.

NO UNIT QUESTION
1 1
Which of the following best describes a digital computer

A device that processes data using A device that processes data

A B
analog signals using discrete binary values

A device that processes data using A device that processes data

C D
electromagnetic waves using mechanical switches

Answer is : B
2 1
What is the primary function of logic gates in digital circuits

A To store data temporarily B To perform mathematical computations

C To process analog signals D To perform Boolean logic operations

Answer is : D
3 1
Which logic gate output is true only when all of its inputs are true

A OR gate B AND gate

C NOT gate D XOR gate

Answer is : B
4 1
What type of memory unit is a flip flop

A Volatile memory B Nonvolatile memory

C Read only memory D Secondary storage

Answer is : A
5 1
Integrated circuits are composed of

Mechanical Electronic components on a semiconductor

A B
switches material

C Optical fibers D Magnetic tapes

Answer is : B
6 1
What is the full form of RAM in computing

A Random Access Memory B Read And Modify

 C Rapid Access Memory D Read After Modify

Answer is : A
7 1
What does EPROM stand for

Erasable Programmable Read Electrically Programmable Read

A B
Only Memory Only Memory

Electrically Processed Read Only

C Erasable Program Memory D
Memory

Answer is : A
8 1
What is the primary difference between RAM and ROM

RAM is volatile and RAM is used for long term storage and
A B
ROM is non volatile ROM is for short term storage

RAM is cheaper than RAM is used only in laptops while

C D
ROM ROM is used in desktops

Answer is : A
9 1
What does EEPROM stand for

Electronic Erasable Electrically Erasable

A B
Programmable ROM Programmable ROM

Erasable Electrically Erasable Electrically Processed

C D
Programmable ROM ROM

Answer is : B
10 1
How many inputs does an XOR gate have

A 1 B 2

C 3 D 4

Answer is : B
11 1
Which type of flip flop includes a clock input to control when data is read or
written

A D FLIP FLOP B T FLI P FLOP

 C SR FLIP FLOP D JK FLIP FLOP

Answer is : A
12 1
Which material is commonly used as the base for integrated circuits

A Copper B Silicon

C Aluminum D Gold

Answer is : B
13 1
What is the primary advantage of using integrated circuits in electronic
devices

They are cheaper than discrete

A B They are easier to repair
components

They are slower than discrete

C They consume less power D
components

Answer is : A
14 1
What is the main function of cache memory in a computer system

To provide additional
A To store the operating system B
storage space

To speed up data access by storing

C D To permanently store data
frequently used data

Answer is : C
15 1
Which type of ROM can only be programmed once and cannot be changed

A PROM B EPROM

C EEPROM D Mask ROM

Answer is : A
16 1
What is the purpose of a NOT gate in a digital circuit

A To invert the input signal B To add two binary numbers

C To perform multiplication D To perform division

 Answer is : A
17 1
How many states can a D flipflop have

A 1 B 2

C 3 D 4

Answer is : B
18 1
What does PROM stand for

Programmable Read Only Permanent Read Only

A B
Memory Memory

C Programmed Read Only Memory D Portable Read Only Memory

Answer is : A
19 1
Which component is considered the brain of a computer system

A RAM B CPU

C Hard drive D Monitor

Answer is : B
20 1
Which logic gate outputs true if and only if exactly one of its inputs is true

A OR gate B AND gate

C NOT gate D XOR gate

Answer is : D
21 1
What is the function of a JK flip flop

A To store one bit of data B To perform addition

C To multiply two numbers D To convert analog signals to digital

Answer is : A
22 1
What is the primary difference between SRAM and DRAM

SRAM is faster but more DRAM is faster but more

A B
expensive than DRAM expensive than SRAM
 SRAM is nonvolatile and DRAM is nonvolatile and
C D
DRAM is volatile SRAM is volatile

Answer is : A
23 1
Which type of flip flop has two stable states and is commonly used in memory
storage

A D FLIP FLOP B T FLI P FLOP

C SR FLIP FLOP D JK FLIP FLOP

Answer is : C
24 1
Which logic gate outputs true only if all of its inputs are false

A AND B OR

C XOR D NOT

Answer is : D
25 1
What is the function of a T flipflop

A To store one bit of data B To perform subtraction

C To divide two numbers D To multiply two numbers

Answer is : A
26 1
Which type of ROM is used to store the initial boot instructions of a computer
system

A EPROM B EEPROM

C Mask ROM D BIOS ROM

Answer is : D
27 1
What is the primary purpose of ROM in a computer system

A To store temporary data B To store the operating system

C To store BIOS and firmware D To store user files

Answer is : C
28 1
What is the main advantage of using flip flops in digital circuits

They perform arithmetic

A They can store data temporarily B
calculations

They are used for wireless

C D They process analog signals
communication

Answer is : A
29 1
Which logic gate has an output that is true if and only if its inputs are different

A AND B OR

C XOR D NOT

Answer is : C
30 1
What is the purpose of a JK flip flop

A To store one bit of data B To perform addition

C To multiply two numbers D To toggle between two states

Answer is : D
31 2
What is the base of the decimal number system

A 2 B 8

C 10 D 16

Answer is : C
32 2
What is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 1010

A 10 B 12

C 14 D 15

Answer is : A
33 2
In the decimal system what is the value of 2 raised to the power of 3

A 4 B 6

C 8 D 10
 Answer is : C
34 2
What is the base of the binary number system

A 2 B 4

C 8 D 10

Answer is : A
35 2
Which of the following is a binary number

A 110110 B 102110

C 21011 D 1102

Answer is : A
36 2
What is the binary equivalent of the decimal number 5

A 100 B 101

C 110 D 111

Answer is : B
37 2
Which operation is performed by the binary number system

A Addition B Subtraction

C Multiplication D All of the above

Answer is : D
38 2
What does RTL stand for in computer architecture

A Register Transfer Language B Real Time Language

C Register Transfer Logic D Real Time Logic

Answer is : A
39 2
What is the primary purpose of register transfer language

A Data Storage B Data Transfer

C Data Processing D Data Deletion

 Answer is : B
40 2
What is a register in computer architecture

A A type of memory B A type of processor

C A type of storage device D A type of input device

Answer is : A
41 2
Registers are used for

A Storing data temporarily B Performing arithmetic operations

C Storing programs permanently D Input and output operations

Answer is : A
42 2
Which register holds the address of the next instruction to be executed

A Instruction Register B Address Register

C Program Counter D Data Register

Answer is : C
43 2
What does the term register transfer refer to

Transfer of data between Transfer of data between

A B
memory and processor registers

Transfer of data between two Transfer of data between input

C D
computers and output devices

Answer is : B
44 2
Which register is used to store intermediate results in the ALU

A Accumulator B Status Register

C Memory Address Register D Instruction Register

Answer is : A
45 2
What is a bus in computer architecture

A A communication system that transfers data B A type of memory

 C A type of register D A type of processor

Answer is : A
46 2
Which of the following is not a type of bus

A Data bus B Address bus

C Control bus D Register bus

Answer is : D
47 2
The data bus is used to

A Transfer addresses B Transfer control signals

C Transfer data D Transfer programs

Answer is : C
48 2
The address bus is used to

A Transfer data B Transfer addresses

C Transfer control signals D Transfer programs

Answer is : B
49 2
Which bus carries the signals that control the actions of all devices on the
computer

A Data bus B Address bus

C Control bus D Register bus

Answer is : C
50 2
What is the main purpose of memory transfer

To transfer data between

A To store data permanently B
memory and registers

To transfer data between memory To perform arithmetic

C D
and input/output devices operations

Answer is : B
S.NO UNIT QUESTION
51 2
In memory transfer what does MAR stand for

A Memory Access Register B Memory Address Register

C Memory Allocation Register D Memory Accumulation Register

Answer is : B
52 2
What does MDR stand for in memory transfer

A Memory Data Register B Memory Device Register

C Memory Direct Register D Memory Dynamic Register

Answer is : A
53 2
During a memory read operation data is transferred from

A Register to memory B Memory to register

C Processor to memory D Input device to memory

Answer is : B
54 2
During a memory write operation data is transferred from

A Register to memory B Memory to register

C Processor to memory D Input device to memory

Answer is : A
55 2
What is the function of the Program Counter in register transfer

Holds the current Holds the address of the next

A B
instruction instruction

Controls the execution of

C Holds data to be processed D
instructions

Answer is : B
56 2
The temporary storage of data for quick access is primarily done in

A Registers B Hard disk

C RAM D Cache
 Answer is : A
57 2
Which component of the CPU is responsible for performing arithmetic and
logical operations

A Control Unit B Registers

C ALU D Memory Unit

Answer is : C
58 2
What does the control bus carry

A Data B Addresses

C Control signals D Programs

Answer is : C
59 2
Which memory is directly accessible by the CPU

A Hard disk B RAM

C ROM D Cache memory

Answer is : D
60 2
The address bus width determines

The size of data The number of addresses that can be

A B
transfer accessed

The speed of data

C D The type of data transfer
transfer

Answer is : B
61 3
Which component is responsible for decoding the instruction codes?

A ALU B Control unit

C Memory D Register

Answer is : B
62 3
What is an instruction code?
 A binary code that represents a A code used for data
A B
specific operation storage

A code for input/output

C A code to address the memory D
devices

Answer is : A
63 3
Which part of the computer holds the instruction currently being executed?

A Program Counter B Instruction Register

C Accumulator D Memory Address Register

Answer is : B
64 3
Which register holds the address of the next instruction to be executed?

A Instruction Register B Program Counter

C Data Register D Accumulator

Answer is : B
65 3
What is the main purpose of the accumulator register?

To store the next To perform arithmetic and logic

A B
instruction operations

To hold memory
C D To hold I/O operations
addresses

Answer is : B
66 3
Which register is used to keep track of the address of the memory location
being accessed?

A Memory Address Register B Memory Data Register

C Program Counter D Instruction Register

Answer is : A
67 3
Which type of instruction performs data transfer operations

A Arithmetic Instructions B Logical Instructions

 C Data Transfer Instructions D Control Instructions

Answer is : C
68 3
What is the role of control instructions in a computer

To execute arithmetic To control the sequence of

A B
operations execution

To perform data transfer

C D To store data
operations

Answer is : B
69 3
What is an example of an arithmetic instruction

A MOV B ADD

C JMP D CMP

Answer is : B
70 3
What is the purpose of the timing and control unit

To execute To synchronize operations within the

A B
instructions computer

To store data
C D To handle I/O operations
temporarily

Answer is : B
71 3
What does a clock signal do in a computer system

Synchronizes the operations of

A Initiates data transfer B
computer components

Executes arithmetic
C D Controls memory read and write
operations

Answer is : B
72 3
Which of the following is NOT a function of the control unit

A Fetching instructions B Decoding instructions

C Executing instructions D Performing arithmetic operations

 Answer is : D
73 3
What is the first step in the instruction cycle

A Decode B Execute

C Fetch D Write back

Answer is : C
74 3
During which phase of the instruction cycle is the program counter updated

A Decode B Execute

C Fetch D Write back

Answer is : C
75 3
Which step follows the decode phase in the instruction cycle

A Execute B Fetch

C Interrupt D Write back

Answer is : A
76 3
Which type of instruction directly accesses memory operands

A Register Reference Instructions B Memory Reference Instructions

C Input Output Instructions D Control Instructions

Answer is : B
77 3
What does the instruction LDA typically mean in memory reference
instructions

A Load Accumulator B Load Address

C Load Arithmetic D Load Data

Answer is : A
78 3
Which of the following instructions can be categorized as a memory
reference instruction

A ADD B CLR
 C STA D JMP

Answer is : C
79 3
What is the main purpose of an interrupt in a computer system

A To speed up execution B To handle errors

To handle input/output operations To decode

C D
asynchronously instructions

Answer is : C
80 3
What does DMA stand for in computer systems

A Direct Memory Access B Data Management Area

C Direct Module Access D Data Memory Access

Answer is : A
81 3
Which register is typically used to handle interrupt requests

A Program Counter B Interrupt Vector Register

C Accumulator D Instruction Register

Answer is : B
82 3
Which of the following describes a complete computer system

A CPU only B CPU and Memory

C CPU Memory and I/O devices D Memory and I/O devices

Answer is : C
83 3
Which component acts as the brain of the computer executing instructions

A Control Unit B Memory

C CPU D I/O Unit

Answer is : C
84 3
What is the primary role of memory in a computer system
 A To process data B To control operations

C To store instructions and data D To perform arithmetic calculations

Answer is : C
85 3
What is a fundamental aspect of designing a basic computer

A Complex control unit B Large memory size

C Simplified instruction set D High processing speed

Answer is : C
86 3
Which component is essential for a basic computer design

A Cache Memory B Arithmetic Logic Unit

C Graphics Card D Sound Card

Answer is : B
87 3
What is the role of the ALU in a basic computer design

Control program Perform arithmetic and logic

A B
execution operations

C Store data D Handle input and output operations

Answer is : B
88 3
In accumulator based computers where is the intermediate result stored

A Memory B Stack

C Accumulator D Register File

Answer is : C
89 3
What operation does an accumulator perform in the context of computer
design

A Data fetching B Temporary data storage

C Complex calculations D Control operations

Answer is : B
90 3
Which of the following best describes the accumulator’s function in a basic
computer

A Acts as a control unit B Performs arithmetic operations

Stores the final Holds intermediate results of

C D
output computations

Answer is : D
91 4
What is the primary purpose of programming a basic computer

A To play games B To execute predefined instructions

C To browse the internet D To perform graphics processing

Answer is : B
92 4
Which of the following best describes machine language

Human readable source

A High level programming language B
code

Binary code understood by the

C D Assembly code
computer

Answer is : C
93 4
What is the role of an assembler in computer programming

Converts high level code to Converts assembly language to

A B
binary machine language

Converts binary code to high Executes machine language

C D
level language instructions

Answer is : B
94 4
Which of the following is true about machine language

It is easy for humans to

A It is platform independent B
understand

It is directly executed by the

C D It requires an interpreter to run
CPU

Answer is : C
95 4
What does a machine language instruction consist of

A A series of if else statements B Binary digits

A mixture of binary and hexadecimal English like

C D
codes commands

Answer is : B
96 4
Which of the following best describes an opcode in machine language

A data storage An operational code defining the operation to

A B
unit perform

A memory
C D A conditional loop
address

Answer is : B
97 4
What is assembly language primarily used for

A Writing web applications B Designing user interfaces

Writing low level system Developing mobile

C D
programs applications

Answer is : C
98 4
How does assembly language differ from machine language

Assembly language uses Assembly language is more

A B
binary codes human readable

Assembly language is faster Assembly language is platform

C D
to execute independent

Answer is : B
99 4
What is an assembler directive

A command that translates high level An instruction executed

A B
code by the CPU

A command to the assembler for A type of machine code

C D
organizing data or code instruction

Answer is : C
 100 4
Which of the following is a function of an assembler

Translate source code to Execute machine language

A B
object code instructions

Link multiple programs

C D Optimize high level code
together

Answer is : A

S.NO UNIT QUESTION

101 4
Which of the following statements is true about a two pass assembler

It uses two different

A It translates code in a single pass B
programming languages

It makes two passes over the It is slower than a one pass

C D
source code for better translation assembler

Answer is : C
102 4
Which of the following is NOT an assembler directive

A START B MOVE

C END D ORG

Answer is : B
103 4
What is the main purpose of loops in programming

To execute a sequence of statements To perform arithmetic

A B
repeatedly operations

C To define data types D To call subroutines

Answer is : A
104 4
Which instruction is typically used to implement a loop in assembly
language

A JMP B ADD

C SUB D MOV

Answer is : A
105 4
In assembly language which register is commonly used to control loop
iterations

A Accumulator B Program Counter

C Index Register D Stack Pointer

Answer is : C
106 4
What is a subroutine in programming

A high level A sequence of program instructions

A B
programming language that perform a specific task

An error handling
C D A type of machine instruction
routine

Answer is : B
107 4
What is the purpose of the return instruction in a subroutine

To call another To pass control back to the main

A B
subroutine program

To loop back to the beginning of the

C To start a new program D
subroutine

Answer is : B
108 4
Which register is typically used to store the return address in a subroutine
call

A Program Counter B Stack Pointer

C Link Register D Base Register

Answer is : C
109 4
What is the purpose of input/output programming

To execute arithmetic To facilitate data transfer between

A B
operations peripherals and the CPU

To manage memory
C D To compile high level code
allocation

Answer is : B
110 4
Which of the following is an example of an input device

A Monitor B Keyboard

C Printer D Speaker

Answer is : B
111 4
What is a common method used to handle I/O operations in assembly
language

A Polling B Encryption

C Compilation D Debugging

Answer is : A
112 4
What is an interrupt in computer programming

A signal that temporarily halts CPU

A A software bug B
operations to execute a special routine

A command that
C D A routine for closing a program
speeds up execution

Answer is : B
113 4
Which component is responsible for handling interrupts

A ALU B Control Unit

C Interrupt Controller D Register

Answer is : C
114 4
What is the main advantage of using interrupts

Increases the processing

A Simplifies program code B
speed of the CPU

Allows peripheral devices to interact Reduces the need for

C D
with the CPU asynchronously memory

Answer is : C
115 4
Which of the following is a characteristic of assembly language
programming
 Easy portability across different
A B High level abstraction
systems

Automatic memory
C Close control over hardware D
management

Answer is : C
116 4
What is the main disadvantage of machine language programming

Machine
A High execution speed B
independence

Difficulty in understanding and

C D High level abstraction
debugging

Answer is : C
117 4
Which of the following is true about high level languages compared to
assembly language

They are more efficient in

A B They require less abstraction
execution

They are easier to read and They provide direct hardware

C D
write control

Answer is : C
118 4
What is the primary role of the program counter

To keep track of the number of

A To store data B
executed instructions

To hold the address of the next To perform arithmetic

C D
instruction to be executed operations

Answer is : C
119 4
In programming what is a flag used for

To control the flow of the

A To allocate memory B
program

To represent the status of a process or To fetch data from

C D
computation memory

Answer is : C
120 4
Which of the following is a benefit of using subroutines in programming

A Decreases modularity B Increases code duplication

Enhances code reusability and Slows down program

C D
organization execution

Answer is : C
121 5
What is the primary function of the Central Processing Unit

A To store data B To execute instructions

C To manage I/O devices D To provide network connectivity

Answer is : B
122 5
Which component of the CPU is responsible for performing arithmetic and
logic operations

A Control Unit B Arithmetic Logic Unit

C Memory Unit D Register

Answer is : B
123 5
What is the primary purpose of a register within the CPU

Store instructions Temporarily hold data and

A B
permanently instructions

Connect CPU to external

C D Perform input/output operations
devices

Answer is : B
124 5
Which of the following is a feature of general purpose registers

Used exclusively for floating

A B Store data and addresses
point calculations

Serve as an interface for

C Hold only machine instructions D
external storage

Answer is : B
125 5
In a CPU with a general register organization what is typically minimized
 A Number of instructions B Register access time

C Memory usage D Execution time

Answer is : D
126 5
What is a stack in computer architecture

A A dynamic array of memory B A set of registers

A linear data structure following LIFO A collection of linked

C D
principle lists

Answer is : C
127 5
What operation is performed to add an item to the top of the stack

A Pull B Pop

C Push D Append

Answer is : C
128 5
In a register stack what happens when the stack overflows

A Oldest data is overwritten B Program execution halts

C New data is ignored D Stack pointers are reset

Answer is : B
129 5
Which type of stack allows recursive function calls

A Memory Stack B Data Stack

C Register Stack D Control Stack

Answer is : C
130 5
What does Reverse Polish Notation eliminate the need for in expressions

A Operators B Operands

C Parentheses D Exponents

Answer is : C
131 5
Which addressing mode directly specifies the operand within the instruction

A Immediate addressing mode B Direct addressing mode

C Indirect addressing mode D Indexed addressing mode

Answer is : A
132 5
In which addressing mode is the effective address of the operand calculated
by adding a constant to a register

A Direct B Indirect

C Register D Indexed

Answer is : D
133 5
Which addressing mode uses a pointer to point to the location of the operand

A Immediate B Direct

C Indirect D Register

Answer is : C
134 5
What is a key advantage of using addressing modes in CPU instruction sets

A Reduces memory size B Increases instruction flexibility

C Simplifies program coding D Enhances data security

Answer is : B
135 5
Which addressing mode allows the use of a constant value within an
instruction

A Direct B Immediate

C Register D Indirect

Answer is : B
136 5
What is the result of binary addition 1011 and 1101

A 10100 B 11000

C 10000 D 10110
 Answer is : A
137 5
In binary subtraction what is the equivalent of borrowing 1 from the next
higher bit

A Adding 2 B Adding 10

C Subtracting 2 D Subtracting 10

Answer is : B
138 5
What method is commonly used for multiplying binary numbers

A Booths Algorithm B Newtons Method

C RSA Algorithm D Fourier Transform

Answer is : A
139 5
In binary division what is the main function of the divisor

A To subtract from the dividend B To add to the dividend

C To multiply the quotient D To multiply the dividend

Answer is : A
140 5
Which arithmetic operation involves aligning numbers by their decimal
points

A Binary addition B Binary multiplication

C Binary subtraction D Floating point addition

Answer is : D
141 5
What does the control unit of the CPU do

A Executes arithmetic operations B Stores data permanently

Directs the operation of the Manages data input and

C D
processor output

Answer is : C
142 5
Which stack operation removes the top element
 A Pop B Push

C Peek D Drop

Answer is : A
143 5
What is the purpose of the stack pointer in a stack organization

A Points to the bottom of the stack B Tracks the number of elements

C Points to the top of the stack D Resets the stack

Answer is : C
144 5
In stack organization which operation is typically faster

A Accessing an element B Pushing an element

C Popping an element D Searching for an element

Answer is : B
145 5
Which notation is evaluated from left to right and eliminates parentheses

A Infix notation B Prefix notation

C Postfix notation D Normal notation

Answer is : C
146 5
Which type of addressing mode is typically used for accessing elements in an
array

A Immediate B Indexed

C Register D Indirect

Answer is : B
147 5
Which addressing mode uses the value in a register as the effective address

A Register B Direct

C Immediate D Indirect

Answer is : A
 148 5
In which type of arithmetic operation is overflow most likely to occur

A Addition B Subtraction

C Division D Multiplication

Answer is : A
149 5
What is the twos complement of the binary number 1010

A 110 B 101

C 1110 D 1101

Answer is : D
150 5
Which of the following is a component of the CPU

A RAM B ALU

C HARD DISK D POWER SULPPLY

Answer is : B

SECTION – B
S.NO UNIT SEC. Q.TYPE QUESTION
151 1 B DESC What is central processing unit
152 1 B DESC Explain RAM
153 1 B DESC Write a short note on EEPROM
154 1 B DESC What is latches Explain
155 1 B DESC Write the Impact on Digital Electronics
156 1 B DESC Write the logic gates applications in detail
157 1 B DESC What is input and output devices with example
158 1 B DESC Convert a decimal number 784 to its binary equalent
159 1 B DESC Convert a binary number 101101 to its decimal number
160 1 B DESC Explain basic logic gates with neat sketch
161 2 B DESC Convert a octal number 643 to its binary number
162 2 B DESC Convert a octal number 56 to its binary number
163 2 B DESC Convert a octal number 213 to its Hexadecimal number
164 2 B DESC Convert a octal number 1657 to its Hexadecimal number
165 2 B DESC What is register and its use
166 2 B DESC Define Memory with examples
167 2 B DESC Explain octal with examle
168 2 B DESC Explain binary number system with example
169 2 B DESC Write hexadecimal number with example
170 2 B DESC Define number systems with example
171 3 B DESC Write a short note on instruction code and opcode
172 3 B DESC Explain stored program organization
173 3 B DESC Draw the block diagram of direct and indirect address
174 3 B DESC List the registers used in basic computers
 175 3 B DESC Draw the block diagram of control unit in basic computer
176 3 B DESC Draw and explain control timing signal
177 3 B DESC Explain fetch and decode
178 3 B DESC Draw the flowchart for instruction cycle
179 3 B DESC Discuss input and output configuration
180 3 B DESC Draw the diagram for circuits associated AC
181 4 B DESC Explain some of the computer instructions
182 4 B DESC Exlain machine language
183 4 B DESC Draw the flowchart for first pass assembler
184 4 B DESC Explain subroutines with example
185 4 B DESC Write a program to compare two words
186 4 B DESC Explain shift opeartors
187 4 B DESC Discuss major components of CPU
188 4 B DESC Draw the block diagram of General Register Organization
189 4 B DESC Explain stack organization
190 4 B DESC Draw the block diagram of 64 bit stack
191 5 B DESC Write a short note on memory stack
192 5 B DESC Exlain reverse polish notation
193 5 B DESC Discuss zero address instruction
194 5 B DESC Draw the block diagram for hardware signed magnitude addition and
subtraction
195 5 B DESC Draw the flowchart for mulitiply operation
196 5 B DESC Draw the flowchart for Booth algorithm
197 5 B DESC Draw the block diagram for 2 bit 2 array multiplier
198 5 B DESC Explain and draw the 2s complement addition
199 5 B DESC Explain programming loops with example
200 5 B DESC Explain and draw the 2s complement subtraction

SECTION C
S.NO UNIT SEC. Q.TYPE QUESTION
201 1 C DESC Describe the basic components of a digital computer and their
functions
202 1 C DESC Explain how logic gates are used to perform basic operations in digital
circuits
203 1 C DESC Discuss the differences between latches and flip flops including their
applications
204 1 C DESC What are integrated circuits and how have they impacted digital
electronics
205 1 C DESC Compare and contrast RAM and ROM in terms of their roles and
characteristics in a computer system
206 1 C DESC Explain the various types of ROM and their specific use cases
207 1 C DESC What is the function of flipflops in digital electronics and how do they
contribute to data storage and processing
208 1 C DESC Describe the significance of logic gates in computer design and how
they are used to implement complex logic functions
209 1 C DESC How have integrated circuits revolutionized the development and
functionality of modern computers
210 1 C DESC Discuss the differences between static RAM and dynamic RAM in terms
of design performance and applications
211 2 C DESC Explain the Decimal Number System and its significance in computing
212 2 C DESC Describe the Binary Number System and its role in digital computing
213 2 C DESC How does the Octal Number System work and what are its typical
applications
214 2 C DESC Explain the Hexadecimal Number System and its use in computer
systems
215 2 C DESC Discuss how conversions between number systems are performed and
why they are necessary in computing
216 2 C DESC What is Register Transfer Language and how is it used in digital circuit
 design
217 2 C DESC Explain the concept of register transfer and its importance in
computer architecture
218 2 C DESC Describe how buses facilitate data transfer in a computer system and
the types of buses commonly used
219 2 C DESC What is the role of memory transfer in a computer system and how is
it achieved
220 2 C DESC How do register and memory transfers work together to execute
instructions in a CPU
221 3 C DESC What are instruction codes and how do they function in a computer
system
222 3 C DESC Describe the role and types of computer registers in CPU architecture
223 3 C DESC Explain the components and purpose of computer instructions in a
CPU
224 3 C DESC Discuss the timing and control mechanisms in a computer system and
their importance
225 3 C DESC What is the instruction cycle and how does it impact CPU performance
226 3 C DESC Explain memory reference instructions and their role in a computer
system
227 3 C DESC What is the purpose of input output and interrupt mechanisms in a
computer
228 3 C DESC Describe a complete computer description focusing on the interaction
between components
229 3 C DESC How is a basic computer designed and what are the key components
involved
230 3 C DESC What is accumulator logic and how is it implemented in a basic
computer design
231 4 C DESC What is machine language and how does it differ from high level
programming languages?
232 4 C DESC Describe assembly language and its relationship with machine
language
233 4 C DESC What is an assembler and how does it function in the context of
assembly language programming
234 4 C DESC Explain the concept of programming loops and their implementation in
assembly language
235 4 C DESC What are subroutines and why are they important in assembly
language programming
236 4 C DESC Discuss the role of input output programming in assembly language
and how it is implemented
237 4 C DESC What are program interrupts and how do they enhance the
functionality of a computer system
238 4 C DESC Explain how assembly language is used to handle program interrupts
and the typical steps involved
239 4 C DESC Describe how programming loops and subroutines can be combined in
assembly language to solve complex problems
240 4 C DESC What are the challenges of programming in assembly language and
how can they be mitigated
241 5 C DESC What is the role of the Central Processing Unit in a computer system
and what are its main components
242 5 C DESC Describe the general register organization in a CPU and its advantages
243 5 C DESC Explain the stack organization in CPU architecture and the difference
between register stack and memory stack
244 5 C DESC What is reverse Polish notation and how does it benefit arithmetic
expression evaluation
245 5 C DESC Define addressing modes in computer architecture and provide
examples of common addressing modes
246 5 C DESC Explain the process of binary addition and how it handles overflow
247 5 C DESC Describe the methods used for binary subtraction and how they differ
from addition
248 5 C DESC How is binary multiplication performed and what challenges does it
present
249 5 C DESC What are the steps involved in binary division and how does it
compare to decimal division
250 5 C DESC Explain the significance of addressing modes in CPU architecture and
how they influence program performance
SECTION – B

151. What is central processing unit

A Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a computer system. A CPU is
hardware that performs data input/output, processing, and storage functions for a computer
system. A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket. These sockets are generally located on the
motherboard. CPU can perform various data processing operations. CPU can store data, instructions,
programs, and intermediate results.

Different Parts of CPU

Now, the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

152. Explain RAM

It is one of the parts of the Main memory, also famously known as Read Write Memory. Random
Access memory is present on the motherboard and the computer’s data is temporarily stored in
RAM. As the name says, RAM can help in both Read and write. RAM is a volatile memory, which
means, it is present as long as the Computer is in the ON state, as soon as the computer turns OFF,
the memory is erased.

How Does RAM Work?

RAM is constructed of small transistors and capacitors, much like CPUs and other computer
components, which can stored an electric charge that corresponds to data bits. electrical charge is
necessary to regular charge of it. If not, the data removed from RAM and the capacitors lose their
charge.

153. Write a short note on EEPROM

EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. EEPROM is a type of
non-volatile primary memory and modified version of EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory) which uses electrical signals to erase and program the contents rather than UV signals
which was used previously in EPROM. It is used as a chip in computers to store the digital data.

154. What is latches Explain

Latches are digital circuits that store a single bit of information and hold its value until it is
updated by new input signals. They are used in digital systems as temporary storage
elements to store binary information. Latches can be implemented using various digital logic
gates, such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates.
Latches are widely used in digital systems for various applications, including data storage,
control circuits, and flip-flop circuits. They are often used in combination with other digital
circuits to implement sequential circuits, such as state machines and memory elements.

Types of Latches in Digital Electronics

In digital electronics different types of latches are:

 SR Latches
 Gated SR Latches
 D Latches
 Gated D Latches
 JK Latches
 T Laches

155. Write the Impact on Digital Electronics

Digital electronics is defined as

Digital electronics is the branch of electronics that deals with the study of digital signals and the
components that use or create them.

Components of Digital Electronics

Digital electronics or the digital circuit comprises various components that perform specific
functions. These components are divided into two categories:

 Active components
 Passive components

The active components are the transistors and diodes, while passive components are the capacitors,
resistors, inductors, etc.

156. Write the logic gates applications in detail

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital electronics and have a wide range of
applications, including:

Computers: Logic gates are used in the design of computer circuits, including the central
processing unit (CPU) and memory.

Digital circuits: Logic gates are used to build a variety of digital circuits, such as flip-flops, counters,
and shift registers.

Communication systems: Logic gates are used in communication systems, such as modems and
routers, to perform signal processing and control data flow.
Control systems: Logic gates are used in control systems, such as elevators and traffic signals, to
make decisions and control the flow of information.
Medical equipment: Logic gates are used in medical equipment, such as heart monitors and blood
glucose meters, to process and analyze data.

157. What is input and output devices with example

Input Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which helps us enter data into a computer
is called an input device. For example keyboard, mouse, etc.

Output Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which gives out the result of the entered
input, once it is processed (i.e. converts data from machine language to a human-understandable
language), is called an output device. For example printer, monitor, etc.

List of Input Devices

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Joy Stick
4. Light Pen
5. Microphone

List of Output Device

1. Monitor
2. Printer
3. Speakers
4. Projector

158. Convert a decimal number 784 to its binary equalent

84 / 2 = 392 remainder 0 (least significant bit)

392 / 2 = 196 remainder 0
196 / 2 = 98 remainder 0
98 / 2 = 49 remainder 0
49 / 2 = 24 remainder 1
24 / 2 = 12 remainder 0
12 / 2 = 6 remainder 0
6 / 2 = 3 remainder 0
3 / 2 = 1 remainder 1
1 / 2 = 0 remainder 1 (most significant bit)

Reading the remainders from bottom to top gives us the binary representation of 784: 1100010000.

159. Convert a binary number 101101 to its decimal number

Step by step solution

Step 1: Write down the binary number:

101101
Step 2: Multiply each digit of the binary number by the corresponding power of two:

1x25 + 0x24 + 1x23 + 1x22 + 0x21 + 1x20

Step 3: Solve the powers:

1x32 + 0x16 + 1x8 + 1x4 + 0x2 + 1x1 = 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1

Step 4: Add up the numbers written above:

32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 45.

So, 45 is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 101101.

160. Explain basic logic gates with neat sketch

Basic Logic Gates

There are three basic logic gates:

1. AND Gate
2. OR Gate
3. NOT Gate

Note : Refer Class notes

161. Convert a octal number 643 to its binary number

162. Convert a octal number 56 to its binary number

163. Convert a octal number 213 to its Hexadecimal number

164. Convert a octal number 413 to its Hexadecimal number

165. What is register and its use

Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and
instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are often
termed as Processor registers.

A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit sequence or
individual characters).

The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding a memory
address. The register holding the memory location is used to calculate the address of the next
instruction after the execution of the current instruction is completed.

166. Define Memory with examples

Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information and instructions.
It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. It can store both the input and output can be stored here.

Characteristics of Computer Memory

  It is faster computer memory as compared to secondary memory.
 It is semiconductor memories.
 It is usually a volatile memory, and main memory of the computer.
 A computer system cannot run without primary memory.

167. Explain octal with example

Octal Number System is a number system with base 8 as it uses eight symbols (or digits)
namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. For example, 228, 138, 178, etc. are octal numbers. This
number system is mainly used in computer programming as it is a compact way of
representing binary numbers with each octal number corresponding to three binary digits.
In this article, we will discuss Octal Number System, Octal Number System Conversions,
Octal Number System Examples, and Others in detail.

168. Explain binary number system with example

A binary number system is a number system that is used to represent various numbers using only
two symbols “0” and “1”. The word binary is derived from the word “bi” which means two. Hence,
this number system is called the Binary Number System. Thus, the binary number system is a system
that has only two symbols.

There are generally various types of number systems and among them the four major ones are,

 Binary Number System (Number system with Base 2)

 Octal Number System (Number system with Base 8)
 Decimal Number System (Number system with Base 10)
 Hexadecimal Number System (Number system with Base 16)

Binary Number System is the number system in which we use two digits “0” and “1” to perform all
the necessary operations. In the Binary Number System, we have a base of 2. The base of the Binary
Number System is also called the radix of the number system.

In a binary number system, we represent the number as,

 (11001)2

In the above example, a binary number is given in which the base is 2. In a binary number system,
each digit is called the “bit”. In the above example, there are 5 digits.

169. Write hexadecimal number with example

Hexadecimal Number System is a base-16 numeral system used in diverse fields, especially in
computing and digital electronics. It consists of 16 symbols, including numbers 0 to 9 and letters A to
F, offering a compact way to represent binary-coded values. The hexadecimal number system is
sometimes also represented as, ‘hex’.

Number Systems are various ways to use numbers to represent large numbers and information. The
hexadecimal number system is introduced to students in class 9. In this article, we will learn about,
the Hexadecimal Number System, Hexadecimal Number System Table, Hexadecimal Number System
Examples, and Others in detail.

Facts about Hexadecimal Numbers

 Hexadecimal is a number system with a base value of 16.

 Hexadecimal numbers use 16 symbols or digital values: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,
F.
 A, B, C, D, E, and F represent 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 in single-bit form.
 If you see an “0x” as Prefix, it indicates the number is in Hexadecimal. For example, 0x3A
 The position of each digit in a Hexadecimal number has a weight of 16 to the power of its
position.

170. Define number systems with example

A Number system or numeral system is defined as an elementary system to express numbers and
figures. It is the unique way of representing of numbers in arithmetic and algebraic structure.

Thus, in simple words, the writing system for denoting numbers using digits or symbols in a logical
manner is defined as a Number system. The numeral system Represents a useful set of numbers,
reflects the arithmetic and algebraic structure of a number, and provides standard representation.

In the decimal number system, digits from 0 to 9 can be used to form all the numbers. With these
digits, anyone can create infinite numbers. For example, 156,3907, 3456, 1298, 784859, etc. Other
than digits, we can use alphabets such as A, B, C, D, E, and F (in Hexadecimal Number System) to
represent different numbers.

Types of Number Systems

 Decimal Number System

 Binary Number System
 Octal Number System
 Hexadecimal Number System

171. Write a short note on instruction code and opcode

Instruction code and opcode are fundamental concepts in computer architecture, particularly in the
context of how a CPU executes programs.
Instruction code refers to a set of commands or instructions that a processor can execute. Each
instruction in a program tells the CPU what operation to perform, such as adding two numbers,
moving data from one location to another, or jumping to a different part of the program. The
instruction code is typically part of a machine language, which is the lowest-level programming
language directly understood by the hardware.
Opcode (Operation Code) is a specific part of an instruction code that tells the CPU what operation
to perform. It is the "operation" part of the instruction. For example, in a machine language
instruction like ADD A, B, the opcode might be ADD, which tells the CPU to add the values in registers
A and B. The rest of the instruction provides additional details, such as which data to use or where to
store the result.
172. Explain stored program organization
Stored program organization is a fundamental concept in modern computing, where both
instructions (the program) and data are stored in the same memory. This architecture was first
conceptualized by John von Neumann in the 1940s and is often referred to as the von Neumann
architecture.
In a stored program organization, the computer’s memory contains not just the data that the CPU
processes, but also the instructions that tell the CPU what to do. This approach allows for greater
flexibility and efficiency because the same memory system is used for both data and instructions,
and the CPU can fetch and execute instructions sequentially from memory.
Here’s how it works: when a program is executed, the CPU retrieves (fetches) instructions from
memory, decodes them to understand what action to take, and then executes them. The result of
these operations might be stored back in memory. Since both the program and the data are stored
in memory, the CPU can easily access and modify the instructions, allowing for complex
computations and the development of sophisticated software.
This organization is the basis for almost all modern computers, allowing for the creation of general-
purpose machines capable of running a wide variety of programs.

173. Draw the block diagram of direct and indirect address

174. List the registers used in basic computers

175. Draw the block diagram of control unit in basic computer

176. Draw and explain control timing signal

177. Explain fetch and decode

178. Draw the flowchart for instruction cycle

179. Discuss input and output configuration
Input-Output Configuration
In computer architecture, input-output devices act as an interface between the machine and the
user.
Instructions and data stored in the memory must come from some input device. The results are
displayed to the user through some output device.
180. Draw the diagram for circuits associated AC

Section C

1. Describe the basic components of a digital computer and their functions

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer that performs instructions from programs,
processes data, and controls other components.
Memory (RAM and ROM): RAM (Random Access Memory) is used for temporary storage and quick
access to data, while ROM (Read-Only Memory) stores essential programs and data that do not
change.
Input/Output Devices (I/O): These include devices like keyboards, mice, monitors, and printers that
allow users to interact with the computer.
Motherboard: The main circuit board that houses the CPU, memory, and other essential
components, and allows communication between them.
Storage (Hard Drive, SSD): Permanent storage for data, programs, and the operating system,
allowing for data retrieval even when the computer is turned off.
Power Supply: Converts electrical power to a usable form for the computer’s components

2. Explain how logic gates are used to perform basic operations in digital circuits
Logic Gates: Basic building blocks of digital circuits, performing logical operations (AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR).
Basic Operations: These gates combine binary inputs to produce a specific output, used to perform
functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and data storage.
Circuit Design: Complex digital circuits like multiplexers, adders, and memory units are constructed
using combinations of logic gates.

3. Discuss the differences between latches and flip flops including their applications
Latches: Simple storage devices that store a single bit of data as long as the control signal (enable) is
active. They are level-triggered.
Flip-Flops: More advanced storage devices that store a single bit of data but are edge-triggered,
meaning they change state on the rising or falling edge of a clock signal.
Applications: Latches are used in simple memory devices, while flip-flops are used in registers,
counters, and more complex memory elements due to their stability and synchronization with a
clock.

4. What are integrated circuits and how have they impacted digital electronics
 Integrated Circuits (ICs): Miniaturized electronic circuits that combine multiple components like
transistors, resistors, and capacitors on a single semiconductor chip.
Impact: ICs have drastically reduced the size, cost, and power consumption of electronic devices
while increasing reliability and performance, enabling the development of modern computers,
smartphones, and many other digital devices.

5. Compare and contrast RAM and ROM in terms of their roles and characteristics in a computer
system
RAM (Random Access Memory):
Role: Temporary storage used for data that is actively being used or processed by the CPU.
Characteristics: Volatile, meaning data is lost when power is turned off; fast access times.
ROM (Read-Only Memory):
Role: Permanent storage for essential instructions like the BIOS or firmware that do not change
frequently.
Characteristics: Non-volatile, meaning data is retained even when power is off; slower access times
compared to RAM.
6. Explain the various types of ROM and their specific use cases

7. What is the function of flipflops in digital electronics and how do they contribute to data storage
and processing

8. Describe the significance of logic gates in computer design and how they are used to implement
complex logic functions
 9. How have integrated circuits revolutionized the development and functionality of modern
computers

10. Discuss the differences between static RAM and dynamic RAM in terms of design performance and
applications

11. Explain the Decimal Number System and its significance in computing
In the decimal number system, the numbers are represented with base 10. The way
of denoting the decimal numbers with base 10 is also termed as decimal notation. This
number system is widely used in computer applications. It is also called the base-10
number system which consists of 10 digits, such as, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Each digit in
the decimal system has a position and every digit is ten times more significant than the
previous digit.

A number system which uses digits from 0 to 9 to represent a number with base
10 is the decimal system number. The number is expressed in base-10 where
each value is denoted by 0 or first nine positive integers. Each value in this
number system has the place value of power 10. It means the digit at the tens
place is ten times greater than the digit at the unit place. Let us see some more
examples:

(92)10 = 9×101+2×100

(200)10 = 2×102+0x101+0x100

12. Describe the Binary Number System and its role in digital computing
Binary Number System: According to digital electronics and mathematics, a binary number is defined
as a number that is expressed in the binary system or base 2 numeral system. It describes numeric
values by two separate symbols; 1 (one) and 0 (zero). The base-2 system is the positional notation
with 2 as a radix.

The binary system is applied internally by almost all latest computers and computer-based devices
because of its direct implementation in electronic circuits using logic gates. Every digit is referred to
as a bit.

Example: Convert 4 in binary.

Solution:

4 in binary is (100)2.

Here, 4 is represented in the decimal number system, where we can represent the number using the
digits from 0-9. However, in a binary number system, we use only two digits, such as 0 and 1.
13. How does the Octal Number System work and what are its typical applications
The octal numbers system is represented with the base of 8, that is and uses digits from 0 to 7 i.e., 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 to represent numbers. The term octal is used to describe numbers with an
eight-digit base. Octal numbers have a wide range of applications and significance, including use in
computers and digital numbering systems. By grouping binary digits into threes, it is often used in
computing contexts as a shorter representation of binary numbers.

14. Explain the Hexadecimal Number System and its use in computer systems
Hexadecimal is a numbering system with base 16. It can be used to represent large numbers with
fewer digits.

In this system there are 16 symbols or possible digit values from 0 to 9, followed by six alphabetic
characters -- A, B, C, D, E and F. These characters are used to represent decimal values from 10 to 15
in single bits.

15. Discuss how conversions between number systems are performed and why they are necessary in
computing

Conversions between number systems are crucial in computing for several reasons, including
compatibility, efficiency, and data representation. Here's a detailed look at how these conversions are
performed and why they matter:

Types of Number Systems

1. Binary (Base-2): Uses digits 0 and 1. It's the fundamental system for computers because
digital circuits have two states (on and off).
2. Decimal (Base-10): Uses digits 0 through 9. It's the most familiar system for human
calculations and everyday use.
3. Hexadecimal (Base-16): Uses digits 0-9 and letters A-F. It's compact and convenient for
representing binary data in a more readable format.
4. Octal (Base-8): Uses digits 0-7. It was used in early computing but is less common now
compared to hexadecimal.

Why Conversions Are Necessary

1. Human-Computer Interaction: Humans generally use decimal numbers, but computers use
binary. Converting between these systems helps in making sense of binary data in a human-
readable form.
2. Efficient Data Representation: Hexadecimal is often used to represent binary data more
compactly. For example, a byte (8 bits) can be represented as two hexadecimal digits, which
is easier to read and manage than a long string of binary digits.
3. Programming and Debugging: Programmers often use hexadecimal or octal notation to
write and understand low-level machine code or to debug software. Converting between
number systems helps in interpreting and manipulating data at different abstraction levels.
4. Data Storage and Processing: Computers process and store data in binary form. Converting
data to other formats (e.g., decimal or hexadecimal) is essential for displaying and interacting
with data in user interfaces.

16. What is Register Transfer Language and how is it used in digital circuit design

Register Transfer Language (RTL) is a high-level abstraction used in digital circuit design and
computer architecture to describe the operations of a digital system. RTL focuses on the transfer of
data between registers and the operations performed on that data, making it a critical tool for
designing and understanding complex digital circuits, including processors and memory systems.

Key Concepts of Register Transfer Language

1. Registers: These are storage elements in a digital system where data is held temporarily.
Registers are crucial for operations such as arithmetic, logic, and data movement.
2. Data Transfer: RTL specifies how data moves between registers and other components
within a system. It describes the conditions under which data is transferred, such as when a
particular control signal is activated.
3. Operations: RTL includes the operations performed on data, such as arithmetic operations
(addition, subtraction), logic operations (AND, OR), and data manipulation (shifting,
rotating).
4. Control Signals: These are signals that govern the operation of the digital circuit, dictating
when and how data transfers and operations occur.
 17. Explain the concept of register transfer and its importance in computer architecture

The concept of register transfer is fundamental in computer architecture and digital circuit design.
It refers to the movement of data between registers within a computer system and the operations
performed on this data. Here's a detailed explanation of what register transfer entails and why it is
crucial in computer architecture:

Concept of Register Transfer

1. Registers: Registers are small, fast storage locations within the CPU that hold data
temporarily during computation. They are used for various purposes, including holding
operands for arithmetic operations, storing intermediate results, and keeping track of program
execution.
2. Transfer of Data: Register transfer involves moving data from one register to another. This
can include:
o Loading Data: Moving data from memory into a register.
o Storing Data: Moving data from a register to memory.
o Transferring Between Registers: Moving data between registers within the CPU.

3. Operations: Along with data transfer, operations can be performed on the data held in
registers. Common operations include:
o Arithmetic Operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.
o Logical Operations: AND, OR, XOR, etc.
o Shifting and Rotating: Operations that manipulate the bit positions within registers.

4. Control Signals: The movement of data and execution of operations are controlled by signals
generated by the control unit of the CPU. These signals ensure that the correct data is
transferred to the correct destination at the appropriate time.

18. Describe how buses facilitate data transfer in a computer system and the types of buses
commonly used

In a computer system, buses are crucial for facilitating data transfer between different components,
such as the CPU, memory, and peripheral devices. A bus is essentially a communication system that
transfers data, addresses, and control signals between various parts of a computer. Here's an
overview of how buses work and the different types commonly used:

How Buses Facilitate Data Transfer

1. Data Transfer:
o Data Bus: Carries the actual data being transferred between components. When the CPU
needs to read data from memory or write data to memory, it uses the data bus to send or
receive this data.

2. Addressing:
o Address Bus: Carries the addresses of the memory locations or I/O ports where the data is
being read from or written to. The address bus ensures that data is directed to the correct
destination or source by specifying the exact location.
 3. Control Signals:
o Control Bus: Carries control signals that coordinate the operations of the CPU, memory, and
other peripherals. These signals include commands such as "read," "write," "interrupt," and
timing signals that regulate data transfer.

Types of Buses Commonly Used

1. System Bus:
o Data Bus: Transfers data between the CPU, memory, and peripherals.
o Address Bus: Specifies the memory or I/O address for data transfer.
o Control Bus: Carries control signals to manage data transfer operations.

2. Peripheral Bus:
o PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect): A standard bus used for connecting peripheral
devices such as graphics cards and network cards to the CPU. PCI buses support high-speed
data transfer and can connect multiple devices.
o PCI Express (PCIe): An advanced version of PCI that offers faster data transfer rates and
improved performance. PCIe uses a point-to-point connection rather than a shared bus,
which reduces latency and increases throughput.

3. Memory Bus:
o Front-Side Bus (FSB): Historically used to connect the CPU to the main memory and other
components. The FSB has been largely replaced by more advanced architectures like Intel’s
QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) and AMD’s HyperTransport.
o DDR (Double Data Rate): Refers to types of memory buses that include DDR2, DDR3, DDR4,
and DDR5. These buses are used to transfer data between the memory and the memory
controller at high speeds.

19. What is the role of memory transfer in a computer system and how is it achieved

Memory transfer plays a crucial role in a computer system as it involves moving data between
various types of memory and between memory and other system components. This process is
fundamental for executing programs, processing data, and ensuring that the computer system
operates efficiently. Here’s a detailed look at the role of memory transfer and how it is achieved:

Role of Memory Transfer in a Computer System

1. Execution of Programs:
o Loading Programs: When a program is executed, it is loaded from storage (such as a hard
drive or SSD) into the system’s RAM (Random Access Memory). Memory transfer is
responsible for moving the program code and data from non-volatile storage to volatile
memory where it can be executed by the CPU.
o Instruction Fetch: The CPU fetches instructions from RAM to execute them. Each instruction
requires data to be read from or written to memory, involving continuous memory transfers.

2. Data Processing:
o Reading Data: During processing, the CPU reads data from memory to perform
computations. This data might be input data for a program or intermediate results from
 previous computations.
o Writing Data: After processing, results are often written back to memory. This could involve
saving results of computations, updating application state, or storing user data.

3. Program Execution Context:

o Stack and Heap: Memory transfer is used to manage different parts of program execution,
including stack operations (for function calls and local variables) and heap operations (for
dynamic memory allocation).

4. System and Application Performance:

o Efficient memory transfer is vital for system performance. Bottlenecks in memory transfer
can slow down applications, impact multitasking efficiency, and degrade overall system
responsiveness.

How Memory Transfer Is Achieved

1. Memory Hierarchy:
o Registers: Fastest, smallest storage located within the CPU. Data is transferred between
registers and other memory levels during computation.
o Cache: Intermediate memory levels (L1, L2, L3 caches) between the CPU and RAM. Cache
stores frequently accessed data to reduce latency.
o RAM (Random Access Memory): Primary volatile memory used for active processes and
data. RAM transfers data to and from the CPU and storage.
o Storage: Non-volatile memory (e.g., SSDs, HDDs) for long-term data storage. Data is
transferred between storage and RAM as needed.

2. Data Transfer Mechanisms:

o Direct Memory Access (DMA): A mechanism that allows peripheral devices (like disk drives
or network cards) to directly transfer data to or from memory without CPU intervention.
This improves performance by freeing the CPU from handling data transfer tasks.
o Memory-Mapped I/O: A method where I/O devices are mapped into the address space of
the CPU. Data transfer to and from these devices is managed using regular memory
operations.
o Bus Transactions: Data transfer involves the use of a system bus, which consists of data,
address, and control buses. The CPU uses these buses to read from or write to memory, with
data being transferred along the data bus, addresses along the address bus, and control
signals along the control bus.

20. How do register and memory transfers work together to execute instructions in a CPU

Register and memory transfers work together in a CPU to execute instructions efficiently. This
collaboration is crucial for performing computations, managing data, and coordinating the overall
operation of the computer system. Here's a detailed explanation of how register and memory
transfers interact during instruction execution:

Overview of CPU Operation

1. Instruction Fetch: The CPU fetches instructions from memory to execute. This involves
transferring instruction data from RAM (or cache) to an instruction register within the CPU.
 2. Instruction Decode: The fetched instruction is decoded to determine the operation to be
performed and the operands involved.
3. Execution: The CPU performs the operation as specified by the instruction. This often
involves transferring data between registers and memory, as well as performing arithmetic or
logical operations.
4. Write Back: The result of the operation is written back to a register or memory location.

How Register and Memory Transfers Work Together

1. Instruction Fetch:
o Memory Transfer: The instruction is fetched from RAM into the CPU. The address of the
instruction is sent via the address bus, and the instruction itself is transferred via the data
bus.
o Register Transfer: The fetched instruction is loaded into the Instruction Register (IR) in the
CPU for decoding.

2. Instruction Decode:
o Internal Registers: The instruction is decoded to determine which registers and memory
locations are involved. Register contents might be checked or prepared for the next steps.

3. Execution:
o Register Transfers: The CPU performs the specified operation on data held in registers. For
example, if the instruction is an addition operation, the data from two registers (say, R1 and
R2) might be added, and the result stored in another register (say, R3).
o Memory Transfers: If the instruction involves data that is not in registers (e.g., a value stored
in memory), data must be transferred between memory and registers:
 Load Instruction: Transfers data from a memory location into a register.
 Store Instruction: Transfers data from a register to a memory location.

4. Write Back:
o Register Transfer: The result of the computation is written back to a register if the
instruction specifies that the result should be stored in a register.
o Memory Transfer: If the result needs to be stored in memory (e.g., updating a variable), the
data is written from a register to a memory location.

21. What are instruction codes and how do they function in a computer system

Instruction codes, commonly known as opcode (operation code), are the part of machine language
instructions that specify the operation to be performed by the CPU. These codes are essential for the
execution of instructions within a computer system. Here’s a detailed explanation of instruction
codes and their functionality:

What Are Instruction Codes?

Instruction codes are binary or hexadecimal representations of machine language instructions. Each
instruction code corresponds to a specific operation that the CPU can execute. Instructions are the
fundamental building blocks of a computer program and are used to perform tasks such as arithmetic
operations, data movement, logic operations, and control flow.
Function of Instruction Codes in a Computer System

1. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):

o Definition: The ISA is a set of instructions that a CPU can execute. It defines the available
opcodes, their formats, and the operations they perform.
o Role: Instruction codes are a crucial part of the ISA. They determine what operations the
CPU can perform and how these operations are encoded in binary form.

2. Instruction Format:
o Opcode: Specifies the operation to be performed (e.g., ADD for addition, MOV for move).
o Operands: Specify the data or memory locations involved in the operation. These can
include register names, memory addresses, or immediate values.
o Example: In a hypothetical instruction ADD R1, R2, ADD is the opcode, and R1 and R2 are
the operands.

3. Instruction Fetch:
o Process: The CPU fetches instructions from memory based on the address provided by the
Program Counter (PC). The instruction is fetched from memory and loaded into the
Instruction Register (IR) for decoding.
o Function: The instruction code within the instruction register is then used to determine
which operation to execute.

4. Instruction Decode:
o Process: The fetched instruction code is decoded by the CPU’s control unit. The control unit
interprets the opcode to identify the operation to be performed and determines the
operands involved.
o Function: Decoding translates the binary or hexadecimal instruction code into control signals
that direct the CPU’s data path to perform the specified operation.

5. Instruction Execution:
o Process: Based on the decoded instruction code, the CPU performs the specified operation.
This might involve arithmetic calculations, data movement between registers or memory, or
other operations.
o Function: The execution phase uses the decoded opcode to perform tasks such as adding
numbers, moving data, or branching to another part of the program.

6. Instruction Format and Variability:

o Fixed-Length Instructions: Some ISAs use instructions of a fixed length, making it easier to
decode them quickly but potentially limiting the number of possible instructions.
o Variable-Length Instructions: Other ISAs use variable-length instructions, which can provide
more flexibility and efficiency but may complicate decoding.

22. Describe the role and types of computer registers in CPU architecture

In CPU architecture, registers are small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU used to hold
data, instructions, addresses, and other information needed for processing. They are essential for the
CPU's operation, as they provide the fastest way to access data compared to other forms of memory.
Here’s a detailed look at the role and types of computer registers:

Role of Computer Registers

1. Speed and Efficiency:

o Fast Access: Registers provide the fastest access to data compared to other memory types
(like RAM or cache). This speed is crucial for executing instructions quickly and efficiently.
o Temporary Storage: Registers temporarily hold data and instructions during execution,
reducing the need to access slower memory.

2. Instruction Execution:
o Operand Storage: Registers hold operands (data) needed for arithmetic or logical
operations.
o Intermediate Results: They store intermediate results of calculations before moving them to
final destinations, such as memory or other registers.

3. Control and Addressing:

o Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction being executed.
o Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed.
o Stack Pointer (SP): Manages the call stack by pointing to the current top of the stack in
memory.

4. Data Movement:
o Data Transfer: Registers are involved in moving data between the CPU and memory or
between different parts of the CPU. For example, data can be moved between registers and
memory or between different registers.

Types of Computer Registers

1. General-Purpose Registers:
o Function: Used for a variety of tasks, including holding operands for arithmetic operations
and intermediate results.
o Example: In x86 architecture, registers like EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX are general-purpose
registers used for various operations.

2. Special-Purpose Registers:
o Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction that is being decoded and executed.
o Program Counter (PC): Also known as the Instruction Pointer (IP) in some architectures, it
contains the address of the next instruction to be executed.
o Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the stack in memory, used for managing function
calls and local variables.
o Base Pointer (BP): Used to reference the base of the stack frame in function calls, helping to
access function parameters and local variables.

3. Status Registers:
o Flags Register: Also known as the status register, it contains flags that indicate the status of
the CPU or the results of operations. Common flags include:
 Zero Flag (ZF): Set if the result of an operation is zero.
 Carry Flag (CF): Set if an arithmetic operation generates a carry out of the most
 significant bit.
 Overflow Flag (OF): Set if an arithmetic operation generates a result that exceeds
the capacity of the register.
 Sign Flag (SF): Set if the result of an operation is negative.

4. Index Registers:
o Function: Used for indexed addressing modes, where the register value is added to a base
address to access specific data locations in memory.
o Example: In x86 architecture, registers like ESI and EDI are often used for string operations
and array indexing.

23. Explain the components and purpose of computer instructions in a CPU

Computer instructions in a CPU are fundamental to executing tasks and performing computations.
These instructions, written in machine language or assembly language, guide the CPU on what
operations to perform. Each instruction is composed of several components that work together to
define and execute a specific task. Here’s a detailed explanation of the components and purpose of
computer instructions:

Components of Computer Instructions

1. Opcode (Operation Code):

o Purpose: Specifies the operation to be performed. This is the core of the instruction and tells
the CPU what action to execute.
o Examples: Common opcodes include ADD (addition), MOV (move data), SUB (subtraction),
MUL (multiplication), and DIV (division).

2. Operands:
o Purpose: Provide the data or addresses needed for the operation specified by the opcode.
Operands can be:
 Immediate Values: Direct values used in the instruction, such as constants (e.g., MOV
AX, 5).
 Registers: CPU registers that hold the data to be operated on (e.g., ADD R1, R2
adds the contents of R1 and R2).
 Memory Addresses: Locations in memory where data is stored (e.g., MOV AX,
[1000] loads data from memory address 1000 into AX).

3. Addressing Mode:
o Purpose: Specifies how the operands are addressed. Different addressing modes allow
flexible access to data and instructions. Common modes include:
 Immediate Addressing: Operand is a constant value specified in the instruction.
 Register Addressing: Operand is located in a CPU register.
 Direct Addressing: Operand is located at a specific memory address.
 Indirect Addressing: Operand's memory address is stored in a register or another
memory location.
 Indexed Addressing: Operand's memory address is computed using a base address
and an index value.

4. Instruction Format:
 o Purpose: Defines the layout of the instruction in binary form, including how the opcode,
operands, and any additional fields are organized. This format ensures that the CPU can
correctly decode and execute the instruction.
o Examples: Instruction formats can vary based on architecture, with fixed-length or variable-
length instructions.

5. Function Codes:
o Purpose: In some architectures, additional bits within the instruction provide more detailed
information about the specific operation or variant of the opcode being used. This is often
seen in complex instruction set computing (CISC) architectures.

24. Discuss the timing and control mechanisms in a computer system and their importance

Timing Mechanisms

1. Clock Signal:
o Purpose: Provides a regular, periodic signal that synchronizes the operations of the CPU and
other components. The clock signal dictates the timing of instruction execution, data
transfers, and other operations.
o Function: Each tick of the clock signal (or clock cycle) allows the CPU to perform a specific
task, such as fetching an instruction, decoding it, or executing it. The speed of the clock,
measured in Hertz (Hz), affects the overall performance of the computer system.
o Importance: Ensures that all components operate in a coordinated manner, preventing data
corruption and ensuring that operations are completed in the correct order.

2. Clock Cycle:
o Definition: The basic unit of time in a computer system, corresponding to one oscillation of
the clock signal. Each clock cycle allows the CPU to perform operations such as reading from
or writing to memory.
o Function: Determines the rate at which instructions are processed. A higher clock frequency
means more cycles per second, which can lead to faster performance.

3. Timing Diagrams:
o Purpose: Visual representations of the relationship between different signals and their
timing within the system. Timing diagrams show how signals like the clock, read/write
signals, and address lines change over time.
o Function: Help designers and engineers understand and analyze the timing relationships
between various components, ensuring proper synchronization and operation.

Control Mechanisms

1. Control Unit:
o Purpose: Manages the operations of the CPU by generating control signals based on the
decoded instructions. It directs the flow of data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
o Function: The control unit orchestrates the sequence of operations, such as fetching
instructions, decoding them, and executing them. It also handles memory access and data
transfer operations.
o Types: Can be implemented using a hardwired control unit (with fixed logic circuits) or a
microprogrammed control unit (using stored microinstructions).
 2. Control Signals:
o Purpose: Signals used to control the operations of various components in the computer
system. They include signals for reading and writing data, selecting memory or I/O devices,
and managing interrupts.
o Function: Examples include:
 Read/Write Signals: Indicate whether data is being read from or written to memory
or I/O devices.
 Memory Address Signals: Specify the address of the data in memory.
 Interrupt Signals: Manage and prioritize interrupt requests from peripherals or
other components.

3. Bus Control:
o Purpose: Manages the data bus, address bus, and control bus to facilitate communication
between the CPU, memory, and peripherals.
o Function: Ensures that data is correctly transferred across the bus, and that devices do not
conflict with each other for access to the bus. Bus arbitration is used to manage access in
systems with multiple devices.

25. What is the instruction cycle and how does it impact CPU performance

Components of the Instruction Cycle

1. Instruction Fetch (IF):

o Purpose: Retrieve the next instruction to be executed from memory.
o Process:
 The CPU uses the Program Counter (PC) to obtain the address of the next
instruction.
 The instruction is fetched from the memory location indicated by the PC.
 The instruction is loaded into the Instruction Register (IR).
 The PC is updated to point to the next instruction (usually incremented by the length
of the current instruction or updated based on branch instructions).

2. Instruction Decode (ID):

o Purpose: Interpret the fetched instruction to understand what operation is required and
identify the operands.
o Process:
 The instruction in the IR is decoded by the CPU’s control unit.
 The control unit determines the operation to be performed (e.g., addition, move
data).
 The operands (data or addresses) are identified, which may involve accessing
registers or memory.

Impact of the Instruction Cycle on CPU Performance

1. Clock Cycles per Instruction:

o Definition: The number of clock cycles required to complete one instruction cycle. Fewer
clock cycles per instruction generally lead to better performance.
o Impact: Reducing the number of cycles needed to fetch, decode, execute, and write back an
 instruction improves CPU throughput and overall performance.

2. Instruction Throughput:
o Definition: The rate at which instructions are processed by the CPU, usually measured in
instructions per second (IPS).
o Impact: Higher instruction throughput means more instructions are executed in a given
time, enhancing the performance of the CPU. Optimizations in the instruction cycle, such as
pipelining, can increase throughput.

3. Pipeline Efficiency:
o Pipelining: A technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution stages,
allowing the CPU to work on different stages of multiple instructions simultaneously.
o Impact: Pipelining can significantly improve CPU performance by increasing instruction
throughput and reducing idle times. However, it also introduces challenges such as pipeline
hazards (data hazards, control hazards) that need to be managed.

4. Cache Utilization:
o Cache: A smaller, faster type of memory that stores frequently accessed instructions and
data to speed up the instruction cycle.
o Impact: Effective use of cache memory reduces the time required to fetch instructions and
data, thereby improving overall performance. Cache misses, where the required data is not
in the cache, can slow down the instruction cycle.

26. Explain memory reference instructions and their role in a computer system

Role of Memory Reference Instructions

1. Data Manipulation:
o Purpose: Memory reference instructions are used to move, modify, or retrieve data stored
in memory.
o Function: They perform essential operations such as loading data from memory into a
register (loading) and storing data from a register into memory (storing). This is crucial for
operations that require accessing variables, arrays, and other data structures.

2. Program Execution:
o Purpose: They support the execution of programs by enabling the CPU to access instructions
and data that are not located in registers.
o Function: Instructions that control the flow of execution or access data for computation rely
on memory reference instructions to fetch operands or store results.

3. Data Storage and Retrieval:

o Purpose: Facilitate the storage of intermediate results and retrieval of data required for
processing.
o Function: Intermediate results of computations are often stored in memory before being
used in further instructions, and data needed for operations is fetched from memory.

Types of Memory Reference Instructions

1. Load Instructions:
 o Purpose: Transfer data from memory to a CPU register.
o Examples:
 LOAD R1, [1000]: Load data from memory address 1000 into register R1.
 MOV AX, [DATA]: In x86 assembly, move data from the memory location labeled
DATA into register AX.

2. Store Instructions:
o Purpose: Transfer data from a CPU register to memory.
o Examples:
 STORE [1000], R1: Store the data in register R1 to memory address 1000.
 MOV [RESULT], AX: In x86 assembly, move the data from register AX to the
memory location labeled RESULT.

3. Load-Effective Address (LEA):

o Purpose: Compute and load an effective address into a register without accessing memory.
o Examples:
 LEA BX, [SI+10]: Load the address computed by adding 10 to the value in SI
into register BX.

27. What is the purpose of input output and interrupt mechanisms in a computer

Input/output (I/O) and interrupt mechanisms are crucial components in a computer system that
facilitate interaction between the CPU and external devices, as well as manage and respond to events
in real time. Here’s an overview of their purposes and how they function:

Purpose of Input/Output (I/O) Mechanisms

1. Interaction with External Devices:

 Purpose: Allow the CPU to communicate with external hardware devices such as keyboards, mice,
printers, disk drives, and network interfaces.
 Function: Through I/O mechanisms, the CPU can send data to and receive data from these devices,
enabling user interaction and data processing.

2. Data Transfer:

 Purpose: Facilitate the transfer of data between the computer’s memory and external devices.
 Function: This includes reading data from input devices and writing data to output devices. For
instance, reading a file from a disk and displaying it on the screen.

3. Device Management:

 Purpose: Manage and control various hardware devices connected to the computer.
 Function: I/O mechanisms handle device-specific protocols and commands, ensuring that devices
operate correctly and efficiently.

4. Resource Allocation:

 Purpose: Allocate system resources (such as memory and processing time) to different I/O
 operations and devices.
 Function: I/O operations can be prioritized and managed to ensure efficient resource use and avoid
conflicts between devices.

28. Describe a complete computer description focusing on the interaction between components
Computer: A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources which integrate
together and provides various functionalities to the user. Hardware are the physical components of a
computer like the processor, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc. while software is the set of
programs or instructions that are required by the hardware resources to function properly.
There are a few basic components that aids the working-cycle of a computer i.e. the Input- Process-
Output Cycle and these are called as the functional components of a computer. It needs certain
input, processes that input and produces the desired output. The input unit takes the input, the
central processing unit does the processing of data and the output unit produces the output. The
memory unit holds the data and instructions during the processing.

Digital Computer: A digital computer can be defined as a programmable machine which reads the
binary data passed as instructions, processes this binary data, and displays a calculated digital
output. Therefore, Digital computers are those that work on the digital data.
29. How is a basic computer designed and what are the key components involved
These components include the central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), hard
disk drives (HDD), and motherboard. The CPU functions as the brain of the computer, executing
instructions and performing calculations.

30. What is accumulator logic and how is it implemented in a basic computer design
The ALU (Arithmetic and Logic unit) is the heart of all
computation. This would be used to perform the main
operations of the CPU. The ACC (Accumulator) is the
common operand for all the operations of the CPU. the IR
(Instruction Register) would store the instructions from
memory and would set the data for the decode and execute
states. Once the decode is complete the ALU would have the
memory location for the data and the opcode for the operation
which would be used to complete the execution of the
instruction. Once the execution is complete the PC (Program
Counter) would be incremented to point to the next location in
the memory.