Unit -2

1.1 Logical Data Model:

A Logical Data Model (LDM) is a detailed representation of an organization's data, independent

of any physical implementation. It defines the structure of the data elements and sets the
relationships between them. The LDM focuses on the business requirements and concepts,
serving as a bridge between the conceptual data model and the physical data model. Here are the
key components and aspects of a Logical Data Model:

Key Components of a Logical Data Model:

1. Entities
o Represent real-world objects, concepts, or events that have data stored about
them.
o Examples: Customer, Order, Product.
2. Attributes
o Characteristics or properties of entities.
o Examples: Customer (CustomerID, Name, Address), Order (OrderID, OrderDate,
TotalAmount).
3. Relationships
o Define how entities are related to each other.
o Examples: A Customer places an Order, an Order contains Products.
4. Primary Keys
o Unique identifiers for entities.
o Examples: CustomerID for Customer, OrderID for Order.
5. Foreign Keys
o Attributes that create a link between entities.
o Examples: CustomerID in Order to link an Order to a Customer.
6. Normalization
o The process of organizing data to minimize redundancy.
o Ensures that data is logically stored, avoiding anomalies during data operations
(insert, update, delete).

Steps to Create a Logical Data Model:

1. Identify Entities
o Determine the main objects and concepts relevant to the business requirements.
2. Define Attributes
o List out the attributes for each entity, ensuring they capture all necessary data.
3. Establish Relationships
o Identify and define how entities interact with each other.
4. Apply Normalization
o Normalize the data to ensure it is organized efficiently. Common forms include
1NF (First Normal Form), 2NF (Second Normal Form), and 3NF (Third Normal
Form).
5. Define Keys
o Assign primary keys to each entity and foreign keys to establish relationships.
6. Validate the Model
 o Review the model with stakeholders to ensure it meets business requirements.

Benefits of a Logical Data Model:

 Clarity and Communication: Provides a clear and detailed representation of business data
requirements, facilitating communication among stakeholders.
 Data Integrity: Ensures data accuracy and consistency through normalization and
relationship definitions.
 System Independence: Abstracts data structures from physical considerations, making the
model independent of specific database technologies.
 Scalability: A well-designed LDM can adapt to changing business requirements and is
scalable for future growth.

Example of a Logical Data Model:

Consider a simple e-commerce scenario with Customers, Orders, and Products:

Entities and Attributes:

 Customer:
o Attributes: CustomerID (Primary Key), Name, Email, Address
 Order:
o Attributes: OrderID (Primary Key), OrderDate, TotalAmount, CustomerID
(Foreign Key)
 Product:
o Attributes: ProductID (Primary Key), ProductName, Price
 OrderDetail:
o Attributes: OrderDetailID (Primary Key), OrderID (Foreign Key), ProductID
(Foreign Key), Quantity, UnitPrice

Relationships:

 A Customer can place multiple Orders.

 An Order can contain multiple Products through OrderDetails.
 A Product can be part of multiple OrderDetails.

Logical Data Model Diagram:

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Customer (CustomerID, Name, Email, Address)
|
| (1-to-many relationship)
|
Order (OrderID, OrderDate, TotalAmount, CustomerID)
|
| (1-to-many relationship)
|
OrderDetail (OrderDetailID, OrderID, ProductID, Quantity, UnitPrice)
 |
| (many-to-1 relationship)
|
Product (ProductID, ProductName, Price)

1.2 Physical Data Model:

A Physical Data Model (PDM) represents how data is stored in a database, detailing the technical
implementation and structure. It includes specifications for tables, columns, data types, indexes,
and constraints, and it maps the logical data model to the physical storage.

Key Components of a Physical Data Model:

1. Tables
o Represents entities from the logical model but implemented as database tables.
o Each table has columns corresponding to attributes.
2. Columns
o Defines the data type and constraints for each attribute.
o Includes metadata such as data type (e.g., VARCHAR, INT), nullability, default
values, etc.
3. Primary Keys
o Uniquely identify rows in a table.
o Ensure that each record can be uniquely retrieved.
4. Foreign Keys
o Enforce relationships between tables.
o Ensure referential integrity by linking primary keys from one table to another.
5. Indexes
o Improve the speed of data retrieval.
o Can be applied to one or more columns to speed up queries.
6. Constraints
o Rules applied to data in the table to ensure data integrity.
o Includes primary key constraints, foreign key constraints, unique constraints, and
check constraints.
7. Views
o Virtual tables based on the result set of a query.
o Provide a way to simplify complex queries and enhance security by limiting
access to specific data.
8. Partitioning
o Divides a table into smaller, more manageable pieces for performance and
maintenance.
o Can be based on ranges, lists, or hashing.
9. Storage Parameters
o Define how and where data is physically stored.
o Includes tablespaces, file groups, and storage engines.

Steps to Create a Physical Data Model:

1. Define Tables and Columns

 o Translate entities and attributes from the logical model into tables and columns.
o Specify data types and constraints for each column.
2. Establish Primary and Foreign Keys
o Define primary keys to ensure unique identification of rows.
o Set up foreign keys to enforce relationships between tables.
3. Create Indexes
o Identify columns that will benefit from indexing to improve query performance.
4. Define Constraints
o Apply necessary constraints to maintain data integrity.
5. Implement Views
o Create views to simplify data access and enhance security.
6. Partition Tables (if necessary)
o Apply partitioning strategies to improve performance and manageability.
7. Set Storage Parameters
o Define tablespaces, file groups, and other storage settings based on the database
system.

Example of a Physical Data Model:

Continuing from the e-commerce example:

Tables and Columns:

 Customer
o Columns: CustomerID (INT, Primary Key), Name (VARCHAR(100)), Email
(VARCHAR(100)), Address (VARCHAR(255))
 Order
o Columns: OrderID (INT, Primary Key), OrderDate (DATETIME), TotalAmount
(DECIMAL), CustomerID (INT, Foreign Key)
 Product
o Columns: ProductID (INT, Primary Key), ProductName (VARCHAR(100)),
Price (DECIMAL)
 OrderDetail
o Columns: OrderDetailID (INT, Primary Key), OrderID (INT, Foreign Key),
ProductID (INT, Foreign Key), Quantity (INT), UnitPrice (DECIMAL)

Constraints:

 Primary Keys:
o Customer (CustomerID)
o Order (OrderID)
o Product (ProductID)
o OrderDetail (OrderDetailID)
 Foreign Keys:
o Order.CustomerID references Customer.CustomerID
o OrderDetail.OrderID references Order.OrderID
o OrderDetail.ProductID references Product.ProductID

Indexes:
  CustomerEmailIndex: Index on Customer(Email) to speed up searches by email.

Storage Parameters:

 Tablespace:
o Assign tables to specific tablespaces for better storage management.

Physical Data Model Diagram:

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Customer
-------
CustomerID (PK, INT)
Name (VARCHAR(100))
Email (VARCHAR(100))
Address (VARCHAR(255))

Order
-------
OrderID (PK, INT)
OrderDate (DATETIME)
TotalAmount (DECIMAL)
CustomerID (FK, INT)

Product
-------
ProductID (PK, INT)
ProductName (VARCHAR(100))
Price (DECIMAL)

OrderDetail
-------
OrderDetailID (PK, INT)
OrderID (FK, INT)
ProductID (FK, INT)
Quantity (INT)
UnitPrice (DECIMAL)

1.3 Dimensional Data Model :

A Dimensional Data Model (DDM) is designed to support data warehousing and online
analytical processing (OLAP) by structuring data for efficient querying and reporting. This
model is based on dimensions and facts, providing a way to organize data that facilitates
complex queries and analysis. The key components of a Dimensional Data Model include fact
tables and dimension tables.

Key Components of a Dimensional Data Model:

 1. Fact Table
o Purpose: Contains measurable, quantitative data for analysis.
o Attributes: Typically includes numerical values (metrics) such as sales amount,
quantities, and other aggregatable data.
o Keys: Contains foreign keys linking to dimension tables.
2. Dimension Table
o Purpose: Provides context to the facts by containing descriptive attributes.
o Attributes: Includes categorical data such as product names, dates, geographic
locations, and customer information.
o Keys: Each dimension table has a primary key that corresponds to a foreign key in
the fact table.

Schema Types in Dimensional Modeling:

1. Star Schema
o Structure: A single fact table in the center connected to multiple dimension tables.
o Characteristics: Simple design, easy to understand and query.
o Use Case: Suitable for simpler data marts and smaller data warehouses.
2. Snowflake Schema
o Structure: Similar to a star schema but with normalized dimension tables.
o Characteristics: More complex due to normalization, which can reduce
redundancy.
o Use Case: Useful when dimensions have hierarchical relationships that need to be
explicitly defined.
3. Galaxy Schema (or Fact Constellation Schema)
o Structure: Multiple fact tables sharing dimension tables.
o Characteristics: Complex schema supporting multiple business processes.
o Use Case: Suitable for large-scale data warehouses with multiple star schemas.

Steps to Create a Dimensional Data Model:

1. Identify Business Processes

o Determine the key business processes that need to be analyzed.
2. Define Grain
o Establish the level of detail (granularity) for the fact table.
3. Identify Dimensions
o Identify the dimensions that provide context to the facts.
4. Define Facts
o Determine the metrics and measurements to be included in the fact table.
5. Design Schema
o Choose an appropriate schema type (star, snowflake, galaxy) and design the
tables.
6. Populate Data
o Load data into the fact and dimension tables, ensuring consistency and integrity.

Example of a Dimensional Data Model:

Consider an example of a retail sales data warehouse:

Fact Table: SalesFact

 SalesFact
o SalesID (Primary Key)
o DateID (Foreign Key)
o ProductID (Foreign Key)
o StoreID (Foreign Key)
o SalesAmount (DECIMAL)
o QuantitySold (INT)

Dimension Tables:

 DateDimension
o DateID (Primary Key)
o Date
o Month
o Quarter
o Year
 ProductDimension
o ProductID (Primary Key)
o ProductName
o Category
o Supplier
 StoreDimension
o StoreID (Primary Key)
o StoreName
o Location
o Region

Star Schema Diagram:

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DateDimension
-------------
DateID (PK)
Date
Month
Quarter
Year

|
|
|
ProductDimension -------------------- SalesFact -------------------- StoreDimension
------------------ ------------- -------------
ProductID (PK) SalesID (PK) StoreID (PK)
ProductName DateID (FK) StoreName
Category ProductID (FK) Location
Supplier StoreID (FK) Region
SalesAmount
QuantitySold

Benefits of a Dimensional Data Model:

1. Simplicity: Easy to understand and query, even for non-technical users.

2. Performance: Optimized for read-heavy operations and complex queries.
3. Scalability: Can handle large volumes of data efficiently.
4. Flexibility: Easily adapts to changing business requirements and new dimensions.

1.4 Conceptual Data Model:

A Conceptual Data Model (CDM) is an abstract, high-level representation of the essential

business concepts and relationships within an organization. It provides a conceptual framework
for understanding and defining the scope of the data involved in a business or application area.
The primary focus of a CDM is to capture the business requirements and concepts without
delving into specific technical details or implementation considerations.

Key Characteristics of a Conceptual Data Model:

1. Business-Oriented:
o Purpose: Defines business entities, their attributes, and relationships in a business
context.
o Audience: Business stakeholders, subject matter experts, and technical teams.
2. Abstraction:
o Level of Detail: Provides a high-level overview of data requirements without
specifying how data will be physically stored or implemented.
o Focus: Emphasizes on what data is needed rather than how it will be used or
processed.
3. Entities and Relationships:
o Entities: Represent major business objects or concepts.
o Relationships: Capture associations and connections between entities.
4. Attributes:
o Describe Properties: Defines the characteristics or properties of each entity.
o Example: Customer (CustomerID, Name, Address).
5. Normalization:
o Avoids Redundancy: Ensures that data is organized efficiently to minimize
redundancy and anomalies.
o Example: Ensuring each piece of information is stored only once.
6. Notation:
o Diagrammatic Representation: Often depicted using Entity-Relationship
Diagrams (ERDs) or similar diagramming techniques.
o Symbols: Entities represented as rectangles, relationships as lines connecting
entities.

Steps to Create a Conceptual Data Model:

1. Identify Business Requirements:

 o Work closely with stakeholders to understand the business processes, objectives,
and data requirements.
2. Identify Entities:
o Determine the main entities or objects involved in the business domain.
o Example: Customer, Order, Product.
3. Define Relationships:
o Identify and define how entities are related to each other.
o Example: A Customer places an Order, an Order contains Products.
4. Capture Attributes:
o List out the key attributes for each entity.
o Example: Customer (CustomerID, Name, Address), Order (OrderID, OrderDate,
TotalAmount).
5. Refine and Validate:
o Review the CDM with stakeholders to ensure completeness and accuracy.
o Validate against business rules and requirements.
6. Document and Communicate:
o Document the CDM using appropriate diagrams and textual descriptions.
o Communicate the model to stakeholders for feedback and approval.

Example of a Conceptual Data Model:

Consider a conceptual data model for a simple e-commerce system:

Entities and Relationships:

 Customer
o Attributes: CustomerID, Name, Email, Address.
 Order
o Attributes: OrderID, OrderDate, TotalAmount.
o Relationships: Customer places Order.
 Product
o Attributes: ProductID, ProductName, Price.
o Relationships: Order contains Products.

Conceptual Data Model Diagram (simplified):

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Customer (CustomerID, Name, Email, Address)
|
| (1-to-many relationship)
|
Order (OrderID, OrderDate, TotalAmount)
|
| (1-to-many relationship)
|
Product (ProductID, ProductName, Price)

Benefits of a Conceptual Data Model:

  Clarity and Understanding: Provides a clear understanding of business requirements and
data relationships.
 Alignment: Ensures alignment between business needs and data design.
 Communication: Facilitates communication between business stakeholders and technical
teams.
 Foundation: Serves as a foundation for developing more detailed logical and physical
data models.

1.5 Enterprise Data Model:

An Enterprise Data Model (EDM) represents a comprehensive and integrated view of an

organization's data assets and their relationships across the entire enterprise. Unlike conceptual,
logical, or physical data models, which focus on specific aspects of data (such as business
requirements, database design, or storage details), an EDM provides a holistic perspective that
spans all business areas and data domains within the organization.

Key Characteristics of an Enterprise Data Model:

1. Scope and Coverage:

o Comprehensive View: Encompasses all data entities, attributes, and relationships
relevant to the organization.
o Integration: Integrates data from various business units, systems, and applications
into a unified model.
2. Business and IT Alignment:
o Bridge Between: Acts as a bridge between business stakeholders and IT teams,
aligning data management practices with business objectives.
o Standardization: Promotes standardization of data definitions, formats, and
semantics across the enterprise.
3. Hierarchy and Abstraction:
o Levels of Detail: Can include varying levels of detail, from high-level business
concepts to detailed data elements.
o Abstraction: Balances abstraction (to capture broad business concepts) with
specificity (to define detailed data attributes).
4. Flexibility and Scalability:
o Adaptability: Designed to evolve and adapt to changing business needs and
technological advancements.
o Scalability: Supports scalability as the organization grows and new data sources
are integrated.
5. Representation and Documentation:
o Diagrams and Models: Typically represented using various modeling techniques
(such as ER diagrams, UML diagrams, or other notation standards).
o Documentation: Includes textual descriptions, metadata definitions, and data
governance guidelines.
6. Data Governance and Management:
o Governance Framework: Supports data governance initiatives by defining
ownership, stewardship, policies, and procedures.
o Data Quality: Addresses data quality issues by promoting consistent data
definitions and standards.
Components of an Enterprise Data Model:

1. Core Entities and Relationships:

o Represents the fundamental business entities (e.g., Customer, Product, Order) and
their relationships.
2. Business Domains and Hierarchies:
o Organizes data into logical domains or subject areas (e.g., Sales, Finance, HR)
with hierarchical relationships.
3. Data Attributes and Definitions:
o Defines attributes (fields) associated with each entity, specifying data types,
constraints, and business rules.
4. Metadata Management:
o Manages metadata (data about data) to provide context, lineage, and governance
information.
5. Integration Points:
o Identifies integration points between different systems, applications, and data
sources across the enterprise.
6. Standards and Guidelines:
o Establishes data modeling standards, naming conventions, and guidelines for data
management practices.

Benefits of an Enterprise Data Model:

 Unified View: Provides a single, consistent view of data across the organization.
 Improved Decision-Making: Facilitates better decision-making through comprehensive
and accurate data insights.
 Efficiency and Consistency: Promotes efficiency by reducing redundancy, ensuring data
consistency, and simplifying data integration efforts.
 Alignment with Business Goals: Aligns data management practices with business
strategies and objectives.
 Scalability and Adaptability: Supports scalability and adapts to evolving business
requirements and technological changes.

Challenges of Developing an Enterprise Data Model:

 Complexity: Managing the complexity of integrating diverse data sources and business
domains.
 Coordination: Requires coordination across different departments, stakeholders, and IT
teams.
 Maintenance: Requires ongoing maintenance and updates to reflect changes in business
processes and technology.
 Governance: Ensuring proper governance and stewardship to maintain data quality and
integrity.

1.6 Data Modeling Development Life:

The Data Modeling Development Life Cycle (DMDLC) outlines the stages and processes
involved in creating, maintaining, and evolving data models within an organization. It
encompasses activities from initial planning and requirements gathering to implementation and
ongoing maintenance. Here are the typical stages of the Data Modeling Development Life Cycle:

1. Requirements Gathering and Analysis

 Purpose: Understand business requirements and data needs.

 Activities:
o Collaborate with stakeholders to identify data requirements.
o Document business processes, entities, attributes, and relationships.
o Define scope, objectives, and constraints of the data model.

2. Conceptual Data Modeling

 Purpose: Create a high-level representation of business concepts and relationships.

 Activities:
o Develop a Conceptual Data Model (CDM) using Entity-Relationship Diagrams
(ERDs) or other appropriate techniques.
o Define major entities, their attributes, and relationships without focusing on
implementation details.
o Validate the CDM with stakeholders to ensure alignment with business
requirements.

3. Logical Data Modeling

 Purpose: Translate the Conceptual Data Model into a more detailed and normalized
structure.
 Activities:
o Refine entities, attributes, and relationships into a Logical Data Model (LDM).
o Apply normalization techniques (e.g., 1NF, 2NF, 3NF) to minimize redundancy
and ensure data integrity.
o Specify primary keys, foreign keys, and constraints.
o Validate the LDM with stakeholders to ensure accuracy and completeness.

4. Physical Data Modeling

 Purpose: Design the physical implementation of the data model for specific database
systems.
 Activities:
o Translate the Logical Data Model into a Physical Data Model (PDM).
o Define database tables, columns, data types, indexes, and storage parameters.
o Optimize performance considerations (e.g., partitioning, indexing) based on
database platform requirements.
o Document the PDM and generate database schema scripts for implementation.

5. Implementation and Deployment

 Purpose: Implement the Physical Data Model in a production environment.

 Activities:
 o Execute database schema scripts to create tables, indexes, and other database
objects.
o Populate initial data into the database.
o Conduct testing and validation to ensure data model functionality meets business
requirements.
o Collaborate with IT operations teams for deployment and configuration in the
production environment.

6. Maintenance and Evolution

 Purpose: Manage changes, updates, and enhancements to the data model over time.
 Activities:
o Monitor data model performance and usage patterns.
o Address data quality issues and maintain metadata documentation.
o Incorporate changes driven by business needs, regulatory requirements, or
technological advancements.
o Conduct periodic reviews and optimizations to ensure the data model remains
aligned with evolving business goals.

Key Considerations:

 Iterative Process: Data modeling often involves iterative cycles of refinement and
validation based on feedback from stakeholders and users.
 Collaboration: Collaboration between business stakeholders, data architects, database
administrators, and developers is critical throughout the DMDLC.
 Documentation: Documenting each stage of the data modeling process is essential for
transparency, knowledge transfer, and future maintenance.

Benefits of DMDLC:

 Ensures alignment of data models with business requirements.

 Facilitates efficient data management and integration.
 Enhances data quality and consistency.
 Supports scalability and adaptability of data infrastructure.

Challenges:

 Managing complexity and maintaining consistency across diverse data models.

 Balancing the need for agility with the requirement for thorough documentation and
validation.
 Addressing evolving business requirements and technological advancements effectively.