polarity
reverse-biases the device.
• Determine the diode currents ID, and voltages VD at
1500, 10000, and 20000 Lm/m2 illuminations.

Solution :
• When ID = 0, VR = IDR = 0V, then VD = -0.5V
• Plot point A on characteristics, at ID = 0 and VD = -0.5V
o When VD = 0,
ID = (Vs / R) = (+0.5 V / 200 ) = 2.5 mA (reverse current)

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• Plot point B at ID = 2.5 mA and VD = 0V.
• Then draw the load line through A and B.
• From the load line we get VD, and reverse currents ID
o At 1500 lm/m2 ID = 0.25 mA and VD = - 0.43V
i.e. diode is reverse biased and operates as
photoconductive cell
o At 10000 lm/m2 ID = 2 mA and VD = - 0.22V
i.e. diode is reverse biased and operates as
photoconductive cell
o At 20000 lm/m2 ID = 3.6 mA and VD = + 0.22V
i.e. diode is forward biased and operates as
photovoltaic cell
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Phototransistors
• When the light falls on the base region of the phototransistor it
frees electron-hole pairs which lowers the barrier potential across
its both junctions. Thus the flow of electrons from the emitter
region to base and to the collector regions is increased.
• the output characteristics of the phototransistor and its symbol are
shown bellow :

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• The photodiodes and phototransistor can be used as a
photo-detectors for the applications as punched cards and
tape readouts.
• The phototransistor, because of its high sensitivity, can be
used to control a relay by light, as seen in the next Figure:

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• As the intensity of light increases, I1 increases, thus
transistor T2 will be conducting providing higher
current that energizes the relay.
• But when the light decreases, I1 decreases, T2 enters
its cut off region, and the relay is deenergized

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 Piezoelectric Transducers
• The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from
pressure.
• It is derived from the Greek piezo, which means to
squeeze or press
• When a symmetrical crystalline materials, such as quartz,
are placed under stress, they produce an emf.
• This electromechanical property is used in piezoelectric
transducers, where a crystal is placed between:
– A solid base, and
– A force summing member
as shown in the next slide

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 V0

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• An externally applied force, entering the
transducer through its pressure port then
through the force summing element, applies
pressure to the top of a crystal.
• This produces an emf across the crystal,
proportional to the magnitude of the
applied pressure.
• It is a self generating active transducer since
it doesn’t need external power supply.

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• It is used in high-frequency accelerometers,
since it has a very high frequency response.
• Its major disadvantage is that it cannot be
used to measure static conditions.
• The induced emf equals to zero if the applied
pressure does not change.

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 Thank You

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