Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

MTH111/MAT111- Lecture 1: Elementary Set Theory

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Overview

Introduction to Set Theory

Basic Terminology and Notation
Types of Sets
Set Operations
Venn Diagrams
Applications in Mathematics
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

What is a Set?

Definition: A set is a well-defined collection of distinct

objects, called elements.
Sets are usually denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C ,
etc.
Elements of a set are denoted by small letters or numbers and
enclosed within curly braces {}.
Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {apple, banana, coconut, mango}
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Set Membership

Set Membership Symbol:

x ∈ A: Means that x is an element of set A.
x∈
/ A: Means that x is not an element of set A.

Example:
If A = {1, 2, 3}, then:
2∈A
4∈
/A
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example - Solution

Question: Given the set A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, check if the following

statements are true or false:
1 4∈A

2 5∈A

3 9∈
/A
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example

Question: Given the set A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, check if the following

statements are true or false:
1 4∈A
2 5∈A
3 9∈
/A

Solution:
1 4 ∈ A: True
2 5 ∈ A: False
3 9∈
/ A: True
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Ways of Representing Sets

Sets can be represented in multiple ways depending on the

context.

In this lecture, we will discuss three common ways to

represent sets:
Roster or Tabular Form
Set Builder Notation
Venn Diagrams
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Roster or Tabular Form

Definition:
The roster or tabular form lists all elements of the set,
separated by commas and enclosed in curly braces.

Example:
Let A be the set of natural numbers less than 5.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Note:
This form is useful for finite sets or sets where all elements are
known.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Set Builder Notation

Definition:
Set builder notation describes the elements of a set by a
property they satisfy, rather than listing them explicitly.

Example:
Let A be the set of all integers greater than 0 and less than 5.
A = {x|x ∈ Z, 0 < x < 5}
Note:
This form is useful for describing large sets or sets with an
easily defined property.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Venn Diagrams

Definition:
Venn Diagrams are used to represent sets visually.
Each set is represented by a circle, and the relationships
between sets (e.g., union, intersection) are represented by the
overlap or separation of these circles.
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
In the Venn diagram, there is an overlap between A and B at
element 3.
Note:
Venn Diagrams are particularly useful for representing set
operations like union and intersection.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Venn Diagrams

Figure: Venn diagram

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 1

Example:
Let A be the set of all even numbers between 1 and 10.
Represent A using:
Roster Form;

Set Builder Notation; and

Venn Diagram.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 1

Example:
Let A be the set of all even numbers between 1 and 10.
Represent A using:
Roster Form: A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

Set Builder Notation: A = {x|x is even and 1 < x ≤ 10}

Venn Diagram:
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Classwork

Question 1: Represent the set

B = {x|x is a prime number less than 10} in roster form.

Question 2: Represent the set C = {1, 2, 3, 4} using a Venn

Diagram.

Question 3: Write the set D, where D = {x|x ∈ N, x ≤ 7},

in roster form.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Take-Home Assignment

Assignment 1: Represent the set

E = {x|x is an odd number between 1 and 15} using roster
form and set builder notation.

Assignment 2: Create a Venn Diagram for two sets A and B,

where A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Show their union
and intersection.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Types of Sets

Finite Sets: Sets with a limited number of elements.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Infinite Sets: Sets with an uncountable (unlimited) number

of elements.
Example: The set of all natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }

Empty Set (∅): A set with no elements.

An empty set is denoted by ∅ or {}

Singleton Set: A set with exactly one element.

Example: D = {3}
Universal Set: The set that contains all elements under
consideration. The universal set is represented by the symbol
U or E
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

What is a Subset?

A set A is a subset of another set B, written A ⊆ B, if every

element of A is also an element of B.

Example:
A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
In this case, A ⊆ B because all elements of A (i.e., 1 and 2) are in
B.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Types of Subsets

Proper Subset:
A set A is a proper subset of B if A ⊆ B and A ̸= B.
Denoted as A ⊂ B.
Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}, then A ⊂ B.
Improper Subset:
A set A is an improper subset of B if A = B or A is the empty
set (∅).
Example: A = B = {1, 2, 3}, then A ⊆ B (improper subset).
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example

Problem: Given X = {a, b, c}, list all the subsets of X .

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example

Problem: Given X = {a, b, c}, list all the subsets of X .

Solution: The subsets of X are:

{}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}

There are 23 = 8 subsets.

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Class Work

Task: For the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, find:

1 All the subsets of A.
2 The proper subsets of A.
3 Verify that the number of subsets of A is 24 .
Hint: Use the formula 2n , where n is the number of elements in
the set.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Assignment

Homework:
1 List all the subsets of B = {x, y , z, w }.
2 How many proper subsets does the set B have?
3 For a set C with 5 elements, how many subsets and proper
subsets does C have?
Submission: Next class.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Definition of Superset

Superset:
A set A is said to be a superset of a set B if every element of
B is also an element of A.
Denoted as: A ⊇ B.
If A ⊇ B, this implies that B ⊆ A, meaning B is a subset of A.
If A ⊃ B and A ̸= B, then A is a proper superset of B.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 3}.
Since every element of B is contained in A, we say that A is a
superset of B.
Thus, A ⊇ B.

Verification:
Check if all elements of B are in A:

B = {2, 3} and A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Since 2 ∈ A and 3 ∈ A, it is true that B ⊆ A, or equivalently,

A ⊇ B.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example

Example:
Let A = {a, b}, B = {a, b, c, d}, and C = {a, b}.
Check whether the following statements are true:
1 A⊆B
2 A⊂B
3 B⊇C
4 A=C
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example

Example:
Let A = {a, b}, B = {a, b, c, d}, and C = {a, b}.
Check whether the following statements are true:
1 A⊆B
2 A⊂B
3 B⊇C
4 A=C
Solution:
A ⊆ B is true since all elements of A are in B.
A ⊂ B is true because A ̸= B but every element of A is in B.
B ⊇ C is true because C ⊆ B.
A = C is true because A and C have the same elements.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 2

Example:
Let P = {x ∈ N : x ≤ 4} and Q = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Determine whether P ⊂ Q and whether P ⊆ Q.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 2

Example:
Let P = {x ∈ N : x ≤ 4} and Q = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Determine whether P ⊂ Q and whether P ⊆ Q.
Solution:
P = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Q = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
P ⊂ Q is true because P ̸= Q, but all elements of P are in Q.
P ⊆ Q is true because every element of P is in Q.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Classwork

Solve the following:

1 Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Determine whether
A ⊂ B and B ⊇ A.
2 Let X = {a, b, c}, Y = {a, b, c, d}. Find if X ⊂ Y and
Y ⊇ X.
Discuss your answers with your classmate.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Take-Home Assignment

Assignment:
1 Let S = {5, 10, 15, 20} and T = {10, 15, 20, 25}. Is S ⊆ T ?
Why or why not?
2 Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {3, 4, 5}, find if A ⊆ B or
B ⊆ A.
3 Find three real-life examples where proper subsets and
supersets can be applied.
Submit by next class.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Power Set

Definition: The power set of a set A is the set of all possible

subsets of A.
Notation: P(A)

Example:
If A = {1, 2}, then P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}

Formula: For a set with n elements, the power set has 2n

elements.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example

Question: Find the power set of A = {a, b}.

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example

Question: Find the power set of A = {a, b}.

Solution: P(A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Classwork

Given the set C = {x, y , z}, find its power set P(C ).
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Introduction to Operations on Sets

Set operations help us work with and combine sets in

meaningful ways.
We will discuss key operations such as Union, Intersection,
Difference, and Complement using both set notation and set
builder notation.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Union of Sets

Union:
The union of two sets contains all elements from both sets
without duplication.
Notation: A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} or
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Intersection of Sets

Intersection:
The intersection of two sets contains only the elements
common to both sets.
Set Notation: A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} or
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
A ∩ B = {3}
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Difference of Sets

Difference:
Set Notation: A − B = A \ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B} or
A − B = A \ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}
The difference of two sets contains elements in A but not in B.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
A − B = {1, 2}
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 1

Example:
Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {b, c, d}, and U = {a, b, c, d, e}.
Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A − B, and A′ .
Solution:
A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d}
A ∩ B = {b, c}
A − B = {a}
A′ = {d, e}
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Further Examples

Example 1: Real-Life Application of Union

Consider two groups of students:
Group A: Students taking Mathematics
A = {Alice, Bob, Charlie}
Group B: Students taking Science
B = {Charlie, David, Eva}
The union A ∪ B includes all students taking either
Mathematics or Science:

A ∪ B = {Alice, Bob, Charlie, David, Eva}

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Further Examples

Example 2: Real-Life Application of Intersection

From the previous groups, the intersection A ∩ B consists of
students enrolled in both subjects:
Consider two groups of students:
Group A: Students taking Mathematics
A = {Alice, Bob, Charlie}
Group B: Students taking Science
B = {Charlie, David, Eva}
A ∩ B = {Charlie}
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Set Complement

The complement of a set A, denoted by A′ or A, or Ac consists

of all elements in the universal set U that are not in A.
Mathematically, A′ = U − A.
Set Notation: Ac or A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∈
/ A} OR
A′ = {x|x ∈ U and x ∈
/ A}
Complements are useful in set operations and Venn diagrams.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Properties of the Complement

Property 1: Double Complement (Involution Law)
(A′ )′ = A
The complement of the complement of set A is A itself.
Property 2: Complement of Universal Set
U′ = ∅
The complement of the universal set is the empty set.
Property 3: Complement of the Empty Set
∅′ = U
The complement of the empty set is the universal set.
Property 4: De Morgan’s Laws
(A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′ , (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′
These laws describe how the complement of unions and
intersections can be expressed in terms of the complements.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 1

Example:
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} be the universal set, and
A = {2, 4, 6}.
Find the complement of set A.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 1

Example:
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} be the universal set, and
A = {2, 4, 6}.
Find the complement of set A.

Solution:
A′ = U − A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8}
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 2

Example:
Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f }, A = {a, b, c}, and B = {c, d, e}.
Verify De Morgan’s law for the complement of the union of
sets A and B.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 2

Example:
Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f }, A = {a, b, c}, and B = {c, d, e}.
Verify De Morgan’s law for the complement of the union of
sets A and B.
Solution:
A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d, e}
(A ∪ B)′ = U − (A ∪ B) = {f }
A′ = {d, e, f }, B ′ = {a, b, f }
A′ ∩ B ′ = {f }
Thus, (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′ , confirming De Morgan’s law.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Classwork

Question 1: Let U = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60} and

C = {20, 40, 60}.
Find C ′ .
Question 2: Given U = {x, y , z, w }, A = {x, y }, and
B = {y , z}, verify De Morgan’s laws for A and B.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Take-Home Assignment

Assignment 1: Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, A = {2, 3, 5},

and B = {4, 6, 7}.
Find (A ∪ B)′ and verify it using De Morgan’s law.
Assignment 2: For the universal set U = {a, b, c, d, e, f },
and sets X = {a, b, c} and Y = {c, d, e}, show that
(X ∩ Y )′ = X ′ ∪ Y ′ using Venn diagrams.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Take-Home Assignment

Assignment 1: Let U = {a, b, c, d, e}, A = {a, b}, and

B = {b, c, d}. Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A − B, and (A ∪ B)′ .
Assignment 2: Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, A = {1, 2, 3},
and B = {3, 4, 5}, verify De Morgan’s laws for the sets.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

What is Symmetric Difference?

The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is the set of

elements that are in either A or B, but not in both.
It is denoted as A∆B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).
In simpler terms, it gives elements that are in A or B, but not
in their intersection.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, then
A∆B = {1, 2, 4, 5}.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Properties of Symmetric Difference

Commutative Property: A∆B = B∆A.

Associative Property: (A∆B)∆C = A∆(B∆C ).
Identity: A∆∅ = A.
Symmetric Difference of a Set with Itself: A∆A = ∅.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 1

Example 1:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Find the symmetric
difference A∆B.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 1

Example 1:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Find the symmetric
difference A∆B.
Solution:
A \ B = {1, 2} (elements in A but not in B).
B \ A = {5, 6} (elements in B but not in A).
Therefore, A∆B = {1, 2, 5, 6}.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 2

Example 2:
Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {b, c, d, e}. Find A∆B.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Worked Example 2

Example 2:
Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {b, c, d, e}. Find A∆B.
Solution:
A \ B = {a}.
B \ A = {d, e}.
Therefore, A∆B = {a, d, e}.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Classwork

Classwork:
Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {4, 8, 12}. Find the symmetric
difference A∆B.
Instructions: Solve this problem in your notebooks and be ready
to discuss the solution in class.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Take-Home Assignment

Assignment:
Let C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and D = {3, 6, 9, 12}. Find:
1 C ∆D
2 D∆C
3 Verify the commutative property: Is C ∆D = D∆C ?
Due Date: Submit the assignment in the next class.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Venn Diagrams

Definition: Venn diagrams are used to represent sets and

their relationships visually.
Each set is represented by a circle.
Example:
Union: Two overlapping circles, where both circles and the
intersection are shaded.

Figure: Union of Sets A and B

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Venn Diagrams

Example:
Intersection: Two overlapping circles, with only the
intersection shaded.

Figure: Intersection of Sets A and B

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Venn Diagrams

Example:
Complement: A circle inside a rectangle (universal set), with
the outside of the circle shaded.

Figure: Complement of set A

Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Applications of Set Theory

Data organization and classification

Probability and statistics
Logic and mathematical reasoning
Computer science and database management
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Summary

Sets are foundational in mathematics.

Understanding operations on sets is crucial for advanced
topics.
Venn diagrams are helpful tools for visualizing set
relationships.
Introduction to Subsets Types of Subsets Worked Example Worked Example Class Work Assignment

Take-Home Assignment

Create your own Venn diagram with two sets, and identify the
union, intersection, and differences.
Find the power set for the set D = {1, 2, 3, 4}.