23CCE002 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT-2

Course Instructor: Sujith Kalluri

[email protected]

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UNIT-2 Syllabus

• AC and DC circuit analysis

• Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s voltage and Current law

• Voltage divider and Current divider rule

• Mesh and Nodal Analysis, Supernode and Supermesh analysis

• Source transformation

• Superposition Theorem, Thevenin & Norton’s Theorems, and Maximum

power transfer theorem

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Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to
the current flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and temperatures
remain constant.

In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called Resistance and

has units of ohms, with the symbol Ω.

The same formula can be rewritten in order to calculate the current and
resistance, respectively as follows:

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Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature and the other physical
factors remain constant. In certain components, increasing the current raises
the temperature. An example of this is the filament of a light bulb, in which
the temperature rises as the current is increased. In this case, Ohm’s law
cannot be applied. The lightbulb filament violates Ohm’s Law.

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Water Pipe Analogy for Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law describes the current flow through a resistance when different electric
potentials (voltage) are applied at each end of the resistance. Since we can’t see
electrons, the water-pipe analogy helps us understand the electric circuits better.
Water flowing through pipes is a good mechanical system that is analogous to an
electrical circuit.

Here, the voltage is analogous to water pressure, the current is the amount of
water flowing through the pipe, and the resistance is the size of the pipe. More
water will flow through the pipe (current) when more pressure is applied (voltage)
and the bigger the pipe (lower the resistance). 5
Example: An EMF source of 8.0 V is connected to a purely resistive electrical
appliance (a light bulb). An electric current of 2.0 A flows through it. Consider the
conducting wires to be resistance-free. Calculate the resistance offered by the
electrical appliance.

Solution:
When we are asked to determine the value of resistance when the values of
voltage and current are given, we cover R in the triangle. This leaves us with
R = 4 Ω V ÷ I.
only V and I, more precisely
Substituting the values in the equation, we get

R=V÷I

R=8V÷2A=4Ω

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Calculating Electrical Power Using Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law Applications

The main applications of Ohm’s law are:
•To determine the voltage, resistance, or current of an electric circuit.
•Ohm’s law maintains the desired voltage drop across the electronic components.
•Ohm’s law is also used in DC ammeter, and other DC shunts to divert the current.

Limitations of Ohm’s Law

The following are the limitations of Ohm’s law:
•Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral electrical elements like diodes and
transistors as they allow the current to flow through in one direction only.
•For non-linear electrical elements with parameters like capacitance, resistance,
etc., the ratio of voltage and current won’t be constant with respect to time, making
it difficult to use Ohm’s law.
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Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s circuit laws lie at the heart of circuit analysis. With the help of these
laws and the equation for individual components (resistor, capacitor, and
inductor), we have the basic tool to start analyzing circuits. In this lecture, we will
discuss Kirchhoff’s current and voltage law and how to employ them in circuit
analysis.
Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Current Law
The total current entering a junction or a node is equal to the charge leaving the
node, as no charge is lost.

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A node refers to a junction connecting two or more current-carrying routes like
cables and other components. Kirchhoff’s current law can also be applied to
analyze parallel circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
The voltage around a loop equals the sum of every voltage drop in the same loop
for any closed network and equals zero.

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Example 1

If R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 4Ω, R3 = 6Ω, determine the electric current that flows in the
circuit below.

– IR1 + E1 – IR2 – IR3 – E2 = 0

Substituting the values in the equation, we get
–2I + 10 – 4I – 6I – 5 = 0
-12I + 5 = 0
I = -5/-12
I = 0.416 A 10
Example 2
From the given circuit, find the value of I.

Solution
Applying Kirchoff’s rule to the point P in the circuit,
The arrows pointing towards P are positive and away from P are negative.
Therefore, 0.2A – 0.4A + 0.6A – 0.5A + 0.7A – I = 0
1.5A – 0.9A – I = 0
0.6A – I = 0
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I = 0.6 A
Example 3
The following figure shows a complex network of conductors which can be divided
into two closed loops like ACE and ABC. Apply Kirchoff’s voltage rule.

Solution
Thus applying Kirchhoff's second law to the closed-loop EACE
I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 = ξ
and for the closed loop ABCA
I4R4 + I5R5-I2R2= 0 12
Example 4
Calculate the current that flows in the 1 Ω resistor in the following circuit.

Solution

We can denote the current that flows from the

9V battery as I1 and it splits into I2 and I1 – I2 in
the junction according to Kirchhoff's current
rule (KCR). It is shown below.
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Now consider the loop EFCBE and apply KVR; we get
1I2 + 3I1 + 2I1 = 9
5I1 + I2 = 9
Applying KVR to the loop EADFE, we get
3 (I1 – I2 ) – 1I2 = 6
3I1 – 4I2 = 6
Solving the above equations, we get
I1 = 1.83 A and I2 = -0.13 A
It implies that the current in the 1 ohm resistor flows from F to E.

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Voltage Divider Rule

For easy calculation of voltage drop across resistors in a series circuit, a

voltage divider rule is used

Voltage Divider Rule states that voltage drops

across any resistor in a series circuit are
proportional to the ratio of its resistance to the
total resistance of the series circuit.

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Current Divider Rule

The current divider rule is used in parallel

circuits to find the branch currents if the total
current is known.
In a parallel circuit of two resistances, the current
through one branch is equal to the line current
multiplied by the ratio of the resistance of the other
branch divided by the total resistance. 16
Examples
1. Calculate the current flowing through the various resistances in the circuit shown
in the figure below.

Solution:

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18
2. Calculate the current supplied by the battery in the network
shown below.

Solution:

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The circuit is further simplified by paralleling the two 4 Ω
resistances between A and B and another two 4 Ω resistances
between A and D. Now by bringing D and B together and
paralleling the two 2 Ω resistors, the current I is calculated as 6 A

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3. Calculate the resistance between the terminals P and Q of the
network shown in the below figure.

Solution:

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Node Analysis
Nodal analysis is used for solving any electrical network, and it is defined as
The mathematical method for calculating the voltage distribution between the
circuit nodes.
This method is also known as the node-voltage method since the node voltages
are with respect to the ground. The following are the three laws that define the
equation related to the voltage that is measured between each circuit node:
•Ohm’s law
•Kirchhoff’s voltage law
•Kirchhoff’s current law
Features of Nodal Analysis
• Nodal analysis is an application of Kirchhoff’s current law.
• When there are ‘n’ nodes in a given electrical circuit, there will be ‘n-1’
simultaneous equations to be solved.
• To obtain all the node voltages, ‘n-1’ should be solved.
• The number of non-reference nodes and the number of nodal equations
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obtained are equal.
Procedure of Nodal Analysis
The following steps are to be followed while solving any electrical circuit using nodal
analysis:
Step 1:
To identify the principal nodes and select one of them as a reference node. This
reference node will be treated as the ground.
Step 2:
All the node voltages with respect to the ground from all the principal nodes should
be labelled except the reference node.
Step 3:
The nodal equations at all the principal nodes except the reference node should
have a nodal equation. The nodal equation is obtained from Kirchhoff’s current law
and then from Ohm’s law.
Step 4:
To obtain the node voltages, the nodal equations can be determined by following
Step 3.
Hence, for a given electrical circuit, the current flowing through any element and the
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voltage across any element can be determined using the node voltages.
Non-Reference Node
The node with a definite node voltage is a non-reference node.
Reference Node
The node that acts as a reference point to all the other nodes is known as
the reference node, which is also known as the datum node.
Example 1:
For the following circuit, find Va by nodal analysis.

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Solution:
Step 1: To select a reference node and label the node voltages

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Step 2: Apply Kirchhoff’s current law to all the nodes

v
Step 3: To find the required quantities

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Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the
above loop, we get

-V1 – Va + V2 = 0

Va = -25 V

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Example 2:
Determine the voltage at each node of the given circuit using nodal analysis.

Solution:

The number of nodes that are present in the given circuit is 3

The nodes that are present in the circuit are numbered as shown in the figure

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Let node 2 be the reference node, and
this node’s voltage will be zero.
Using Kirchhoff’s current law at each
node, we get

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Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis is defined as
The method in which the current flowing through a planar circuit is
calculated.
A planar circuit is defined as the circuits that are drawn on the plane surface
in which there are no wires crossing each other. Therefore, a mesh analysis
can also be known as a loop analysis or mesh-current method.

What is Branch?

A branch is defined as the path that connects two nodes such that it contains
a circuit element. If the branch belongs to only one mesh, then the branch
current and the mesh current will be equal to each other.

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Procedure of Mesh Analysis
The following steps are to be followed while solving the given electrical network
using mesh analysis:
Step 1:
To identify the meshes and label these mesh currents in the either clockwise or
counterclockwise direction.
Step 2:
To observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of
mesh current.
Step 3:
Writing the mesh equations to all meshes using Kirchhoff’s voltage law and then
Ohm’s law.
Step 4:
The mesh currents are obtained by following Step 3 in which the mesh equations
are solved.
Hence, for a given electrical circuit the current flowing through any element and
the voltage across any element can be determined using the node voltages. 31
Mesh Current Diagram
The below diagram is a circuit with mesh currents labelled as I1, I2, and I3 and the
arrows represent the direction of the mesh current.

What is Super Mesh Analysis?

Super mesh analysis is used for solving huge and complex circuits in which two
meshes share a common component as a source of current. 32
Example of Mesh Analysis
Example 1:
In the given circuit, 90 V is the battery value, 5 A is the current source, and the three
resistors are 9 ohms, 6 ohms, and 8 ohms. Using mesh analysis, determine the
current across each resistor and the potential difference.

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Solution:
Let’s first determine the ground as shown in the figure

Let the potential be VA, VB, and VC as shown in the figure

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Let I1 and I2 be the currents flowing through the two loops in the
clockwise direction as shown in the figure

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Supernode Analysis

What is a supernode?
A supernode is formed when a voltage source is connected between two non-
reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

What is Supernode analysis?

Supernode analysis is a nodal analysis when a voltage source exists between
two non-reference nodes. This analysis will manipulate the circuit to give
additional equations to find the unknown variables.

When to use supernode?

Supernode is used when a voltage source exists between two non-reference
nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

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Procedure for Supernode Analysis

The procedure for supernode analysis won’t be different with the procedure of nodal
analysis we have learned before such as:
• Identify all the nodes in the circuit including the supernode.
• Set a node as a reference node. It usually acts as a ground so add a ground
symbol to it.
• Assign node voltage to other nodes (v1, v2, v3,etc).
• Remove the voltage source from the circuit first.
• Write the KCL supernode equations (currents entering a supernode are equal to
the currents leaving the supernode).
• Use the KVL equation for the loop where a voltage source exists if you need to
find the relationship of two nodes where a voltage source exists. (To complete the
missing equation).
• Write all the KCL equations you can find (make the sum of the leaving current
from a branch equal to zero).
• Use substitution, elimination, Cramer’s rule, etc. 37
Supernode Analysis Example

1. Observe the circuit below and find the node voltages.

As we read before, a supernode is formed when a voltage source is

connected between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in
parallel. The Supernode consists of a 2V source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10Ω
resistor. We remove those to redraw the circuit below. 38
 We use the KCL for the Supernode above
and we get

Writing the KCL equation for i1 and i2 using

node voltage variables gives,

We are still missing the relationship between v1 and v2; we will use KVL for the
circuit below. 39
From the clockwise loop, we get

From Equations.(1.1) and (1.2) we get

we get

Note that the existence of a 10Ω resistor

won’t do anything because it is only
connected across the supernode.
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Supermesh Analysis

• If the current source is found just in a single branch then it is easy to

solve; we can use the mesh analysis directly.
• We will need another version of mesh analysis if we found the current
source in a branch where two meshes intersect.
• Now we will use current sources in a circuit and analyze it with mesh
analysis or we may call it Supermesh Analysis.
• A super mesh is formed by the presence of a current source between
two meshes.
• A super mesh is created in the condition where a current source exists
between two meshes.
• Supermesh analysis is used in case a current source is found between
two meshes, and we insist on using Mesh Analysis.

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Supermesh Analysis Procedure

1. Make sure the circuit is planar.

2. Redraw the circuit if we can simplify it.
3. Make meshes in every loop you can find and assign the labels. It is
easier to draw the meshes in the clockwise direction (it is up to you,
though).
4. Form a supermesh circuit if you find a current source between two
meshes.
5. Use KVL and maybe some KCL to the supermesh branch. One KCL is
needed for each supermesh branch.
6. Solve all the math equations including the supermesh equation.

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Supermesh Analysis Example

If there is a current source in the circuit, we have to treat it as a “supermesh”.

In a supermesh, the analysis route will avoid the current source since the
voltage across the current source is unknown.

1. Find the value of i with super mesh analysis!

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Solution

The circuit above is a super mesh with a current source.

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Observe loop I1:

Observe loop I2 and I3:

Substitute Equation.(1) and (2):

Observe the supermesh path:

Then

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Source Transformation

• The technique/method of transforming one form's source into another is

known as the Source Transformation technique.
• The basic analysis methods for any electrical network / electric circuit are
Nodal analysis & Mesh analysis. There are 2 types of practical sources:
practical voltage and current. Hence, we can apply the Source Transformation
technique for these 2 sources to convert one type into another.

Source Transformation Techniques

There are two Source Transformation techniques used:

• Practical voltage source into a practical current source

• Practical current source into practical voltage source

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Practical Voltage Source into Practical Current Source

The practical voltage source is nothing but an ideal voltage source in series with
resistance. A practical current source is nothing but an ideal current source in
parallel with resistance. The following figure shows the conversion of a practical
voltage source into a practical current source.

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The above figure shows that the left-hand side circuit is a practical voltage
source. At the same time, the right-hand circuit is nothing but a practical
current source. Here, we applied the Source Transformation technique for
independent practical voltage sources. Similarly, we can also apply this
Source Transformation technique for dependent practical voltage sources.

• IS=VS/R.
• The resistance value will remain the same in both circuits.
• The voltage at the open circuit terminals of both circuits is the same.
• In both circuits, the current will be the same if the end terminals have
shorted each other.

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Practical Current Source into Practical Voltage Source

Previously, we converted the practical voltage source into a practical current

source using the Source Transformation technique. Now, let’s apply the
Source Transformation technique for converting a practical current source into
a practical voltage source. The following figure shows the conversion of a
practical current source into a practical voltage source.

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The above figure shows that the left-hand side circuit is a practical current
source. Whereas the right-hand circuit is nothing but a practical voltage
source. Here, we applied the Source Transformation technique for the
independent practical current source. Similarly, we can also apply this Source
Transformation technique for dependent practical current sources.

• VS=ISR
• The resistance value will remain the same in both circuits.
• The voltage at the open circuit terminals of both circuits is the same.
• In both circuits, the current will be the same if the end terminals have
shorted each other.

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Source Transformation Examples

1. Using the Source Transformation technique, calculate the voltage, V, of the

following electric circuit.

Solution:
Step 1: In the given electric circuit, there are 3 branches. Among these, 2
branches have a voltage source in series with Resistor. Using the Source
Transformation technique, we know that a voltage source in series with a resistor
can be replaced by a current source parallel to the resistor. So, let’s apply the
Source Transformation technique for these two branches.
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Step 2: In the above circuit, 2 current sources are connected in parallel. We can
add both the current source values since the direction of the current is the same.
Similarly, we can represent the equivalent resistor of the parallel combination of
two 10 Ω resistors. The simplified equivalent circuit is shown below.

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Step 3: By using the Current Division Rule, we can calculate the current
(I) flow-through 20 Ω resistor.

I=2.555+20

=>I=0.5 A

Step 4: By using Ohm’s law, we can calculate the voltage (V) across a 20
Ω resistor.

V=(0.5)(20)

=>V=10 volts

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2. Using the Source Transformation technique, calculate
the voltage, V of the following electric circuit.

Solution:
Step 1: We know that a current source in parallel with the resistor can be
replaced by a voltage source in series with the resistor by using the Source
Transformation technique. So, we can apply the Source Transformation technique
for the right-hand side part of the given circuit. But, we shouldn’t apply the Source
Transformation technique for the left-hand side of the given circuit because we
have to calculate the voltage across a 1 Ω resistor, which belongs to the same
part of the circuit. 54
Step 2:

Now, write the Nodal equation.

-2+V/1+(V+5)/2=0
=> -4+2V+V+5=0
=> 3V=-1
=>V=-1/3 volts

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Superposition Theorem

“In any linear and bilateral network or circuit having multiple independent
sources, the response of an element will be equal to the algebraic sum of the
responses of that element by considering one source at a time.”

• To calculate the individual contribution of each source in a circuit, the other

source must be replaced or removed without affecting the final result. This is
done by replacing the voltage source with a short circuit. While removing a
voltage source, its value is set to zero. When removing a current source, its
value is set to infinite. This is done by replacing the current source with an
open circuit.
• All the components must be linear to use the superposition theorem with
circuit currents and voltages.
• It should be noted that the superposition theorem does not apply to power,
as power is not a linear quantity.
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How to Apply Superposition Theorem?

• The first step is to select one among the multiple sources present in the
bilateral network. Among the various sources in the circuit, any one of the
sources can be considered first.
• Except for the selected source, all the sources must be replaced by their
internal impedance.
• Using a network simplification approach, evaluate the current flowing
through or the voltage drop across a particular element in the network.
• The same considering a single source is repeated for all the other
sources in the circuit.
• Upon obtaining the respective response for individual sources, perform
the summation of all responses to get the overall voltage drop or current
through the circuit element.

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Example
Let us understand how to use the superposition theorem to analyze circuits with
the help of an example.
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω using the superposition theorem.

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Solution:
Step 1: First, let us find the current flowing through a circuit by considering only the
20 V voltage source. The current source can be open-circuited. Hence, the
modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

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Step 2: The nodal voltage V1 can be determined using the
nodal analysis method.
The nodal equation at node 1 is written as follows:

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be found using the following
equation:

Substituting the value of the V1 in the above equation, we get

I1 = 0.4 A

Therefore, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor to due 20 V voltage

source is 0.4 A. 60
Step 3: Now let us find out the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor
considering only the 4 A current source. We eliminate the 20 V voltage source
by short-circuiting it. The modified circuit, therefore, is given as follows:

In the above circuit, the resistors 5 Ω and 10 Ω are parallel to each other, and
this parallel combination of resistors is in series with the 10 Ω resistors.
Therefore, the equivalent resistance will be:
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Now, the simplified circuit is shown as follows:

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be determined using the
current division principle.

Substituting the values, we get

I2=1.6 A
Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit when only 4 A current source is
1.6 A.
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Step 4: The summation of currents I1 and I2 will give us the current flowing
through the 20 Ω resistor. Mathematically, this is represented as follows:
I = I1 + I2
Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation, we get
I = 0.4+1.6 = 2 A
Therefore, the current flowing through the resistor is 2 A.

Limitations of Superposition Theorem

• The theorem does not apply to non-linear circuits. The requisite of linearity
indicates that the superposition theorem is only applicable to determine
voltage and current but not power. Power dissipation is a nonlinear function
that does not algebraically add to an accurate total when only one source is
considered at a time.
• The application of the superposition theorem requires two or more sources
in the circuit.
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Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit,

irrespective of how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single voltage
source and a series resistance.

A Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in the image. The image shows that multiple
resistive circuit elements are replaced by a single equivalent resistance Rs and
multiple energy sources by an equivalent voltage source Vs.
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Thevenin’s Theorem Example
Let us understand Thevenin’s Theorem with the help of an example.

Step 1: For the analysis of the above circuit using Thevenin’s theorem, firstly
remove the load resistance at the centre, in this case, 40 Ω.
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Step 2: Remove the voltage sources’ internal resistance by shorting all the
voltage sources connected to the circuit, i.e. v = 0. If current sources are
present in the circuit, remove the internal resistance by open-circuiting the
sources. This step is done to have an ideal voltage source or an ideal current
source for the analysis.

Step 3: Find the equivalent resistance. In the example, the equivalent

resistance of the circuit is calculated as follows:

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With the load resistance removed and the voltage sources shorted, the
equivalent resistance of the circuit is calculated as follows:
The resistor 10 Ω is parallel to 20 Ω, therefore the equivalent resistance of the
circuit is:

Step 4: Find the equivalent voltage.

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To calculate the equivalent voltage, reconnect the voltage sources into the
circuit. Vs = VAB, therefore the current flowing around the loop is calculated as
follows:

The calculated current is common to both resistors, so the voltage drop across
the resistors can be calculated as follows:

The voltage drop across both resistors is the same.

Step 5: Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
consists of a series resistance of 6.67 Ω and a voltage source of 13.33 V.
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The current flowing in the circuit is calculated using the formula below:

Thevenin’s theorem can be applied to both AC and DC circuits. But it should be

noted that this method can only be applied to AC circuits consisting of linear
elements like resistors, inductors, and capacitors. Like Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance, Thevenin’s equivalent impedance is obtained by replacing all
voltage sources with their internal impedances.
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Norton’s Theorem
Norton's theorem states that any 2-terminal linear and bilateral network or circuit
with multiple independent and dependent sources can be represented in a
simplified equivalent circuit known as Norton's equivalent.

Norton's equivalent circuit consists of Norton's current source, IN in parallel with

Norton's resistance, RN. The parallel combination of the current source and resistor
is a practical current source. Hence, we can say that Norton's equivalent circuit is
nothing but a practical current source.
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Procedure of Norton's Theorem

It will take more time than the normal methods to find the response of an
element if the network/ circuit is having multiple sources and resistances. That
time, we can use Norton's theorem to find the response easily. Now, let's see
the steps for finding the response of an element when multiple sources and
resistances are present in the network/ circuit by using Norton's theorem.

Step 1: Remove the element, where we are supposed to find the response
from the given circuit. After the removal of the element, the terminals will be
open.
Step 2: Find the current flowing through the terminals of the circuit obtained in
Step 1 after shorting them. This current is known as short circuit current or
Norton's equivalent current or Norton's current, IN in short.
Step 3: Replace all the independent sources with their internal resistances in
the circuit obtained in Step 1.
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Step 4: Find the equivalent resistance across the open-circuited terminals of
the circuit obtained in Step 3 indirect methods if there are no dependent
sources. This equivalent resistance is known as Norton's equivalent
resistance or Norton's resistance, RN in short.
Step 5: If dependent sources are present, we can find the equivalent
resistance across the open-circuited terminals of the circuit obtained in Step
3 by using the Test source method. We will connect a 1V source (or 1A
source) across the open terminals and calculate another parameter current
(or voltage) in the test source method. We will get the value of Norton's
resistance, RN by taking the ratio of voltage and current across the 2
terminals.
Step 6: Draw Norton's equivalent circuit by connecting Norton's current, IN in
parallel with Norton's resistance, RN.

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Step 7: Connect the element, where we are supposed to find the response at
the open terminals of Norton's equivalent circuit obtained in Step 6.

Step 8: Find the response of that element by using laws or basic rules.

For the above-given circuit, Norton's Theorem formula would be:

I = IN(RN/R+RN) & V= IN(RRN/R+RN) 73

Norton's Theorem Example
For the given circuit, determine the current flowing through a 10 Ω resistor using
Norton’s theorem.

Since the question here, is to determine the current through a 10 Ω resistor, it

is considered as the load.

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a) To find Norton’s current, Remove the load resistor(10 Ω), short it with a wire,
and the circuit is redrawn as below.

In this circuit, we need to find the current IN, which is Norton’s current flowing
from a to b. To find the value of IN, it is necessary to determine the total current
in the circuit.
If you observe the circuit, the 3 Ω resistor and 2 Ω resistor are in parallel with
each other. This parallel combination is in series with 1 Ω resistor. Thus,
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Now, the total current IT is given by,

The current through the 2 Ω resistor (or Norton’s current IN) is obtained by
applying the current division rule,

b) To find Norton’s resistance, Remove the load resistor, short the voltage
source, and the circuit is redrawn as below.
76
In this circuit, we can observe that the 2 Ω resistor is in series with the
parallel combination of 1 Ω and 3 Ω resistors. Thus the equivalent value of
resistance is obtained as,

c)Norton’s Equivalent Circuit. It is drawn by connecting Norton’s voltage IN,

Norton’s resistance RN and load resistor in series, as shown below
77
From this circuit, the current through the load RL = 10 Ω resistor is obtained
using the current division rule. It is given by,

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem explains that to generate maximum external

power through a finite internal resistance (DC network), the resistance of the
given load must be equal to the resistance of the available source.

In other words, the resistance of the

load must be the same
as Thevenin’s equivalent resistance.

In the case of AC voltage sources,

maximum power is produced only if
the load impedance’s value is
equivalent to the complex conjugate of
the source impedance.

The fundamental Maximum Power Transfer Formula is 79

Application of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The presence of linked sources enables the network to be active, so the Maximum
Power Transfer Theorem is applied for active networks & passive networks.
• Maximum Power Transfer Theorem can also be implemented in linear networks,
the network system, and R, L, C, & restrained linear sources as elements.
• Maximum power transfer theorem functions only when there is a variable load. If
not, choose the least available internal sources of impedance, which paves in
maximum current through the fixed load. Consequently, maximum power is
expelled by the load circuit.
• Large sound systems are built around this process. Maximum power transfer is
generated in the circuit by making the speaker’s (load) resistance equivalent to the
resistance of the amplifier. Once the speaker and amplifier have equal resistance,
both are considered harmonized.
• Another application is on the relationship between the starter motor and the
battery of a car engine. Power applied to the starter will rely on the effectual
resistance of the motor and battery resistance. When their values are equal, the
80
highest power will be transmitted to kickstart the engine.
Reference Textbooks
T1: Charles K,Alexander, Mattew N.O.Saidiku, Fundamentals of Electrical
Circuits by Tata McGraw Hill Company

T2: D.P. Kothari and Nagrath “Electrical Machines”, McGraw Hill 2017

T3: S. K. Bhattacharya, “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering”, Pearson,

2012.
T4: David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, 5th Edition, Oxford
University Press, 2008.
T5: R. K. Rajput, “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering”, University
Science Press, 2nd Edition, 2012.
T6: R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”,
Prentice Hall, Seventh Edition. 81