MATH-361 Probability and Statistics

Dr. Umer Saeed

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 Probability and Statistics
Spring Semester 2025

TEXT BOOK: Introduction to Probability and Statistics for

Engineers and Scientists by Sheldon M. Ross.
References Material :
Calculus with Analytic Geometry by Thomas
and Finny
Probability and Statistics by Murray R.Spiegel,
John J.Schiller, A.V.Srinivasan, Mike Levan.
GRADING :
Assignments 10%
Quizzes 10%
OHTs 30%
Final Exam 50%
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Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing and
interpreting data to assist in making decisions.

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Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing and
interpreting data to assist in making decisions.

Types of Statistics

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Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing and
interpreting data to assist in making decisions.

Types of Statistics

The study of statistics is usually divided into two categories:

Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics

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Population and Sample

A Population is the collection of all objects or measurements

that are of interest to the experiment.

Example

Suppose we wish to study the height of all students at university.

The population will be the collection of measured heights of
students in the university.

sample

The sample is a subset of data selected from population.

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We introduce few more definitions and new terms in statistical
language.

Variable

A variable is a characteristics that changes or varies over the time

and/or for different individuals or objects under consideration.
Variable can be classified into one of two categories:
Qualitative Variable
Quantitative Variable

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There are two types of quantitative variables:
Discrete Variable
Continuous Variable
Data: Values of a variable for one or more people or things yield
data.
Qualitative data : Values of a qualitative variable
Quantitative data: Values of a quantitative variable
Discrete data: Values of a discrete variable
Continuous data: Values of a continuous variable
Each individual piece of data is called an observation, and the
collection of all observations for a particular variable is called a
data set.

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Data Representation

Organizing Qualitative Data

Frequency Distribution
There are several methods of organization and presentation of
observed data which facilitate its interpretation and evaluation.
Example: The responses of the 40 students in the class for their
political party are recorded as follows:

P N O N N N N N
P O N P O O N P
P N O P N N O N
P O P P P N O P
O N P N N N N P

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A class frequency table is given as follows:
Class Frequency Cumulative Relative
intervals x f frequency frequency frel (x)
P 13 13 13/40=0.325
N 18 31 18/40=0.450
O 9 40 9/40=0.225
40 1

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Pie Chart
A pie chart is a disk divided into wedge-shaped pieces
proportional to the relative frequencies of the qualitative data.

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Pie Chart
A pie chart is a disk divided into wedge-shaped pieces
proportional to the relative frequencies of the qualitative data.
The main steps for the construction of pie chart are as follows:
Obtain a relative-frequency distribution of the data.
Divide a disk into wedge-shaped pieces proportional to the
relative frequencies.
Label the slices with the distinct values and their relative
frequencies.

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Pie Chart
A pie chart is a disk divided into wedge-shaped pieces
proportional to the relative frequencies of the qualitative data.
The main steps for the construction of pie chart are as follows:
Obtain a relative-frequency distribution of the data.
Divide a disk into wedge-shaped pieces proportional to the
relative frequencies.
Label the slices with the distinct values and their relative
frequencies.

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Bar Chart
A bar chart displays the distinct values of the qualitative data on
a horizontal axis and the relative frequencies (or frequencies or
percents) of those values on a vertical axis. The relative frequency
of each distinct value is represented by a vertical bar whose height
is equal to the relative frequency of that value. The bars should
be positioned so that they do not touch each other.

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Bar Chart
A bar chart displays the distinct values of the qualitative data on
a horizontal axis and the relative frequencies (or frequencies or
percents) of those values on a vertical axis. The relative frequency
of each distinct value is represented by a vertical bar whose height
is equal to the relative frequency of that value. The bars should
be positioned so that they do not touch each other.
The main steps for the construction of bar chart are as follows:
Obtain a relative-frequency distribution of the data.
Draw a horizontal axis on which to place the bars and a
vertical axis on which to display the relative frequencies.
For each distinct value, construct a vertical bar whose height
equals the relative frequency of that value.
Label the bars with the distinct values, the horizontal axis
with the name of the variable, and the vertical axis with
Relative frequency.
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Bar Charts

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Exercise

The following table gives the number of deaths on British roads in

1987 for individuals in various classifications
A class frequency table is given as follows:
Classification Number of deaths
Pedestrians 1699
Bicyclists 280
Motorcyclists 650
Automobile drivers 1327

Find relative frequency, and express this data set in a pie and bar
chart.

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Data Representation

Organizing Quantitative Data

There are three types of class grouping

Single value grouping
Limit grouping
Cutpoint grouping

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Single value grouping

Number of TV sets in each of 50 randomly selected households

1 1 1 2 6 3 3 4 2 4
3 2 1 5 2 1 3 6 2 2
3 1 1 4 3 2 2 2 2 3
0 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 1 3
3 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 5 1

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Single value grouping

Number of TV sets in each of 50 randomly selected households

1 1 1 2 6 3 3 4 2 4
3 2 1 5 2 1 3 6 2 2
3 1 1 4 3 2 2 2 2 3
0 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 1 3
3 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 5 1

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Limit grouping

Example: Following are the marks obtained by 40 math students

70 64 99 55 64 89 87 65
62 38 67 70 60 69 78 39
75 56 71 51 99 68 95 86
57 53 47 50 55 81 80 98
51 36 63 66 85 79 83 70

Use limit grouping, with grouping by 10s, to organize these data

into frequency and relative frequency distributions.

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Cutpoint grouping

Example: Following are the weights, in pounds, of 37 males aged

18-24 years

129.2 185.3 218.1 182.5 142.8 155.2 170.0

151.3 187.5 145.6 167.3 161.0 178.7 165.0
172.5 191.1 150.7 187.0 173.7 178.2 161.7
170.1 165.8 214.6 136.7 278.8 175.6 188.7
132.1 158.5 146.4 209.1 175.4 182.0 173.6
149.9 158.6

Usa a class width of 20 and a first cutpoint of 120.

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Examples

Example: The following data represent the number of days of

sick leave taken by each of 50 workers of a given company over the
last 6 weeks:
2, 2, 0, 0, 5, 8, 3, 4, 1, 0,
0, 7, 1, 7, 1, 5, 4, 0, 4, 0,
1, 8, 9, 7, 0, 1, 7, 2, 5, 5,
4, 3, 3, 0, 0, 2, 5, 1, 3, 0,
1, 0, 2, 4, 5, 0, 5, 7, 5, 1
How many workers had at least 1 day of sick leave?
How many workers had between 3 and 5 days of sick leave?
How many workers had more than 5 days of sick leave?

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Examples

Example: The 14 measurements of tensile strength of sheet of

steel are recorded as follows:
89 84 87 81 89 86 91
90 78 89 87 99 83 89

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Example: The following table gives the speeds, in miles per
hour, over 14 mile for 35 cheetahs. Use cutpoint grouping with 52
as the first cutpoint and classes of equal width 2.

57.3 57.5 59.0 56.5 61.3 57.6 59.2

65.0 60.1 59.7 62.6 52.6 60.7 62.3
65.2 54.8 55.4 55.5 57.8 58.7 57.8
60.9 75.3 60.6 58.1 55.9 61.6 59.6
59.8 63.4 54.7 60.2 52.4 58.3 66.0

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Simple Bar Chart
A simple bar chart consist of horizontal or vertical bar of equal
widths and lengths equal to value represented by frequency.
Example:Draw a simple bar diagram to represent the turnover of
a company for 5 years

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Multiple Bar Chart

A multiple Bar chart shows two or more characteristics

corresponding to value of a common variable in the form of
grouped bars whose lengths are proportional to the value of the
characteristics and each bar is colored differently.
Example: Draw Multiple bar diagram to show area and
production of cotton from the following data

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Multiple Bar Chart

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Component Bar Chart

A component bar chart is an effective technique in which each bar

is divided into two or more sections proportional in size to
component part of total being displayed by each bar.
Example: Draw a component Bar chart of Population city wise

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Class Boundary

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Class Boundary

These numbers are used to separate the classes so that there are
no gaps in the frequency distribution.

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Histogram
A histogram displays the classes of the quantitative data on a
horizontal axis and the frequencies (relative frequencies, percents)
of those classes on a vertical axis. The frequency (relative
frequency, percent) of each class is represented by a vertical bar
whose height is equal to the frequency (relative frequency,
percent) of that class. The bars should be positioned so that they
touch each other.

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Histogram
A histogram displays the classes of the quantitative data on a
horizontal axis and the frequencies (relative frequencies, percents)
of those classes on a vertical axis. The frequency (relative
frequency, percent) of each class is represented by a vertical bar
whose height is equal to the frequency (relative frequency,
percent) of that class. The bars should be positioned so that they
touch each other.
For single-value grouping, we use the distinct values of the
observations to label the bars, with each such value centered
under its bar
For limit grouping or cutpoint grouping, we use the lower
class limits (or, equivalently, lower class cutpoints) to label
the bars.

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Histogram
A histogram displays the classes of the quantitative data on a
horizontal axis and the frequencies (relative frequencies, percents)
of those classes on a vertical axis. The frequency (relative
frequency, percent) of each class is represented by a vertical bar
whose height is equal to the frequency (relative frequency,
percent) of that class. The bars should be positioned so that they
touch each other.
For single-value grouping, we use the distinct values of the
observations to label the bars, with each such value centered
under its bar
For limit grouping or cutpoint grouping, we use the lower
class limits (or, equivalently, lower class cutpoints) to label
the bars.
Note: Some statisticians and technologies use class marks or
class midpoints centered under the bars.
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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

A histogram that uses frequencies on the vertical axis is called a

frequency histogram. Similarly, a histogram that uses relative
frequencies or percents on the vertical axis is called a
relative-frequency histogram or percent histogram, respectively.

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Examples

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Examples

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Examples

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Dotplots
Dotplots are particularly useful for showing the relative positions
of the data in a data set.

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Dotplots
Dotplots are particularly useful for showing the relative positions
of the data in a data set.
Prices, in dollar, of 16 DVD players

210 219 214 197

224 219 199 199
208 209 215 199
212 212 219 210

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Frequency Polygon

The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using

lines that connect points plotted for the frequencies at the
midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the
heights of the points.

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Frequency Polygon

The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using

lines that connect points plotted for the frequencies at the
midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the
heights of the points.
Example: These data represent the record high temperatures in
degrees Fahrenheit for each of the 50 states

112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Frequency Polygon

Class Class Frequency Cumulative Class

intervals x boundaries f frequency marks
100-104 99.5-104.5 2 2 102
105-109 104.5-109.5 8 10 107
110-114 109.5-114.5 18 28 112
115-119 114.5-119.5 13 41 117
120-124 120.5-124.5 7 48 122
125-129 124.5-129.5 1 49 127
130-134 129.5-134.5 1 50 132

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Frequency Polygon

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Cumulative Frequency Graph (Ogive)

Cumulative frequency
Less than 99.5 0
Less than 104.5 2
Less than 109.5 10
Less than 114.5 28
Less than 119.5 41
Less than 124.5 48
Less than 129.5 49
Less than 134.5 50

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Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Histogram for unequal class width

relative f requency of the class

rectangle height =
class width
The resulting rectangle heights are usually called densities, and
the vertical scale is the density scale.
This prescription will also work when class widths are equal.

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Consider the following 48 observations

Class frequency Relative frequency Density
2− < 4 9 0.1875 0.0938
4− < 6 15 0.3125 0.1563
6− < 8 5 0.1042 0.0521
8− < 12 9 0.1875 0.0469
12− < 20 8 0.1667 0.0208
20− < 30 2 0.0417 0.0042
48 1

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Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

Example

The frequency table gives information on the speeds (mph) of a

sample of drivers using a motorway. Construct a Histogram for
this data.
Class frequency Frequency Density
0-30 240 8
30-40 320 32
40-50 500 50
50-60 780 78
60-70 960 96
70-80 820 82
80-120 640 16

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 Graphical Display for Quantitative Data

relativef requency = (class width)(density)

= (rectangle width)(rectangle height)
= rectangle area

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 Measurement

Levels of measurement

There are four level of measurement

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

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 Measurement

Stem-and-Leaf Diagrams

In a stem-and-leaf display of quantitative data, each value is

divided into two portions a stem and a leaf.

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 Measurement

Stem-and-Leaf Diagrams

In a stem-and-leaf display of quantitative data, each value is

divided into two portions a stem and a leaf.
This diagram is often easier to construct than either a
frequency distribution or a histogram and generally displays
more information.
An advantage of a stem and leaf display over a frequency
distribution is that by preparing a stem and leaf display we
do not lose information on individual observations.
A very efficient way of displaying a small-to-moderate size
data set is to utilize a stem-and-leaf plot.

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 Measurement

Example1

The following are the scores of 30 college students on a statistics

test.
75 52 80 96 65 79 71 87 93 95
69 72 81 61 76 86 79 68 50 92
83 84 77 64 71 87 72 92 57 98
Construct a stem and leaf display

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 Measurement

Example2

The following data give the monthly rents paid by a sample of 30

households selected from a small town.
880 1081 721 1075 1023 775 1235 750 965 960
1210 985 1231 932 850 825 1000 915 1191 1035
1151 630 1175 952 1100 1140 750 1140 1370 1280

Construct a stem and leaf display for these data.

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 Measurement

Sometimes a data set may contain too many stems, with each
stem containing only a few leaves. In such cases, we may want to
condense the stem and leaf display by grouping the stems.

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 Measurement

Sometimes a data set may contain too many stems, with each
stem containing only a few leaves. In such cases, we may want to
condense the stem and leaf display by grouping the stems.

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 Measurement

Example3

The following stem and leaf display is prepared for the number of
hours that 25 students spent working on computers during the
past month.
0 | 6
1 | 179
2 | 26
3 | 2478
4 | 15699
5 | 368
6 | 24457
7 |
8 | 56

Prepare a new stem and leaf display by grouping the stems

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 Measurement

Some data sets produce stem-and-leaf displays that have a

small number of stems relative to the number of observations
in the data set and have too many leaves for each stem.

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 Measurement

Some data sets produce stem-and-leaf displays that have a

small number of stems relative to the number of observations
in the data set and have too many leaves for each stem.
In such a situation, we can create a stem-and-leaf display
with split stems.

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 Measurement

Some data sets produce stem-and-leaf displays that have a

small number of stems relative to the number of observations
in the data set and have too many leaves for each stem.
In such a situation, we can create a stem-and-leaf display
with split stems.
To do this, each stem is split into two or five parts.

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 Measurement

Some data sets produce stem-and-leaf displays that have a

small number of stems relative to the number of observations
in the data set and have too many leaves for each stem.
In such a situation, we can create a stem-and-leaf display
with split stems.
To do this, each stem is split into two or five parts.
Whenever the stems are split into two parts, any observation
having a leaf with a value of 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 is placed in the
first split stem, while the leaves 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are placed in
the second split stem.

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 Measurement

Some data sets produce stem-and-leaf displays that have a

small number of stems relative to the number of observations
in the data set and have too many leaves for each stem.
In such a situation, we can create a stem-and-leaf display
with split stems.
To do this, each stem is split into two or five parts.
Whenever the stems are split into two parts, any observation
having a leaf with a value of 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 is placed in the
first split stem, while the leaves 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are placed in
the second split stem.
Sometimes we can split a stem into five parts if there are too
many leaves for one stem. Whenever a stem is split into five
parts, leaves with values of 0 and 1 are placed next to the
first part of the split stem, leaves with values of 2 and 3 are
placed next to the second part of the split stem, and so on.
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 Measurement

Some data sets produce stem-and-leaf displays that have a

small number of stems relative to the number of observations
in the data set and have too many leaves for each stem.
In such a situation, we can create a stem-and-leaf display
with split stems.
To do this, each stem is split into two or five parts.
Whenever the stems are split into two parts, any observation
having a leaf with a value of 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 is placed in the
first split stem, while the leaves 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are placed in
the second split stem.
Sometimes we can split a stem into five parts if there are too
many leaves for one stem. Whenever a stem is split into five
parts, leaves with values of 0 and 1 are placed next to the
first part of the split stem, leaves with values of 2 and 3 are
placed next to the second part of the split stem, and so on.
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 Measurement

Example4

Consider the following stem-and-leaf display, which has only two

stems. Using the split stem procedure, rewrite this stem-and-leaf
display.

3 | 1123334478999
4 | 0001111112222233667

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