Chapter 2:

Data Manipulation

Computer Science: An Overview

Twelfth Edition

by
J. Glenn Brookshear
Dennis Brylow

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 Chapter 2: Data Manipulation

• 2.1 Computer Architecture

• 2.2 Machine Language
• 2.3 Program Execution
• 2.4 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
• 2.5 Communicating with Other Devices
• 2.6 Program Data Manipulation
• 2.7 Other Architectures

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 2.1 Computer Architecture

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or

processor
– Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
– Registers
• General purpose
• Special purpose
• Bus
• Motherboard

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 Figure 2.1 CPU and main memory
connected via a bus

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 Stored Program Concept

A program can be encoded as bit patterns

and stored in main memory. From there,
the CPU can then extract the instructions
and execute them. In turn, the program to
be executed can be altered easily.

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 Terminology

• Machine instruction: An instruction (or

command) encoded as a bit pattern
recognizable by the CPU
• Machine language: The set of all
instructions recognized by a machine

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 2.2 Machine Language Philosophies

• Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)

– Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
– Examples: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola
and ARM
• Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)
– Many, convenient, and powerful instructions
– Example: Intel

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 Machine Instruction Types

• Data Transfer: copy data from one location

to another
• Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns
to compute a new bit patterns
• Control: direct the execution of the
program

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 Figure 2.2 Adding values stored in
memory

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 Figure 2.3 Dividing values stored in
memory

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 Figure 2.4 The architecture of the
machine described in Appendix C

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 Parts of a Machine Instruction

• Op-code: Specifies which operation to

execute
• Operand: Gives more detailed information
about the operation
– Interpretation of operand varies depending on
op-code

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 Figure 2.5 The composition of an
instruction for the machine in
Appendix C

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 Figure 2.6 Decoding the instruction
35A7

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 Figure 2.7 An encoded version of the
instructions in Figure 2.2

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 2.3 Program Execution

• Controlled by two special-purpose

registers
– Program counter: address of next instruction
– Instruction register: current instruction
• Machine Cycle
– Fetch
– Decode
– Execute

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 Figure 2.8 The machine cycle

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 Figure 2.9 Decoding the instruction
B258

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 Figure 2.10 The program from Figure 2.7
stored in main memory ready for execution

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 Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step
of the machine cycle

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 Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step
of the machine cycle (continued)

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 Arithmetic/Logic Operations

• Logic: AND, OR, XOR

– Masking
• Rotate and Shift: circular shift, logical shift,
arithmetic shift
• Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
– Precise action depends on how the values are
encoded (two’s complement versus floating-
point).

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Boolean Operations

• Boolean Operation: An operation that

manipulates one or more true/false values
• Specific operations
– AND
– OR
– XOR (exclusive or), ENOR
– NOT
– NAND and NOR,
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 Boolean operations (Cont.)

• AND reflect the truth or falseness of a statement formed by combining two

smaller, or simpler, statements with the conjunction and.
Such statements have the generic form
P AND Q
where P represents one statement, and Q represents another—for example,
Kermit is a frog AND Miss Piggy is an actress.

• The OR operation is based on compound statements of the form

P OR Q
where, again, P represents one statement and Q represents another. Such
statements are true when at least one of their components is true.

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 Boolean operations (Cont.)

• XOR produces an output of 1 (true) when one of its inputs is 1 (true)

and the other is 0 (false). For example, a statement of the
form P XOR Q means ―either P or Q but not both.‖

• The operation NOT is another Boolean operation. It differs from

AND, OR, and XOR because it has only one input. Its output is the
opposite of that input; if the input of the operation NOT is true, then
the output is false, and vice versa.

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 Figure 1.1 The possible input and output
values of Boolean operations AND, OR,
and XOR (exclusive or)

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 Gates

• Gate: A device that computes a Boolean

operation
– Often implemented as (small) electronic
circuits
– Provide the building blocks from which
computers are constructed
– VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration)

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 Figure 1.2 A pictorial representation of AND,
OR, XOR, and NOT gates as well as their input
and output values

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 Question for the class
Assignment 1
• What is the symbol for NAND and NOR
gates? Draw the truth table of each.

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 Flip-flops

• Flip-flop: A circuit built from gates that can

store one bit.
– One input line is used to set its stored value to 1
– One input line is used to set its stored value to 0
– While both input lines are 0, the most recently
stored value is preserved
– Flip-flop is a single bit storage devices
– Memories are designed using flip-flops

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 Figure 1.3 A simple flip-flop circuit

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 Figure 1.4 Setting the output of a
flip-flop to 1

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 Figure 1.4 Setting the output of a
flip-flop to 1 (continued)

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 Figure 1.4 Setting the output of a
flip-flop to 1 (continued)

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 Figure 1.5 Another way of
constructing a flip-flop

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 • Assignment 2
1. Use NOR gates to construct a flip-flop.
2. Use NAND gates to construct a flip-flop.
Read on question 3 (You are not to submit Q3)

3. Find differences between Latche and Flip-

flop

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 Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit pattern
65 (hexadecimal) one bit to the right

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 2.5 Communicating with Other Devices

• Controller: An intermediary apparatus that

handles communication between the computer
and a device
– Specialized controllers for each type of device
– General purpose controllers (USB and
FireWire)
• Port: The point at which a device connects to a
computer
• Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with
peripheral devices as though they were memory
cells

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 Figure 2.13 Controllers attached to a
machine’s bus

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 Figure 2.14 A conceptual representation
of memory-mapped I/O

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 Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)

• Direct memory access (DMA): Main

memory access by a controller over the
bus
• Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient
bus speed impedes performance
• Handshaking: The process of
coordinating the transfer of data between
components

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 Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)

• Parallel Communication: Several

communication paths transfer bits
simultaneously.
• Serial Communication: Bits are
transferred one after the other over a
single communication path.

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 Data Communication Rates

• Measurement units
– Bps: Bits per second
– Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
– Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
– Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
• Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

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 Programming Data Manipulation

• Programing languages shields users from

details of the machine:
– A single Python statement might map to one,
tens, or hundreds of machine instructions
– Programmer does not need to know if the
processor is RISC or CISC
– Assigning variables surely involves LOAD,
STORE, and MOVE op-codes

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 Bitwise Problems as Python Code

print(bin(0b10011010 & 0b11001001))

# Prints '0b10001000'
print(bin(0b10011010 | 0b11001001))
# Prints '0b11011011'
print(bin(0b10011010 ^ 0b11001001))
# Prints '0b1010011'

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 Control Structures

• If statement:
if (water_temp > 140):
print('Bath water too hot!')

• While statement:
while (n < 10):
print(n)
n = n + 1

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 Functions
• Function: A name for a series of
operations that should be performed on
the given parameter or parameters
• Function call: Appearance of a function
in an expression or statement
x = 1034
y = 1056
z = 2078
biggest = max(x, y, z)
print(biggest) # Prints '2078'

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 Functions (continued)
• Argument Value: A value plugged into a
parameter
• Fruitful functions return a value
• void functions, or procedures, do not
return a value
sideA = 3.0
sideB = 4.0
# Calculate third side via Pythagorean Theorem
hypotenuse = math.sqrt(sideA**2 + sideB**2)
print(hypotenuse)

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 Input / Output

# Calculates the hypotenuse of a right triangle

import math
# Inputting the side lengths, first try
sideA = int(input('Length of side A? '))
sideB = int(input('Length of side B? '))
# Calculate third side via Pythagorean Theorem
hypotenuse = math.sqrt(sideA**2 + sideB**2)
print(hypotenuse)

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 Marathon Training Assistant
# Marathon training assistant.
import math
# This function converts a number of minutes and
# seconds into just seconds.
def total_seconds(min, sec):
return min * 60 + sec
# This function calculates a speed in miles per hour given
# a time (in seconds) to run a single mile.
def speed(time):
return 3600 / time

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 Marathon Training Assistant
(continued)
# Prompt user for pace and mileage.
pace_minutes = int(input('Minutes per mile? '))
pace_seconds = int(input('Seconds per mile? '))
miles = int(input('Total miles? '))
# Calculate and print speed.
mph = speed(total_seconds(pace_minutes, pace_seconds))
print('Your speed is ' + str(mph) + ' mph')
# Calculate elapsed time for planned workout.
total = miles * total_seconds(pace_minutes, pace_seconds)
elapsed_minutes = total // 60
elapsed_seconds = total % 60
print('Your elapsed time is ' + str(elapsed_minutes) +
' mins ' + str(elapsed_seconds) + ' secs')

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 Figure 2.15 Example Marathon
Training Data

Time Per Mile Total Elapsed Time

Minutes Seconds Miles Speed (mph) Minutes Seconds

9 14 5 6.49819494584 46 10

8 0 3 7.5 24 0
7 45 6 7.74193548387 46 30

7 25 1 8.08988764044 7 25

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 Other Architectures

• Technologies to increase throughput:

– Pipelining: Overlap steps of the machine cycle
– Parallel Processing: Use multiple processors
simultaneously
• SISD: No parallel processing
• MIMD: Different programs, different data
• SIMD: Same program, different data

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