See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/267296233

Flow Visualisation Techniques in Wind Tunnels Part I – Non optical Methods

Article · January 2007

CITATIONS READS

35 9,042

1 author:

Slavica Ristic
Central Institute for Conservation in Belgrade
123 PUBLICATIONS 533 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Lasers in cultural heritage protection View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Slavica Ristic on 29 March 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Scientific Technical Review,Vol.LVII,No.1,2007 39
UDK: 533.6.07: 532.529
COSATI: 01-01

Flow Visualisation Techniques in Wind Tunnels

Part I – Non optical Methods

Slavica Ristić, PhD (Eng)1)

In this article, an attempt is made to describe and review the most widely used methods for flow visualization. The
first part describes the basis and applications of different visualization methods (non optical) for subsonic and
supersonic flow in wind and water tunnels: direct injection methods, (smoke, dye, fog and different small particles)
visualization methods by electrolytic and photochemical dye production, gas and hydrogen bubbles, special
techniques, flow visualization by tufts, oil, liquid crystals, pressure and temperature sensitive paints.
A considerable attention is paid to flow visualization techniques performed in VTI wind and water tunnels and almost
all presented photos have been recorded during tests in laboratories of VTI.
Optical methods and their application for compressible flow visualization will be given in the second part of the
article.

Key words: flow visualization, wind tunnel, water tunnel, research method.

Introduction time or after some time, will give valuable information on

such things as the state of the boundary layer (laminar or
F OR centuries, fluid flow has been studied in various
ways and today, fluid flow is still an important field of
research. The areas in which fluid flow plays a role are
turbulent), transition, regions of separated flow and the like.
It must be remembered in such visualization that what is
numerous. Gaseous flows are studied for the development observed on the surface is not always indicative of what is
of cars, aircraft and spacecraft, and also for the design of happening in thee free streams.
machines such as turbines and combustion engines. Liquid The second type of visualization involves the use of such
flow research is necessary for naval applications, such as tracers as smoke particles, oil droplets or helium-filled soap
ship design and is widely used in civil engineering projects, bubbles. Each of these methods requires appropriate
chemistry, medicine and so on. lighting and some device for recording the image such as a
In all kinds of fluid flow research, the visualization is an still or video camera. If the flow field is illuminated in a
important tool in experimental fluid mechanics, which can plane by appropriate masking of the light source it is
provide the overall picture of the flow field. Flow possible to examine discrete sections or slices of the flow.
visualization has probably existed for as long as fluid flow The optical methods can be used to visualize
research itself [1-6]. Experimental flow visualization compressible flows. The three principal optical methods for
techniques are applied for several reasons: flow visualization are: shadow, schlieren and
interferometry. These methods will be the subject of the
− to get a picture of fluid flow around a scaled model of a
second part of the article.
real object, without any calculations;
The advent of computer technique and digital image
− to develop or verify new and better theories of fluid flow processing make it possible to automatically analyze flow
or models. visualization effects and extract qualitative and quantitative
If the flow could be made visible by some kind of flow information, which may not be readily available from
visualization technique, it would be possible to observe conventional flow measurements [1, 5, 12, 21, 23, 30, 32,
flow phenomena which are essentially inviscid (e.g., vortex 36, 38]. Recently, a new type of visualization has emerged:
flows, flows distant from surfaces) as well as those computer-aided visualization. Experimental flow
phenomena which are dominated by the effects of viscosity visualization is a starting point for flow visualization of
(e.g., boundary layer flows, separation) [1-38]. In addition numerical simulations using computer graphics. In the area
to qualitative observations, under certain conditions it of fluid dynamics, computers are extensively used to
would be possible to make quantitative measurements from calculate velocity fields and other flow quantities, using
flow visualization data as well [1-6, 8-10]. numerical techniques to solve the Navier-Stokes equations.
Flow visualization may be divided into surface flow To analyze the results of the complex calculations,
visualization and off-the-surface visualization. Surface flow computer visualization techniques are necessary and very
visualization involves tufts, fluorescent dye, oil or special often used. One possible classification of the flow
clay mixtures, which are applied to the surface of a model. visualization techniques is the following.
Visual inspection of such tufts and coatings as a function of

1)
Military Technical Institute (VTI), Ratka Resanovića 1, 11132 Belgrade, SERBIA
40 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

II Optical methods: test model, or through holes on the model surface. The
1. Shadow method choice of using smoke in a wind tunnel depends on several
2. Schlieren method (parallel or focused, grey or colour) aspects. The smoke must be dense and white for visibility,
non toxic and non corrosive. The quality of the observed or
3. Interferometry (classical, holographic)
photographed smoke line depends also on the choice of the
4. Electronic speckle interferometry and shearography illumination system.
5. Holographic and Laser Doppler anemometry
III Special methods:
1. Energy adding
2. Refractometry
3. Laser light sheet
4. Particle Image Velocimetry
VTI uses several non optics flow visualisation
techniques [7-11]:
− wall tracing method with pigment oil film (TiO2, colour
pigments, graphite powder, lampblack, fluorescent dye)
a) b)
and liquid crystals
− surface tuft methods with thin nylon or silk monofila-
ments and fluorescent mini tufts
− smoke visualization techniques: smoke produced in
smoke generator; smoke introduced at front of the test
section and by vaporization of TiCl4 for local application
− water tunnel flow visualization by the use of gas bubbles,
milk as tracer, aniline and methylene dye, aluminium
powder and polystyrene particles. Some results of VTI
tests are used to illustrate the flow visualization tech-
niques. c
Figure 1. Flow visualization in the VTI smoke wind tunnel (a and b) and
in Onera smoke tunnel (c)
Tracer Methods
There are three basic types of smoke suitable for wind
The visualization technique of streamlines, filament lines tunnel experiments: smoke generated by the vaporization of
or particle paths, which injects some foreign material into a a mineral oil (paraffin, kerosene) mist resulting from the
flow as a tracer is the most popular one and has been vaporization of certain substances containing bromide or
widely used over a long period, up to now. These three chloride and smoke from burning or smouldering wood,
curves coincide if the flow field is stationary. But in the paper or tobacco. The burning or vaporization is done in a
flow that depends on space and time as well, the three types smoke generator.
of curves are different from one another. Which curves will Fig.1 shows the smoke line in the VTI small smoke
be visualized depends on: where the particles are tunnel (1a and 1b) and in Onera smoke tunnel (1c). Fig.2
introduced, the length of the exposure time and the shows the visualized effect obtained with smoke introduced
reference system from which the flow is observed or in the flow trough the ship chimney.
photographed. The flow visualization without smoke generator is
There is no difference between liquid and gaseous flows possible if a drop of TiCl4 (titanium tetrachloride) or
[1, 2]. The tracer may be smoke, dye, pigment, milk, air or C10H7Br (bromnaph-thalin) is deposited onto the surface of
hydrogen bubbles, ozone, fluorescent dye, powder, test model in a wind tunnel; a white stream of smoke will
sawdust, aluminium particle, bakelite etc. originate from this drop. Liquid TiCl4 in contact with the
moist air develops powder TiO2 and HCl. TiCl4 liquid and
Smoke Visualization of the Flow vapour are corrosive and toxic because of HCl. For this
Recent developments indicate that smoke visualization method, the smoke generator is not necessary. TiCl4 has
in wind tunnels, one of the oldest flow visualization also been used in open-air tunnel, in a large number of
techniques, will continue as an important experimental tool experiments. Protection must be employed [1, 2, 3, 13].
in the study of complex flow dynamic phenomena. This method can be applied for flow visualization in the
Improvements in generation and injection of smoke as well whole test section as well as for local parts of the model.
as in lighting (laser as a light source), in techniques of The following pictures show the effect of smoke flow
acquisition and computation have continued to increase the visualization with TiCl4. Fig.3 shows the flow around
scientific value of this method [1-3, 5, 9, 15]. Similar airplane model and sphere visualized by TiCl4 drops in the
results are obtained by flow visualizations with fog and small VTI wind tunnel T-32.
vapour. One of the significant improvements in the filed of
The smoke can be very useful in a wind tunnel with low smoke visualization over the past several years has been the
turbulence. There exists no upper limit of speed for smoke introduction of laser light illumination. The laser beam
line visualization (it was possible to extend the range of passing through either cylindrical lens or glass rod usually
smoke line visualization even to supersonic flow produces the sheet of laser light. By using a light sheet,
velocities). cross section of the wake can be illuminated and the
Smoke line can be generated in a wind tunnel (smoke position of the vortices can be located. Unsteady flow can
tunnel) by introducing smoke (produced by smoke be tested by pulsed ruby laser. Recording of the flow
generated devices) through small pipes placed in front of a visualized effects can be affected by still or moving camera.
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 41

Sometimes, that method is classified as special flow dark images will be observed where there is an absence of
visualization method. particles, such as in the centre of a vortex (Fig.4b).

Visualization using dye

The visualization of the liquid flow patterns by ejection
of dye is an analogy of the smoke visualization technique
[1-9, 15, 18, 21, 23, 35, 38]. The mixing of smoke and air is
more intense than that of dye and water. A dye for the flow
visualization of filament line has to fulfil several
requirements: stability with respect to diffusion, the same
specific weight as the working fluid and high contrast. Dye
can be injected in a tested flow either from a small ejector
tube placed at a desired position or from small orifices, that
are provided in the wall of a model (Fig. 6a), without the
a)
component perpendicular to the model surface. Dye can
also be generated in the flow, without disturbing the flow.

b)
Figure 2. Flow visualization with smoke from ship chimney in small
subsonic wind tunnel T-32

a)

a)

b)
Figure 4. Wind tunnel setup (a) and smoke laser sheet visualization of
vortical flow on the upper surface of the delta wing (Von Karman Institut)

For the purpose of flow visualization the food colouring

dyes, aniline, methylene, potassium permanganate, ink or
fluorescent dyes (fluorescent rhodamine) can be used mixed
in milk or alcohol. The fattiness of the milk retards
b) diffusion of the dyed solution into water and gives high
contrast of the dye line. In a rotating flow, it is important to
Figure 3. Flow visualization with TiCl4 around airplane model (a) and
sphere (b) in T-32 have dye solution with the same specific weight as working
fluid (mixing dye with alcohol).
Fig.4a shows a possible setup for smoke visualization The aniline violet, red and blue dye, injected from small
using laser light sheet [6, 7, 14, 15, 25] and the effects of orifices placed on the top of the model, in the cabin region,
visualization of vertical flow on the upper surface of the visualize the flow around the tested models: 1/48 scale
delta wing. Therefore, this sheet can be used to illuminate model of F-18 aircraft in the flow visualization facility
any cross-section of an airflow that has been seeded with (ONERA, Fig.5a [18]) and in VTI water tunnel, Fig.5b.
particles. The laser light will reflect from the particles, but Fig.6 shows water tunnel flow visualization by wall dye
42 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

streaks, around triangular fin mounted on a flat plate [11]. defined curve and exact temporal control are the principles
Fig.7a shows flow visualization around hydrofoil in VTI by which these methods differ from the conventional dye
water tunnel with aniline dye and 7b visualization of techniques [2]. Focusing light from a flash tube or pulsed
numerical path line superposed on experimental ruby laser onto a point in the photoactive solution fluid
visualization photos. (pyridine dissolve in ethyl alcohol or nitrospyran in
The dye methods used in a closed circuit water tunnel kerosene) initiates a photochemical reaction, which yields a
increasingly contaminates the water. The tunnel has to be spot of blue dye within a few microseconds. The dyed
emptied and refilled after each experiment. Visualization portion of the fluid reverts to the colourless form a second
with dye is not suited for turbulent flow, since the filaments after the initial exposure [1]. The recording of those effects
would decay and the dyes would mix with the surrounding must be performed within this time interval with a sodium
fluid immediately after being ejected [36-40]. lamp.

Visualization by different small particles

Adding small particles in the flow (water or air) can
enable visualization and measuring of the flow velocity.
The fundamental assumption is that the velocity of the
particles and fluid is identical. The particle tracer can be
either solid, liquid or gaseous and the fluid liquid or
gaseous, for e.g.: dust, magnesium (Mg), Al2O3, TiO2,
aluminium (Fig.8) and polystyrene or cosmetic powder,
licopodium, hostaflon, cigarette smoke, metaldehyde,
atomized DOP, glass sphere, marble dust, oil drops, water
drops, hydrogen, gas, helium bubbles,... The diameter of the
particle is between 0.1 to 20 microns [1, 5].

a)

a)

b)
Figure 5. 1/48 scale model of F-18 aircraft in flow visualization Facility
(ONERA) (a) and flow visualization with dye in VTI water tunnel.

b)
Figure 7. Flow visualization around hydrofoil in VTI water tunnel with:
(a) violet aniline dye, (b) experimental and numerical path line
visualization (layers opacity 50%) [23, 35, 38]

The presented methods combine the quantitative tracer

method with a computer system for the automatic analysis.
Figure 6. Water tunnel flow visualization by wall dye streaks. (Von Same methods are based on tracing a small single foreign
Karman Institute [15]) particle and sensing its successive location by one or three
TV cameras at a certain interval.
Electrolytic and photochemical reactions can produce For determining the trajectory and local velocity of a
different dyes in aqueous solutions, which allows flow spherical particle, the equation of the motion of a single
visualization and velocity profile measurements. particle must be solved. It is necessary to complete the
Simultaneous production of dye at all points along a equation of the motion with gravity and "lift force" acting
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 43

on the particle in the flow with velocity gradient. The motion of microscopic particles that follow the fluid flow
particle velocity approaches exponentially the constant [9, 10, 14, 15]. PIV is non-intrusive and therefore the
fluid speed. The faster approach, the smaller, the density measurements obtained are free from disturbance and thus
and the size of the particle. In the compressible flow with highly accurate. The technique is ideal for unsteady
shock waves, particles of finite mass and size cannot follow aerodynamic flows.
such an abrupt change of the state of motion. The positions of the particles are recorded by CCD
General requirements for the selection of the particles to camera when the light sheet is pulsed t and t+∆t. The data
be used are that the particles are as small as possible, processing consists of either determining the average
neither corrosive nor toxic and with a high degree of light displacement of the particles over a small testing region in
reflectivity. The device where the particles are injected into the image or the individual particle displacements between
the fluid should be located far enough upstream the test pulses of the light sheet. Knowing ∆t permits computing of
regime. The choice of the system for recording the particle the flow velocity. The PIV technique may be: 2D PIV, 3D
movement is primarily dependent on the range of expected stereoscopic PIV, stereoscopic, holographic PIV (HPIV)
velocities and on the particles size and reflectivity. In the technique for recording of 3D image of particles [14,
principle, two methods exist; to take a single or multiple 15], PIV for two-phase flow, PIV for the micro flow with
photograph of the flow field with controlled exposure time dimensions lower than 300µm and PIV for combined
or to take exposure of the flow field so that each moving measuring of velocity, concentration and temperature.
particle is reproduced on the photograph by a single streak The general error of PIV measurement of air velocity in
of finite length. Stereoscopic photos or holograms may a wind tunnel experiment is an average of about 3 to 5%.
overcome the problem of localization of the particle. PIV is increasingly used for aerodynamic research [14].
Nowadays, there are a lot of methods for illuminating and The PIV technique allows recording of the complete flow
recording [2, 7, 9, 14]. velocity field in a plane of the flow within a few
microseconds. Thus, it produces information about
unsteady flow fields, which is difficult to obtain with other
experimental techniques. The short acquisition time and
fast availability of data reduce the operational time, and
hence test cost. One of the main components of commercial
PIV systems is the laser: frequency doubled neodium pulse
(Nd:YAG), lasers (50 up to 2500 pulse/s), high speed diode
pumped Nd:YLF lasers (up to 10,000 pulse/s). Low or high
speed cameras for PIV have been including to provide the
best combination of resolution, sensitivity and frame rate.
The software for PIV is a visual programming language
combining complete control of the acquisition, redaction
and analysis. The application of PIV method is illustrated in
Figures 9 and 10.

Figure 8. Visualization of the flow around two cylinders (a) and around
model of Concorde with Al powder (ONERA) [1, 9]

Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) is an experimental

Figure 9. Measurements of velocity vector by PIV around the probe and
method for indirect flow visualization but method providing wing (Boeing Company) [16]
direct, instantaneous velocity vector measurement in a cross Fig.10a shows PIV image of the flow with the Mach-4.5.
section of a flow. The method is classified as special The shock wave is very well visible on the upper part of the
method or as the flow visualization method by small 20°- half angle wedge where the particle density is
particles. The basic principle involves photographing the increased. The fluid density increases by a factor of 3.1
44 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

across the shock. For a laser pulse delay of 0.8 µs, a field of fluid. The anode is placed in some other position. Normal
view of 90 x 90 mm was imaged with a camera lenses focal water may serve as the electrolytic fluid, or sodium
length of 135 mm at f-5.6. The measured velocity sulphate or sodium chloride may be added. Hydrogen
distribution is shown in Figures 10b and 10c for the bubbles are produced on the cathode. They mark a line of
horizontal and vertical velocity components respectively. fluid elements whose position coincides at a given instant
with the position of wire. Any later position of these rows
of tracer particles is called a "time line", which is a measure
of the local velocity profile. The local velocity can be
determined by measuring the distance between the bubble
rows divided by the time between the electric pulses.

a)

b) c)
Figure 10. a) PIV pictures of wedge, b) horizontal flow velocity, c)
vertical flow velocity [22]

The gas bubble visualization

Gas bubbles visualization is a tracer method where tracer
particles have lower (in the water) or density similar (in the
air) to the flow. The observation of such gaseous tracers in b
a gaseous flow requires the use of optical visualization
methods. The gas bubbles change their shape during the Figure 12. Flow visualization in VTI water tunnel with air bubbles around
hydrofoil with different quantity of injected air [36]
motion and in consequence, the drag coefficient of these
gaseous tracer particles is not only a function of the The bubble motion can be recorded with a still or
velocity difference between the fluid and particle, but also a moving camera. Bubbles observation time in the flow is
function of the deforming forces acting on the particle. The limited by the dissolution of the gas bubbles in the fluid (in
gas bubbles can be injected in the flow or generated by water the time is approximately 3 s). The application of this
electrolysis [2, 18, 40, 50]. method is limited in the laminar, low speed flow [2, 3, 18].
Fig.12 shows the flow around hydrofoil in the water tunnel
(VTI) visualized by air bubbles [38].

Flow Visualization by Tufts

Very frequently, flow visualization in the vicinity of the
model in the subsonic flow is performed using tufts. [1-10,
16-20]. However, tuft size, distribution on the model's
surface and sticking are important for turbulent flow testing
and higher quality boundary layer visualization on complex
models. If tuft diameter is less than 0.1mm, the problem of
recording occurs due to a small amount of reflected light
and long exposure time. Tufts can be used for testing the
entire flow field in the wind tunnel. A grid with attached or
Figure 11. Rows of the hydrogen bubbles indicete the velocity profile over glued tufts as screen can be used to visualize the vortex
the plate[1]
shedding behind the model or in the interaction regime of
In a conventional arrangement (Fig.11), a thin, fine wire different fields. The grid should be placed in the wind
(made of platinum or stainless steel with diameter of the tunnel normal to the mean flow direction and the tufts
order of 0.01 to 0.02 mm) can be placed in the flow under pattern should be observed or photographed from
study. This wire is used as the cathode for electrolyzing the downstream (Fig.13.) [2].
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 45

lamp with 100 W has been used as light source.

Visualization effects are recorded with still camera Minolta.
Black and white Ilford HP film (1600 asa) is used.
Exposure time is from 1/60 to 3 s. [20].
In order to overcome the problem of non defined model
edges, fluorescent dyes were used for marking. Another
method for providing the differentiation of model and the
background is to select proper background with different
reflexive coefficient relative to model or elevate the film
sensitivity to more than 1600 asa.

Figure 13. Trailing vortices behind delta wingFluorescent tufts have

numerous advantages in comparison with the ordinary silk
tufts [1, 5, 16-20]. By using fluorescent dyes, the tuft
diameter virtually increases as well as the illumination, thus
allowing higher quality of recording and using thinner tufts
(0.01-0.1 mm). They can be stuck onto the model surface
using very small glue quantities, (0.04 mm), thus avoiding
boundary layer disturbances. Strong centrifugal forces
interfering with flow field act on tufts stuck onto the model
surface and their resultant determines tuft orientation.
Aerodynamic forces are proportional to tuft diameter, while
centrifugal forces are proportional to the square of the
diameter [17]. The problem with small size diameter is
overcame by dying tufts with fluorescent dyes and using
light source with rich ultraviolet part of the spectrum, or
special filters transmissible to that part of the spectrum.
This increases tuft luminance making it look much thicker
and brighter. Hg or Xe lamp with UV filters for λ= 350 nm
are used for steady flow testing. Stroboscopic light sources
are most frequently used for unsteady flow. Visualization
effect can be recorded by still or TV camera. Fluorescent
tufts are also used for flow visualization in water tunnels, as
well as in-flight flow testing.

Figure 15. Flow visualization with fluorescent tufts in T-32 wind tunnel
[20]

Surface Flow Visualization Methods

For observation of flow characteristics close to the wall
of the model, the body wall can be coated with a certain
material which indicates the local wall temperature, surface
pressure, or the streamline pattern of the flow adjacent to
the wall [1-11].

Surface Oil Film

Oil film or dots on the model surface enable obtaining a
picture of the flow pattern at the surface of the model
placed in the wind tunnel quickly and easily [1-5, 9, 24, 26-
36]. The special mixture can be prepared from an
Figure 14. Flow visualization with cotton tufts in wind tunnel T-35 for
flow with V= 100m/s [37] appropriate oil and fine pigment (Al2O3; T iO2, powder,
fluorescent dye, colouring pigments, graphite). The
Figures 14 and 15 demonstrate the results of the technique allows observation of the lines of separation and
experiments in T-35 and T-32 wind tunnels; flow reattachment of the flow to the body.
visualization with ordinary cotton and fluorescent silk tufts. Fig.16a shows the visualization with TiO2 + oil on the
Light combat aircraft model has surface painted in opaque surface around two vertical cylinders fixed on the plate in
black with 840 tufts stuck onto it. Tufts are made of silk T-35 for V=50 m/s and around the sphere used for
0.05 mm and 20 mm long (Fig.15). Fluorescent spray was turbulence test for M ∞ = 0, 2 (Fig.16b) [9]. Fig.17 gives oil
used for tuft dying. The flow speeds have been between 20 flow visualization of the airflow on the end wall of a
and 40 m/s and angle of attack altered from -8 to +24o. UV turbine blade cascade. Boundary layer flow visualization on
46 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

the laser guided bomb model with an oil film, performed in

the T-38 wind tunnel, (a) top of the model with fins and
flow on the fin upper surface (b) for M∞= 0.9 are presented
in Fig.18.

a)

a)

b)
Figure 18. Boundary layer flow visualization on the laser guided bomb
model with oil film,(a) top of the model with fins and (b) flow on the fin
upper surface for M ∞ = 0.9 [29, 34].

b)
Figure 16. Flow visualization around two cylinders fixed on the plate in
the large wind tunnel T-35 for M ∞ = 0,5 with oil film (a) and around
sphere for M ∞ = 0, 2 (b), [9]

a)

b)
Figure 19. Flow pattern on the model obtained by the experiment (a) and
by the simulation of the flow for M ∞ = 0.3 and α = 8o (side view) (b)
Figure 17. Oil flow visualization, airflow on the end wall of a turbine
blade cascade. (Von Karman Institute) [15] [31, 32].

Test of the flow field around the axy-symmetrical body – The goal of the experiment was to make comparison of
model of the torpedo without fins and control surfaces, was the aerodynamic coefficients and flow pattern obtained by
performed in the trisonic wind tunnel T-38 of VTI, for the the experiment and by the simulations of the flow possible.
speed of undisturbed flow that corresponds to Mach Fluent 6 was used for simulating the flow. Analysis of the
number M ∞ = 0.3 . Aerodynamic forces and moments were shown photographs (Figures 19a and 19b) demonstrates an
excellent agreement of flow patterns obtained by the
measured by six-component internal strain gage balance.
experiment and numerical simulations. Certain differences
Oil emulsion film with addition of oleic acid and TiO2
are visible in the area behind the model support sting and in
powder was used for flow visualization in the boundary its immediate vicinity because the sting is not included into
layer (Fig.23) [31-33].
the numerical model [47, 50, 51].
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 47

Liquid crystals and temperature sensitive paints known pressure and temperature (wind-off) and condition
A surface-temperature distribution can be gained by (wind on) through a modified form of the Stern-Volmer
coating a test model with cholestric liquid crystals [1, 2, 9]. relationship. Calibration of this intensity ratio ( I ref / I ) , or
If they are illuminated with white light under a certain lifetime (τ) is then correlated with the output of the CCD,
angle of incidence, liquid crystals reflect only one light providing a convenient tool for generation of a spatially
wavelength at each viewing angle, depending on small continuous pressure map, allowing the entire test surface to
temperature changes in the crystal sheet. Liquid crystals are be sampled simultaneously. CCD cameras have a million or
able to respond to finer changes of temperature in the more pixels and this technique provides continuous surface-
boundary layer, due to laminar-to-turbulent transitions or pressure measurements with high spatial resolution. The
indicate the place of shock waves. The colours of liquid output of the CCD array can be visually represented as a
crystals are reverse if the temperature changes in the two-dimensional image, with the luminescence
opposite direction. Therefore, liquid crystals are very corresponding to a grey or false-colour scale. Fig.21
attractive for boundary-layer studies. Model to be tested represents the illustration for PSP applications.
should be made of a material with low heat conductivity
and coated with black paint as base. Fig.20 demonstrates
the application of liquid crystals for hot streams
visualization in a little smoke wind tunnel.
The surface temperature, the local heat transfer rate and
coefficient on a body tested in high speed flow facility can
be measured by means of temperature sensitive paints. An
important difference between liquid crystals and
temperature sensitive paints is, that the temperature span
over the liquid crystals colour change is much smaller (a
few degrees only) than that of paints (several hundred
degrees).

Figure 21. A comparison of pressure results between PSP (right side of

model) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (left side) [36]

Flow Visualization with Special techniques

Third group of visualization methods is based on two
principles: introducing a foreign invisible substance into the
incompressible flow and visualizing the density variations
in the flow by optical methods. The foreign substance in
this case is energy transferred to certain portions of the flow
Figure 20. Flow visualization in the small wind tunnel with to increase the energy level (spark, electron beam and glow
liquid crystals [8, 9] discharge methods) and make artificial density variations.
Such portions of the flow have an altered density and can
Pressure sensitive paint (PSP) be visualized by the optical methods.
They are applied to visualize the rarefied gases that are
The spatially continuous pressure and temperature
for several reasons distinguished from the ordinary
distribution on aerodynamic test surfaces is important for
compressible flows [1]. The gas flow with extremely high
understanding complex flow mechanisms and comparison
level of kinetic energy becomes luminous in a stagnation
with predictions of computational-fluid-dynamics models
point where the kinetic energy is transferred into heat. That
[9, 14, 36]. Conventional pressure measurements are based
heat exits electronic transition in the gas and the flow itself
on pressure taps and electronically scanned transducers.
is visible (Fig.22).
Pressure taps provide pressure information only at discrete
points.
PSP technology has emerged as an alternative for
determining static and transient surface-pressure fields for
aerodynamic applications and flow visualization. The
pressure sensitivity is based on the oxygen (O2) quenching
of luminescent molecules dispersed in a film that is coated
onto a test surface. In practice, the PSP/TSP (temperature
sensitive paint) coating is illuminated with light of the
appropriate energy (colour) to excite the coating-entrapped
probe molecules. The resulting luminescence output is
inversely proportional to the surface pressure or
temperature of the test model.
The resulting luminescence from the model can be
imaged using a CCD camera. Pressure is correlated with the Figure 22. Flow visualization by electronic beam in hypersonic wind
ratio of PSP images acquired at a reference condition of the tunnel for M = 10 [9]
48 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

An intensive hot spot can be obtained by means of a A brief introduction to experimental flow visualization
spark discharge across two electrodes into a gas stream or methods is given. Every method is illustrated by photos of
using a giant pulse laser for producing the luminous plasma flow visualization effects. The advent of computer
(Q-switched giant pulse ruby laser of 100 MW). Another technique, new technology for illumination, modern and
way of artificially introducing density changes in a flow is very powerful device for digital image recording and
to seed the flow with a foreign gas of different refractivity processing makes automatical analysis of the flow
(benzene vapour, CO2). visualization effects and extracting qualitative and
Very often, methods mentioned as special techniques quantitative information possible which may not be readily
where the double refracting liquids, solutions or suspension available from conventional flow measurements.
of certain macromolecules in a neutral solvent are used for Experimental flow visualization is a starting point for
flow visualization. A transparent medium can be numerical flow visualization of simulations using computer
birefringent if it consists of optically anisentropic graphics.
molecules. An incident light wave is separated into two
linearly polarized components with the planes of References
polarization being perpendicular to one another. The
birefringence in these solutions can be observed by means [1] MARZKIRICH,W.: Flow visualization, Academic Press, New York,
1977.
of a polariscope. With the isochromates and isoclines
recorded on a photograph, a data field from which shear [2] ASANUMA,T.: Flow visualization, Hemishere Publishing co., Tokyo,
1977
distribution in a two-dimensional flow field can be deduced
[3] STEDMAN,D.H., CARIGNAN,G.R.: Flow Visualization III, 1983.
and flow velocity calculated.
Analogous methods are of interest in the flow [4] YANG,W.J.: Flow visualization III proc. of 3. International
Symposium, An Arbor MI, 1983, Hemisphere, New York, 1985.
visualization technique. The hydraulic analogy has the
[5] SETTLES,G.S.: Modern Developments in Flow Visualization, AIAA
widest application. For e.g., the formation of gravitational JournaL, 1986, Vol.24, No.8, pp.1313-1323.
waves of long wavelengths on the free surface of a liquid is [6] RISTIC,S.: Vizualizacija strujanja u aerodinamièkim tunelima,
analogous to the pattern of pressure waves in an isentropic Glasnik RV i PVO,1990, No.1, pp.16-24.
supersonic flow [2]. The hydraulic analogy has been used [7] CORLETT,W.A.: Operational Flow Visualization Technique in the
to investigate the wave pattern in the supersonic flow Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel, NASA Conf. Public. 2243, 1993.
around models. Fig.23. shows the flow around a model in [8] Monografija VTI, 1996, Beograd
free surface water tunnel that is analogous with the [9] RISTIĆ,S.: Vizualizacija strujanja, pogled u nevidljivo, Aeromagazin,
supersonic flow M ∞ = 4.1 . maj-juni 1998, st. 56-58, septembar 1998, st.52-54, januar 1999, st.
47-49.
For the purpose of flow visualization high speed
[10] RISTIĆ,S.: Pregled metoda za vizualizaciju strujanja u
photographic techniques are usually applied in connection aerodinamièkim tunelima, KumNTI, VTI Beograd, 1999, No.3.
with one of the visualizing methods. High speed cameras
[11] RISTIĆ,S., ISAKOVIĆ,J., ILIĆ,B., OCOKOLJIĆ,G.: Pregled metoda
with exposure time of 10-6 to 10-9 s in connection with ispitivanja kvaliteta strujanja u aerodinamičkim tunelima, KumNTI,
associated illumination systems can record the shock wave VTI, 2004,Vol.38, Br.3.
motion. If a single shot photograph is used, the [12] ANASTASIJEVIC,Z., RISTIC,S.: Prikaz mogučnosti ispitivanja u
synchronization between the unsteady flow pattern and the laboratorijama eksperimentalne aerodinamike, 2005, Tehnika,
exposure of the photograph must be made. A high speed Mašinstvo 55, 2006, pp.15-24.
cinematographic system is also very suitable for visualizing [13] ROE,P.L.: Numerical Methods in Aeronautical Fluid Dynamics,
London, Academic Press, 1982.
application.
[14] RISTIĆ,S.: Vizualizacija strujanja u aerotunelu pomoću TiCl4,
Naučnotehnički pregled, 1989, Vol.39, Br.8, st.8-14.
[15] HAVERMANN,M., HAERTIG,J., REY,C. and GEORGE,A.:
Application of Particle Image Velocimetry to High-Speed Supersonic
Flows in a Shock Tunnel French-German Research Institute of Saint-
Louis (ISL), 5 Rue du Général Cassagnou, F-68301 Saint-Louis,
France, 1999.
[16] CARBONARO,M.: VKI Lecture Series Measurement Techniques in
Fluid Dynamics an Introduction, Von Karman Institute for Fluid
Dynamics Chaussée de Waterloo, 72 B – 1640, Rhode Saint Genèse -
Belgium, 1994.
[17] GROWDER,J.R.: Fluorescent Mini Tufts For Nonintrusive flow
visualization, Mc-Donnell Douglas report MPC Y 7374, 1977.
[18] GROWDER,J.R.: Fluorescent Mini Tufts For Flow Visualization On
Rotating surfaces, Flow Visualization III, 3th international
symposium on flow visualization, sept. 6-9, 1983, An Arbor
Michigan USA, pp 55.
Figure 23. 2D model using the hydraulic analogy to simulate supersonic [19] STINEBRING,D.R., TREASTER,A.L.: Water Tunnel Flow
flow ( M ∞ = 4.1 ) [16] Visualization by Use of Fluorescent mini tufts , Flow Visualization
III, 1983 , pp. 65.
[20] MCDANIEL,J.C., HANSON,R.K.: Qualitative Planer Visualization in
Gaseous FlowField Using Laser Indused Fluorescent, Flow
Conclusion Visualization III, 1983, pp.113.
[21] RISTIĆ,S.:Vizualizacija podzvučnog strujanja metodom
This paper presents an overview of techniques for flow fluorescentnih končića, Naučnotehnički pregled, 1996, Vol.46, br 4-
visualization in different velocity regimes, except the 5, st.73-76
optical methods. Flow visualization is an important topic in [22] RISTIĆ,S., MAJSTOROVIĆ,P.: Experimental investigation relative
experimental aerodynamics and has been the subject of flow through model of straight profile grid, Scientific Technical
active research for many years in wind and water tunnels of Review, 2000, Vol.50, No.6., pp.29-36.
VTI. [23] RISTIĆ,S.: KOZIĆ,M.,: Investigation of the possibility to apply the
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 49
LDA method for the determination of pressure coefficients on a high [32] RISTIĆ,S., MATIĆ,D., VITIĆ,A.: Determination of aerodynamical
speed axial pump blade model, Scientific Technical Review, 2001, coefficients and visualization of the flow around the axisymetrical
Vol.51, No.5, pp.25-36. model by experimental and numerical methods, Scientific Technical
[24] RISTIĆ,S, MATIĆ,D.: Experimental and theoretical testing flow Review, 2005, Vol.55, No.3-4, pp.42-49.
through model of high speed axial pump blade profile grid, [33] RISTIĆ,S., MATIĆ,D., VITIĆ,A., SAMARDJIĆ,M.: The numerical
Technical diagnostique, 2005, No.2, pp.17-25. and experimental testing of the axisymetric model flow, Facta
[25] RISTIĆ,S.: Metode vizualizacije graničnog sloja, Tehnička Universitatis Series Mechanics, Automatic Control and Robotics,
dijagnostika, 2004, 3, Br.1, st.14-20. 2006, Vol.5, No.1, pp.145-152.
[26] FRANKE,T.: Unsteady Transonic Flow Around Double Wedge [34] Ristic,S.: Optimizacija primene uljanih premaza u vizualizaciji
Profils, Exper. in Fluids, 1989, Vol.8, pp.192-198. strujanja u aerotunelima, Tehnika, 2005, No.5.
[27] LU,F.K., SETTLES,G.S.: Color Surface Flow Visualization of fine [35] DAMLJANOVIĆ,D., RISTIĆ,S.: Eksperimentalno ispitivanje
Generated Shock Wave Boundery Layer Interactions, Exper. in aerodinamičkih karakteristika modela laserski vođene bombe, VTG,
Fluids, 1990, Vol.8, pp.352-356. 2005, br.5, st.406-417.
[28] RISTIĆ,S. SREĆKOVIĆ,M.: Laser Application Possibilities in [36] RISTIĆ,S. ISAKOVIĆ,J., SREĆKOVIĆ,M., MATIĆ,D.:
Production and Control of Aircraft Industry, II International Comparative analysis of experimental and numerical flow
symposium, Light metals and Composite Materials, Belgrade, 19-20 visualization, FME Transactions, 2006, 34, pp.143-149.
may 2004, pp.151-154. [37] RISTIĆ,S.: Premazi osetljivi na pritisak, nova mogučnost vizualizacije
[29] RISTIĆ,S., VITIĆ,A., ANASTASIJEVIĆ,Z., VUKOVIĆ,Đ.: strujanja, VTG, 2006, br.1, st.35-48.
Investigation of Support Interaction Upon Aerodinamic [38] OCOKOLJIĆA,G., RADULOVIĆA,J. Flow visualization and
Characteristics of aTorpedo Model in theT-38 Wind Tunnel, aerodynamical coefficients determination for the LASTA-95 model
Scientific Technical Review, 2004, Vol.LIV, No.1, pp.50-57. in wind tunnel T-35, Scientific Technical Review, 2006, Vol.56,
[30] RISTIĆ,S., DAMLJANOVIĆ,D.: Coefficient of Normal Force Cz No.2, pp.63-69.
Determination and Flow Visualization Around Control Surface of [39] RISTIĆ,S., PUHARIĆ,M., SREĆKOVIĆ,M., KUTIN,M.: Laser
Laser Navigate Bomb Model in Wind Tunnel T-38, Scientific Doppler Anemometry Application in Hydrodynamic Testing, jan,
Technical Review, 2004, Vol.54, No.3-4. 2007, Atti dela Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi, anno 62, pp.207-218.
[31] RISTIĆ,S, MATIĆ,D., VITIĆ,A.: Vizualizacija i numerièka
simulacijastrujanja oko prednjeg dela modela torpeda, HIPNEF Received: 10.02.2007.
Vrnjačka banja, Zbornik radova, 19-21 maj 2004, str.267-273.

Metode vizualizacije strujanja u aerotunelima

Prvi deo: Neoptičke metode
U radu je prikazan preged metoda koje se najčešće koriste za vizualizaciju struajnja. Prvi deo opisuje osnove i
primena različitih (neoptičkih) metoda vizualizacije podzvučnog i nadzvučnog strujanja u aero i vodenim tunelima;
metode s ubrizgavanjem čestica (dim, boje magla, različite male čestice), metode vizualizacije sa elektrolitičkom i
fotohemiskom proizvodnjom boja, gasni i hidrogenski mehurići, specijalne tehnike, vizalizacija sa končićima, uljanim
premazima, sa tečnim kristalima, boje osetljive na promenu temperature i pritiska.
Posebna pažnja je posvećena metodama vizualizacije koje se koriste u aero i vodenom tunelu VTI-a. Skoro sve
fotografije, koje su prikazane, snimljene su laboratorijama VTI-a.
Optičke metode i njihova primena u vizualizaciji stišljivih fluida je data u drugom delu ovog rada.

Ključne reći: vizualizacija strujanja, aerodinamički tunel, hidrodinamički tunel, metoda ispitivanja.

Metodw vizualizacii potoka v a&rodinami~eskih trubah

^astx perva}: Neopti~eskie metodw
V nasto}|ej rabote priveden obzor metodov, naibolee i nai~a|e ispolxzovannwh dl} vizualizacii
potoka. Perva} ~astx opiswvaet osnovw i primenenie razli~nwh (neopti~eskih) metodov vizualizacii
dozvukovwh i sverhzvukovwh potokov v a&rodinami~eskih i v vod}nnwh trubah; metodw s in`ekciej ~astic
(dwm, kraski, tuman, razli~nwe melkie ~asticw), metodw vizualizacii s &lektrolitnwm i
fotohimi~eskim proizvodstvom krasok, gazovwe i gidrogeni~eskie puzwri, specialxnwe tehniki i
sposobw; vizualizaci} s nitkami, s masl}nnwmi pokrwti}mi, so `idkimi kristallami; kraski
reagiruy|ie na izmenenie temperaturw i davleni}.
Osoboe vnimanie posv}|eno metodam vizualizacii, polxzuemwh v a&rodinami~eskih i vod}nwh trubah
Voenno-tehni~eskogo instituta (VTI). Po~ti vse privedennwe fotografii sdelanw v laboratori}h VTI.
Opti~eskie metodw i ih primenenie v vizualizacii s`imaemwh potokov privedenw vo vtoroj ~asti
nasto}|ej rabotw.

Kly~evwe slova: vizualizaci} potoka, a&rodinami~eska} truba, gidrodinami~eska} truba, metodw

issledovani}.
50 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

Méthodes de la visualisation du courant dans les souffleries

aérodynamiques Première partie: méthodes non-optiques
Les méthodes utilisées le plus souvent pour la visualisation du courant font l’objet de ce travail. La première partie
décrit les bases et l’application de différentes méthodes (non-optiques) de la visualisation du courant soubsonique et
supersonique dans les souffléries aérodynamiques ainsi que dans les tunnels hydrodynamiques; méthodes à injection
des particules (fumée, couleurs, brouillard, particules variées), méthodes de la visualisation avec la
production,électrolitique ou photochimique, des couleurs, bulles de gaz ou à touffes, enduit d’huile, cristaux liquides,
couleurs sensibles aux changements de la température ou de la pression. Une attention particulière est prêtée aux
méthodes de la visualisation appliquée dans la soufflerie aérodynamique et dans le tunnel hydrodynamique qui sont
situés à l’Institut militaire technique à Belgrade. La plupart des photos, publées dans ce papier, ont été prises aux
laboratoires de cet Institut. Les méthodes optiques et leur utilisation dans la visualisation des fluides compressibles
sont traités dans la seconde partie de ce travail.

Mots clés: visualisation du courant, soufflerie aérodynamique, tunnel hydrodynamique, méthode d’essai.

View publication stats