Basic SQL
Kapitulli 4 (Përmbledhje)
Elira Hoxha
SQL
SQL language
• Considered one of the major reasons for the commercial success of relational
databases
SQL
• Structured Query Language
• Statements for data definitions, queries, and updates (both DDL and DML)
• Core specification
• Plus specialized extensions
Schema Concept in SQL
SQL schema
• Identified by a schema name
• Includes an authorization identifier and descriptors for each element
Schema elements include
• Tables, constraints, views, domains, and other constructs
Each statement in SQL ends with a semicolon
CREATE SCHEMA statement
• CREATE SCHEMA COMPANY AUTHORIZATION ‘Jsmith’;
The CREATE TABLE Command in SQL
Can optionally specify schema:
• CREATE TABLE COMPANY.EMPLOYEE ...
or
• CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE ...
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
Domain
Name used with the attribute specification
Makes it easier to change the data type for a domain that is used by numerous
attributes
Improves schema readability
Example:
CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9);
Specifying Attribute Constraints and
Attribute Defaults
NOT NULL
• NULL is not permitted for a particular attribute
Default value
• DEFAULT <value>
CHECK clause
• Dnumber INT NOT NULL CHECK (Dnumber > 0 AND Dnumber < 21);
Specifying Key and Referential Integrity
Constraints
PRIMARY KEY clause
• Specifies one or more attributes that make up the primary key of a relation
• Dnumber INT PRIMARY KEY;
UNIQUE clause
• Specifies alternate (secondary) keys
• Dname VARCHAR(15) UNIQUE;
Specifying Key and Referential Integrity
Constraints (2)
FOREIGN KEY clause
• Default operation: reject update on violation
• Attach referential triggered action clause
o Options include SET NULL, CASCADE, and SET DEFAULT
o Action taken by the DBMS for SET NULL or SET DEFAULT is the same for both ON
DELETE and ON UPDATE
o CASCADE option suitable for “relationship” relations
Specifying Constraints on Tuples Using
CHECK
CHECK clauses at the end of a CREATE TABLE statement
• Apply to each tuple individually
• CHECK (Dept_create_date <= Mgr_start_date);
Keyword CONSTRAINT
• Name a constraint
• Useful for later altering
The SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure of
Basic SQL Queries
Basic form of the SELECT statement:
Ambiguous Attribute Names
Same name can be used for two (or more) attributes
• As long as the attributes are in different relations
• Must qualify the attribute name with the relation name to prevent ambiguity
Aliasing, Renaming, and Tuple
Variables
Aliases or tuple variables
• Declare alternative relation names E and S
• EMPLOYEE AS E(Fn, Mi, Ln, Ssn, Bd, Addr, Sex, Sal, Sssn, Dno)
Unspecified WHERE Clause
and Use of the Asterisk
Missing WHERE clause
• Indicates no condition on tuple selection
CROSS PRODUCT
• All possible tuple combinations
Unspecified WHERE Clause
and Use of the Asterisk (cont’d.)
Specify an asterisk (*)
• Retrieve all the attribute values of the selected tuples
Tables as Sets in SQL
SQL does not automatically eliminate duplicate tuples in query results
Use the keyword DISTINCT in the SELECT clause
• Only distinct tuples should remain in the result
Tables as Sets in SQL (2)
Set operations
• UNION, EXCEPT (difference), INTERSECT
• Corresponding multiset operations: UNION ALL, EXCEPT ALL, INTERSECT ALL)
Substring Pattern Matching and
Arithmetic Operators
LIKE comparison operator
Used for string pattern matching
% replaces an arbitrary number of zero or more characters
underscore (_) replaces a single character
Standard arithmetic operators:
Addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication (*), and division (/)
BETWEEN comparison operator
Ordering of Query Results
Use ORDER BY clause
• Keyword DESC to see result in a descending order of values
• Keyword ASC to specify ascending order explicitly
• ORDER BY D.Dname DESC, E.Lname ASC, E.Fname ASC
Discussion and Summary
of Basic SQL Retrieval Queries
INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE Statements
in SQL
Three commands used to modify the database:
• INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE
The INSERT Command
Specify the relation name and a list of values for the tuple
The DELETE Command
Removes tuples from a relation
• Includes a WHERE clause to select the tuples to be deleted
The UPDATE Command
Modify attribute values of one or more selected tuples
Additional SET clause in the UPDATE command
• Specifies attributes to be modified and new values
Summary
SQL
• Comprehensive language
• Data definition, queries, updates, constraint specification, and view definition
Covered in Chapter 4:
• Data definition commands for creating tables
• Commands for constraint specification
• Simple retrieval queries
• Database update commands
