MECHANICAL PROPERTIESA

Stress and Strain

If an object is loaded with an external load, it will cause Stress in all sections perpendicular to direction of the
applied load. Stress is a fundamental engineering value on the basis of which structural endurance calculations
are performed. Stress leads to deformations of structural materials. Deformations caused by external loads are
called Strain (relative deformation). Depending on the load direction and the applied stress the deformation can
be shown as elongation or shortening of the specimen. There are three basic types of stress: tensile, compressive
and shear stress.

There are different types of forces or “stresses” that are encountered in dealing with mechanical properties of
materials. In general, stress () is defined as the force acting per unit area over which the force is applied. Tensile,
compressive, and shear stresses are illustrated in Figure above. Strain () is defined as the change in dimension
per unit length. Stress is typically expressed in MPa (Mega Pascals or older unit Newton per square millimeter –
N/mm2). Strain has no dimensions, and its value is expressed in %.

Tensile and compressive stresses are normal stresses. A normal stress arises when the applied force acts
perpendicular to the area of interest. Tension causes elongation in the direction of the applied force, whereas
compression causes shortening. A shear stress arises when the applied force acts in a direction parallel to the area
of interest (specimen cross section). Many loadbearing applications involve tensile or compressive stresses. Shear
stresses are often encountered in the processing of materials using such techniques as polymer extrusion.
Mechanical properties are determined by material testing. Testing procedures are defined by various international
norms.

or

Tensile normal stress

 - stress, F – force (load),
A – perpendicular cross section

 - normal tensile stress

 - shear stress

Normal tensile stress Shear stress

THE TENSILE TEST

The tensile test is popular since the properties obtained

can be applied to design different components. The
tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a
static or slowly applied force. The strain rates in a tensile
test are typically small. A typical specimen has a
diameter of 10 mm and a gage length of 100 mm. The
specimen is placed in the testing machine and a force F,
called the load, is applied. A universal testing machine
on which tensile and compressive tests can be
performed often is used. A strain gage or extensometer
is used to measure the amount that the specimen
stretches between the gage marks when the force is
applied. Thus, the change in length of the specimen (l)
is measured with respect to the original length (l0).
Information concerning the strength, Young’s modulus,
Tensile testing procedure and ductility of a material can be obtained from such a
tensile test. Typically, a tensile test is conducted on
metals, alloys and plastics.
When a tensile test is conducted, the data recorded
includes load or force as a function of change in length (l). These data are then subsequently converted into
stress and strain. The stress-strain curve is analyzed further to extract properties of materials (e.g., Young’s
modulus, yield strength, etc.).

Engineering Stress and Strain

The results of a single test apply to all sizes and cross-sections of specimens for a given material if we convert the
force to stress and the distance between gage marks to strain. Engineering stress and engineering strain are
defined by the following equations:

Engineering stress   = F/A0 (MPa)

Engineering strain   = l 100/l0 (%)
where A0 is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen before the test begins, l0 is the original distance
between the gage marks, and l is the change in length after force F is applied. The stress-strain curve is used to
record the results of a tensile test.
The specimens are standardized and of a special shape. They can be round, flat or rectangular in cross section.
The specimen consists of three parts. The ends of the specimen, called the specimen heads, are larger. They are
used to accept the specimen in the grip of the tensile testing machine. Between the two heads is the working part
of the specimen.

A0

Stress concentration

A0 Head
Working part

Stress forces

Head Working part

Tensile strength test specimens Stress concentration

In order to prevent the occurrence of stress concentration, the transition from the head to the working part of the
specimen is made in the form of a slight arc (R). In the case of sharp transition from one dimension to another
(head-working part), the stress concentration would appear on the same. At that point, the specimen would be
significantly weakened. The specimen would break at that point. Then the test results would not be correct. When
designing different load-bearing structures, shapes that lead to the development of stress concentration should be
avoided.
The prepared specimen is squeezed in the grip of the testing machine and then slowly stretched to the break -
fracture. Small is force value increase, so this stretching can be considered a quasi-static test. During the tensile
test, the value of the force F and the elongation of the specimen l, resulting from the action of the applied force,
is recorded. The measurement results are recorded during stretching in the force - elongation diagram (F- l).

Initially, the force increases slightly and leads to an elastic

elongation of the specimen. If the increase in force were
stopped and the force was completely excluded, the
specimen would return to its initial size. The elastic
deformation would be annulled. Such dependence of the
elongation increase on the force increase occurs up to the Fe
force. If the force increases above the value corresponding
to the force Fe, a permanent elongation occurs. A certain
plastic deformation of the specimen occurred. That means,
that if the action of force is excluded, the specimen will be
shortened by the value of elastic elongation but will remain
permanently elongated by the amount of plastic elongation.
The change in elongation with increasing force is linear up
Diagram F - l to the force Fpr, i.e. it can be described by the equation of
the linear direction passing through the origin of the
coordinate system. If the force continues to rise above the
value of the force Fp there is a slight decrease in the value of
Cross section contraction (neck) the force while the elongation continues to increase. At that
point, material leakage occurred due to sliding dislocations.
Further increase in force again leads to a significant increase
in elongation. Elongation occurs in the plasticity area.
During the experiment, the length of the specimen increases,
and its cross section decreases. At the highest measured
force (Fm) there is a sharp contraction of the cross section
(neck), and it is considered that the material has collapsed.
Since the cross section has sharply decreased, the value of
the force also decreases. When the stress induced by the
L – specimen fracture force value Fl overcomes the strength of the material, the
sample is broken.

Hooke's law

The force-elongation diagram is not practical for engineering use. The English physicist Robert Hooke had
changed, back in the 17th century, approach to the relationship of force and elongation. Diagram representation
of that relationship has been replaced by a diagram of the stress - relative elongation relationship ( - ). That's
when Hooke's approach become a law describing the relationship of force and elongation in the elastic region.
This relationship is represented by the equation of the linear direction passing through the origin of the coordinate
system.

E in the equation of Hooke's law denotes Young's module of elasticity. English scientist Thomas Young (18th
century) determined the material elasticity modulus as the value of the angle tangens  which the linear direction
of elastic deformation line closes with the abscissa axis (). As relative elongation is a dimensionless value it
 follows that the modulus of elasticity is expressed in MPa. The modulus of elasticity is the resistance that a
material provides to elasticity deformations.

When calculate the stresses, it is engineering agreement that as denominator sets the
value of the initial cross section (A0)!

As stress is applied to a material, the material initially exhibits elastic deformation. The strain that develops is
completely recovered when the applied stress is removed. As we continue to increase the applied stress, the
material eventually “yields” to the applied stress and exhibits both elastic and plastic deformation. The critical
stress value needed to initiate plastic deformation is defined as the elastic limit of the material (Re). In metallic
materials, this is usually the stress required for dislocation motion, or slip, to be initiated. The proportional limit
(Rp) is defined as the level of stress above which the relationship between stress and strain is not linear. In most
materials, the elastic limit and proportional limit are quite close; however, neither the elastic limit nor the
proportional limit values can be determined precisely. Measured values depend on the sensitivity of the equipment
used. We, therefore, define them at an offset strain value (typically, but not always, 0.002 or 0.2%). We then
draw a line parallel to the linear portion of the engineering stress-strain curve starting at this offset value of strain.
The stress value corresponding to the intersection of this line and the engineering stress-strain curve is defined as
the offset yield strength, also often stated as the yield strength (Rp). Engineers normally prefer to use the offset
yield strength for design purposes because it can be reliably determined. For some materials, the transition from
elastic deformation to plastic flow is rather abrupt. This transition is known as the yield point phenomenon.

When parts for load-bearing applications are designed,

 (MPa)

engineers prefer little or no plastic deformation. As a result,

they must select a material such that the design stress is
considerably lower than the yield strength at the temperature
at which the material will be used. They can also make the
component cross-section larger so that the applied force
produces stress that is well below the yield strength. On the
other hand, when engineers want to shape materials into
components (e.g., take a sheet of steel and form a car chassis),
 -  curve they need to apply stresses that are well above the yield
strength.
 (%)
Tensile strength

The stress obtained at the highest applied force is the tensile strength (Rm), which is the maximum stress on the
engineering stress-strain curve. This value is also commonly known as the ultimate tensile strength. In many
ductile materials, deformation does not remain uniform. At some point, one region deforms more than others and
a large local decrease in the cross-sectional area occurs. This locally deformed region is called a “neck.” That
phenomenon is known as necking. Because the cross-sectional area becomes smaller at this point, a lower force
is required to continue its deformation, and the engineering stress, calculated from the original area A0, decreases.
The tensile strength is the stress at which necking begins in ductile metals. In compression testing, the materials
will bulge; thus necking is seen only in a tensile test.
Necking

Compressive strength

The compressive strength test procedure is the opposite of the tensile strength test. The specimen has the shape of
a cylinder (diameter d0 and height h0). The height is usually equal to the diameter of the cylinder but can be larger.

Uzorak

As the force increases, the height h0 decreases and the diameter d0 increases. Due to the dry friction, between the
contact surfaces of the specimen and pressure plates of the test machine, deformation does not occur uniformly
over the entire height of the cylinder. The diameter increases most at half the height of the cylinder while, at
contact surfaces, the diameter remains the same.

df hf

Schematic representation of the specimen deformation during compressive strength testing

 During the test, the cylinder height and diameter change continuously. The test ends when cracks appear on the
outer surfaces of the cylinder. Then the cylinder height is changed from h0 to the value of hf (f - means final value),
while at the same time the diameter d0 changed to the value of df. The described compressive strength test
procedure applies to ductile materials. As described test does not lead to specimen breakage, the test results
obtained in this way may be unreliable. This is the reason that in some standards that test procedure is applied
only to a certain type of harder materials. The procedure is mostly used in construction to test the compressive
strength of building materials (stone, cement mixtures, etc.)
The procedure of the compressive strength test process can be monitored in the diagram F - h (height change as
a function of force change) similar to the tensile strength test procedure. The difference is that the force acts in
the opposite direction and the specimen shortens, and its diameter increases rather than decreases. The initial (d0)
and final sample diameters (df) are used to determine the thickening.

h0 - hf df – d0
df
relative shortening relative thickening

As tensile strength, compressive strength is determined by engineering agreement as:

Rmc – compressive strength, Fmax – force at appearance of the first cracks on the outer surface of the
specimen, A0 – initial cross section

Gray cast
iron
Compressive stress

eng
Steel As with the tensile strength test, the results of “force
real change and height of the specimen” at compressive
strength test, can turn into the diagram compressive stress
(-) - relative shortening ().
Zinc

Relative shortening

If brittle materials (stone, wood, concrete, etc.), the compressive strength can be calculated at which the fracture
of the specimen will occur at the final force Ff. The only problem is when choosing the cross section for the
compressive strength calculation (initial A0 or final Af). The calculation with the initial cross section A0 does not
give accurate results because at the fracture moment there was a really different cross section (Af). However, Af
cannot be measured because, at fracture moment, the specimen disintegrates. It is possible to calculate the cross
section only on the basis of the change in the height of the sample and its volume under assumption that the cross-
section increased uniformly over the entire height. The compressive strength calculated in that way is not
determined precisely enough because the compressive stresses are unevenly distributed across the cross section.
The compressive stresses are the largest in the bisector and the smallest at the outer specimen surface. By adopting
the initial cross-section as the relevant one, the calculation procedure has been simplified.
To reduce the difference in specimen diameter for different specimen heights, which is caused
by dry friction, contacting surfaces can lubricate or pressure contact surfaces can be of conical
shape. Compressive strength testing, in mechanical engineering, is mainly carried out due to the
determination of possible metal shaping by plastic deformation.

Shear strength

Shear strength testing is performed on cutting machine. The movable part (1

- mandrel), under the action of force F, moves along the cutting surfaces (o.p.)
through the fixed part (2). When the force reaches the value of Fmax at cutting
surfaces, the tangential stress (τ) overcomes the shear strength of the material,
and the specimen is broken into three parts (a, b, c). The break, i.e. the cut,
occurred simultaneously on two cutting surfaces, so that the shear stress is
calculated with double cross section of the specimen.

According to the above formula, the calculation of shear stresses is

simplified, because it was assumed that during the test there are only shear
(tangential) stresses. However, due to elastic and plastic deformations,
additional bending stresses occur.

Shear stresses are considered whenever the force acts in a plane passing through the axis of the specimen support,
perpendicular to the axis of the specimen, and the distance of the support points is small according to the profile
of the beam. If it is a larger distance of the support beams, then the bending stress prevails. Shear stress occurs
especially with bolted joints, rivets, wedges, short shafts, etc.

Shear

Shear

Rivet Bolted joint

Bending strength

Bending strength is mainly used for testing brittle materials where normal tensile testing cannot be easily
performed. Often just placing brittle material in the grip of a tensile strength testing machine leads to cracking of
the sample. Those materials can be tested by bending experiments. Applying a three-point force and causing
bending, tensile stresses occur on the opposite surface of the specimen contact surface on which the mandrel acts.
The fracture begins on that surface. Bending stress can be calculated:

maximum bending moment

The bending test procedure can be performed on universal compressive testing machine at room temperature
(20°C). The specimens may have rectangular, square or round cross – section. The various profiles are also tested.
Specimen thickness "h" is not larger than 30 mm. The width of the rectangular specimens "w" is from 25 to 50
mm.
The recommended specimen length is L = 5 h +150 mm. The diameter of the upper thorn (cylinder) is determined
depending on the material tested and is prescribed by standards. Bending must be slow and continuous to a certain
angle "". The test measure is the bending angle "" to the appearance of a crack (if it occurs at all). More ductile
materials can be bent by 90º around the thorn, while stronger materials bend for smaller angle. The success of
bending test around the thorn, for some material indicates the possibility for cold forming, but also on safety in
the event of an accident with significant deformations. In that case, the bending test is also measure material
fracture toughness. The experiment is very simple and is often used as basic field testing of materials.

Brittle

Middle ductile For ductile metallic materials, engineering curve

"Stress - relative elongation" usually reaches its
maximum value before specimen interruption occurs.
That highest stress is the tensile strength of the
Ductile material. At brittle materials, breakage occurs at
maximum load, where the tensile and breaking
strengths are the same.
Permanent static tensile strength
(creep testing)

Creep is the phenomenon of material shape changing during the action of a permanent static load at a certain
constant elevated temperature.

Cracks formed along the grain boundaries in the early stage of creep development

If the material is subjected to a certain stress below the elastic limit at elevated temperature, the material may
lengthen or even break. Creep is not an instantaneous occurrence, but creep occurs over a period of time. Elements
damage that works at elevated temperatures is usually due to creep and fatigue of the material.

Tertiary Due to the applied load, there is an instantaneous

Secondary
Primary
creep
creep elastic elongation (initial). The curve showing
creep material creep process consists of three parts.
Primary creep is characterized by a gradual slowing
Elongation

of elongation. There is an increase in resistance to

deformation in the material due to the warping of
the net cells. In the secondary part creep, the
progression of elongation is constant - uniform, and
Crack
is a consequence of equalized influence of
Initial elastic
elongation hardening by deformation and recovery. The
material becomes softer again and retains the
Time
ability to deform. This is the longest period in creep
Schematic representation of typical material behavior development process.
exposed to creep mechanism

In the third part, which is also called the "fracture period", due to microstructural and / or metallurgical changes
(separation at the grain boundaries, the formation of internal cracks) fracture occurs. Fracture occurs as a direct
consequence of the element reduced load-bearing cross section.

Creep test

The specimen for the permanent static strength test is the same as the specimen for
Constant load
the standard tensile strength test. The specimen surface has to be smooth, free of any Measuring Heating
range
scratches and unhardened by cold deformation as a result of machining. The test is element

usually performed at normal atmosphere and pressure. However, in the case of special
environmental operating conditions, the specimen has also to be tested under such
conditions. In order to speed up testing, the so-called a short test procedure lasting 45
hours is applied. The specimen is heated to a certain temperature and loaded with a
constant load. The elongation change that occurs is entered in the diagram "extension Thermometer
= function (time)". Constant load
 The first specimen is subjected to a higher load so that

Elongation (mm)
Constant stress
Constant temperature fracture is induced before 45 hours have elapsed. The
procedure is repeated with new specimens, each of
l0 / h
which is loaded with a lower constant load so that the
test can last 45 hours. In such a short-term creep test,
the condition that the elongation between the 25th and
Time (h) 35th hour must be 0.001% of the initial specimen length
(lo) per hour must also be ensured. Likewise, the
Diagram - creep test results permanent extension, which occurs after 45 hours,
must not exceed 0.2% of the initial specimen length.

Tests can also be performed for other test parameters.

The test results are generally presented as percentage
of achieved elongation for given conditions. Thus, for
example, 1% elongation through 105 hours at stress of
35 (MPa) and a temperature of 475 (oC).

The creep limit (Rpe/t/q) is the tensile stress which at

the test temperature “q” after a certain duration of the
test “t” leaves a certain permanent deformation “e” of
the specimen. It is usually defined as 0.1; 0.2; 0.5 and
Specimen after creep test 1% of the initial length.

Permanent static strength (Rm/t/q) is the tensile stress which at the temperature "q" after given test duration "t" leads to
fracture of the specimen. Permanent static strength is also called static endurance.

The applied creep test results are simultaneously influenced by the applied stress and operating temperature. Increasing the
stress leads to increase in the current elongation, an increase in the creep index in the second period of the creep process, and
a decrease in the service life to fracture.

Dynamic strength test

Dynamic durability - dynamic strength of the material is the basic value in calculations of dynamically loaded
structures. Dynamic stress lead to material fatigue. Dynamical stress can be in one direction (b,d) or alternating
(e).

Schematic representation of different types of stresses

- Static - tensile and compressive stress (a and c)

- Dynamic one direction - variable stress that is always of the same direction - curves b and d,
- Dynamic alternating - variable stress that changes direction (tensile-pressure) - curve e
Fatigue

Fatigue decreases the strength of material due to repetitive stresses that may be greater or less than the yield
strength. It is common fatigue stress at load-bearing parts: cars and aircraft, turbine blades, springs, biomedical
implants, etc. Those parts are constantly subjected to repetitive stresses: tensile - compression, bending, vibration,
thermal expansion and contraction or other stresses. These stresses are often below the material yield strength.

Fatigue fracture usually occurs through in three stages. First, a tiny crack occurs frequently even after the initial
load. Usually the first crack appearance places are located on the surface or slightly below it, where the stress is
greatest. These minor damages include such surface defects as: accumulation of dislocations, scratches or pits,
sharp corners due to poor shaping or fabrication, grain boundaries. Next, the crack gradually spreads as the load
continues to change cyclically. Eventually there is a sudden fracture of the material when the remaining cross
section of the material is too small to withstand the load. Thus, the parts fail due to fatigue although the total
applied stress may remain below the yield point. As fatigue to occur at least part of the stress in the material must
be of a tensile character.

Fatigue fractures are easy to recognize. The fracture surface - especially near the initial crack - is usually smooth.
The surface becomes rougher and increases in size like the original crack. There may be fibrous structures during
the final crack propagation. A shell-like appearance usually occurs when the load is changed during operation or
when it is load intermittent. The load is not constant so there is also time for corrosion to develop. The stripes,
which are much finer, indicate the position of the crack tip after each cycle.

Initial crack
Crack propagation

Final fracture

Fracture area due to fatigue.

Arrows show the direction of crack propagation.

Schematic representation of the steel shaft fracture surface due to fatigue. It can be seen initial crack area, spread
of the crack due to fatigue (with prominent stripes), and finally a final fracture. The final fracture occurs at the
moment when the stress on the cross section remaining part overcomes the material strength.
The conventional and older method used to measure
material fatigue resistance is the rotating cantilever test.
Bearing Specimen grip Load support One end of the processed cylindrical specimen is placed
in the specimen grip. The grip is connected to the drive
Drive shaft
Specimen shaft. The load in the form of weights is suspended at the
opposite free end of the specimen. The specimen upper
side is subjected to tensile stress while the lower side is
under compressive stress. After the specimen is rotated
180 degrees, the surface that has been subjected to tensile
Load stress is affected by compressive stress. Likewise, the
surface that was tensile comes into the compressive stress
range. Thus, any point on the surface passes through a
complete sinusoidal cycle of maximum tensile stress to
maximum compressive stress.

The specimen is shaped on way that the central part weakened to cause fracture in that part.
Research and testing of metals dynamic durability were established by the German engineer August Wöhler in
the middle of the 18th century.

Limited application Dynamic strength

The test is performed on a large number of
specimens. It is tested for each load (trial series)
Trial series 1 several specimens. From obtained cycle number
to rupture the mean value is calculated. The test
Trial series 2 is performed for different loads (stresses) starting
from larger to lower values. The results are
Trial series 3
shown in the Wöhler diagram.
Applying a higher stress, e.g., the 1 specimen
withstands a lower number of stress cycles N1.
By reducing stress value number of cycles to
Nd fracture increases. When the stress is reduced to
level of dynamic endurance (dynamic strength)
Stress - Number of cycle changes - Wöhler - curve diagram Rd, the specimen can practically withstand an
infinite number of cycles. It is noticeable that the
There are absolute stress values on the diagram ordinate curve, after a certain number of cycles, reaches
while on the abscissa there is a number of changes - the values of Rd (for steel Nd = 107, and for light
stress cycles. Because of large cycles number the metals is Nd = 108 cycles).
abscissa values are plotted in logarithmic scale.

Endurance ratio is the ratio between the dynamic strength and the tensile strength of a material for a given dynamic
load:

Endurance ratio

The structure dynamic strength can be affected by shape

and condition of the surface. Smooth surfaces could have
up to 30% more dynamic endurance in in relation to
Machined steel
surfaces that are rough or damaged by some external
influence (assembly errors, corrosion). The structure
dynamic strength can also be increased by shotpeening
technology.

Wöhler curves for different materials

Toughness

Toughness is mechanical property by which material resists sudden load change. Impact is sudden load change,
so toughness is defined as the material resistance to impact. Significant research into toughness properties began
in the early 20th century when two test toughness methods were. The full test method development took place in
the 1940s as a need to investigate unexplained damage to steel structures at lower temperatures. There are known
cases of Liberty transport ships that experienced hull fractures without being particularly dynamically loaded. The
first method for testing toughness was patented and standardized by Georges Charpy (a French engineer). A
pendulum of known mass (20 kg) is released from the initial height (h0) and strikes the specimen with a certain
kinetic energy. After breaking the specimen it is raised to the other side of pendulum path (hk). A part of the
kinetic energy of the pendulum was used to break the specimen, which is also measure of impact resistance, i.e. a
measure of toughness. Toughness is expressed in Joules (J), i.e. in fracture work units.
 Fracture work
direct monitoring
In initial position the pendulum has potential energy:

When the pendulum is released into free fall its potential

energy is converted into kinetic energy. The moment when the
pendulum strikes the specimen the value of its kinetic energy
is equal to its initial potential energy (Ep0). After specimen
fracture, the pendulum rose to final height (hf). The amount of
Charpy specimen hf potential energy is:
hf
The difference in pendulum potential energies at the beginning
Charpy bearing
and end represents the energy expended on the specimen
fracture (fracture work) and that is, according to the Charpy
U-groove
V-groove pattern method, the value of material toughness.
pattern

f
In order to break the specimen at a specific place groove are
made on the specimen. The groove represents the place with
stress concentration. Specimens with "V" groove are used for
tougher materials (such as low carbon steels), while specimen
with a "U" groove are used for brittle materials.

Charpy specimen

Another toughness testing method was patented by Edwin Gilbert Izod (1876.–1946). The method is standardized
in a similar way time as well as the Charpy method. Izod method is used code toughness tests according to ASTM
standards (American Society for Testing and Meterials).

The results of toughness tests often show quite large scatter, so more samples (at least 3) are usually tested and
the mean value from these measurements is taken as a measure of toughness.

Toughness is also affected by the temperature at which the specimen is located. Ferritic steels (BCC) show a
particularly pronounced decrease in toughness below some transition temperature (Tt). Structural materials have
been developed that have a minimal toughness reduction as the temperature drops (eng austenitic steels-FCC).

The transition from plastic (ductile) to brittle fracture occurs

at transition temperature. It is the temperature at which the
type of material fracture varies from ductile to brittle (easily
breakable). That temperature can be defined as temperature at
which exists average fracture work energy between the plastic
and brittle area. The material exposed to the impact load
during operation should have transition temperature lower
than the ambient temperature. Not all materials have transition
temperature. BCC metals have transition temperature, but
most FCC metals do not. FCC metals absorb a large amount
of kinetic energy. The negative effect of the transition
temperature in the steel may have contributed to the tragic end
Influence of temperature on material toughness
of the Titanic.
HARDNESS
Hardness is the resistance that a material provides when a hard object penetrates its surface. There are number of
methods for hardness testing. Hardness test procedures can be classified according to several criteria. The first
criterion refers to micro and macro hardness. In the case of micro hardness, the hardness of a certain phase is
examined, while in the case of macro hardness testing, the hardness of the structure is determined.

Micro hardness Macro hardness

The second criterion is related to the mode of force action in testing procedure. The force can be static or dynamic.
In static mode force changes slowly while in dynamic mode the force changes suddenly. Among the methods used
as static hardness testing methods are the methods: Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers. The dynamic methods, that are
often used, are the methods: Poldy, Shore and Leeb. The third criterion refers to the condition of the surface after
the hardness test has been performed. After static and some dynamic test methods, a penetrator trace remains on
the examined surface. In this way the surface is damaged so that these methods are counted among the methods
that damage the surface.

The oldest technical way is to compare the hardness of different substances by scratching the substance against
the substance. That comparative method was first proposed by the German mineralogist Frederich Mohs (1773.–
1839.) by selecting ten available minerals. The scale is not linear. A mineral that is “higher” on the Mohs scale
also has higher hardness. If tested the substance that can scratch the surface of mineral from the Mohs scale, it is
harder than that mineral. The hardest is diamond, with the number 10, and the softest is talc, with the number 0.
The scale is nonlinear and is not used in mechanical engineering.

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST (HB)

The Brinell test penetrator is a hardened steel ball of standard diameter. The ball
Hardened ball diameters are different (10, 5 and 2.5 mm) as well as the forces which must be
proportional to the used ball diameters (F = 30D2, 10D2, 5D2, 2.5D2 [kp *]). That
Penetrator imprint
covers a wider range of material hardness testing. Softer and medium hard
materials are tested by that method (structural steel, non-ferrous metals). Testing
itself leaves a small but visible imprint on the surface. It's a method suitable for
parts that can be placed on the testing device. With standard devices, the pressure
force increases to the nominal F through 2 to 8 [sec], and its action lasts from 10
of 15 [sec]. After force cessation action, the corresponding diameter of the print
is evident d. The best measurement results are those at which it is imprint diameter
d  0.3 - 0.4 D.

*It is necessary to multiply the value of the force in kP by 9.81 in order to obtain the force value in N!

according to the picture

imprint depth

Measured hardness is expressed in Brinell units.

Based on Brinell hardness material strength can be estimated. Rm = 3.5 HB (MPa)
The limitations and disadvantages of Brinell's method are: the frequent need to calibrate device force (usually
complex lever system), inability to test materials harder than the hardness of hardened steel, limited size test
specimen (the size is determined by the space on the test device working table), the testing device is not
transferable due to high mass (laboratory tests only), diameter reading depends on expertise operator and surface
damage.

POLDY HARDNESS TEST (HB)

Poldy’s method is improved Brinell’s method. The Poldy method eliminates the
influence of force. At the same time a device is small in size and also of small mass,
so it is easy portable. The force is obtained by hitting the ball holder with a hammer.
The standard test bar (die) is made from steel of known hardness. The diameters of
the imprints are measured, and the value is read from the Brinell tables hardness. Die
Hardened steel ball diameter D = 10 mm due dynamic load (hammer kick) is imprinted
simultaneously into the specimen surface and into the die test bar surface (known
hardness). Hardness is determined by comparing imprint of die (d2) and the imprint of
tested specimen (d1). The imprint diameter is read using a calibrated scale magnifier. Tested
specimen

Sp Die

The standard Poldy test bar - die has a strength of 690 MPa
and a hardness of 197 HB. Since it is not always possible to
have an identical steel test bar according to the properties of
the original Poldy bar, a correction factor (f) was introduced
by which the obtained hardness result is multiplied. Obtained
value represents the hardness in Brinell units.

Poldy hardness tester

Limitations and disadvantages of the Poldy method: hardness greater than the hardness of the hardened ball cannot
be tested, the diameter reading depends on the expertise of the operator, the surface of the tested sample is
damaged.

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST (HRB,C)

The Rockwell hardness test method is based on measuring the elastic recovery of the material. Hardness expresses
in Rockwell units. In order to measure hardness from the softest to the hardest material the Rockwell test method
uses different penetrators. To measure the hardness of soft materials a hardened steel ball (HRB) is used. For hard
materials the diamond cone penetrator (HRC) is used.

Rockwell B – HRB

The penetrator is a hardened ball with a diameter of  1/16”. Starting force is F1 = 98.1 (N), while the main force
is F2 = 882.9 (N). The total force is F = 98 (N). The measuring scale is 0.26 mm (c) long, which is divided into
130 parts. When the penetrator touches the surface of the specimen (a), the penetrator is loaded by starting force
(F1) (b). Once the comparator needle has stopped, the main force (F2) (d) is added. Penetrator movement is
monitored using the built-in measuring clock (comparator). When the needle calms down again, the main load is
relieved. Due to the elastic return, the penetrator returns to a certain depth (e). The hardness value represents the
distance from the maximum penetration depth (c) to the depth at which the penetrator stopped (e). This method is
applied to all medium hard metal materials whose hardness is from 35 HRB to 100 HRB. The device measurement
accuracy is about  2 HRB.
 Specimen surface

Starting force (F1)

Maximum HRB =130
130 parts, each part is 0,002 (mm)

After main force relived (F2)

Elastic
return
Penetration depth under full force (F)
HRB

Measuring scale beginning HRB=0

Schematic representation of the HRB test method Rockwell test device

Rockwell C – HRC

The Rockwell C hardness test method is similar to Method B. The difference is in the penetrator type of and the
load forces acting during testing. The penetrator is the diamond cone with a peak angle of 120o. To avoid incorrect
test results due to specimen surface inhomogeneities, the penetrator is previously load with starting force F1 =
98.1 (N), (according to old units 10 (kp)). The measuring scale is 0.2 mm long divided into 100 parts. The
indentation is done by adding the main load force F2 = 1373.4 (N), (140 (kp)). The penetrator penetrates to a
certain depth. The total penetrator load is F = F1 + F2 = 1471.5 (N). After unloading, due to elastic return, the
penetrator returns to a smaller penetration depth. The difference between the maximum penetration depth and the
depth at which the penetrator stopped is the hardness value according to the HRC method. It is read from a
measuring device that monitors the penetrator movement.

In case the penetrator penetrates to greater depth of 0.2 mm, the test is incorrect. That means material is softer and
hardness cannot be measured by the HRC method. It is necessary to apply the HRB method. The HRC method is
applied to all metallic materials whose hardness range is from 20 to 70 HRC. Maximum hardness measured can
be 100 HRC. It is theoretical hardness of diamond. The measurement accuracy of testing devices is 1.5 HRC.

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST (HV)

The Vickers hardness test is used for medium hard and hard
materials. The penetrator is a diamond pyramid with a square base.
Operating
From the ratio of the standard force F (N) and the imprint surface
position
area of the four-sided pyramid A (mm2) with peak angle 136o, the
HV hardness is calculated. In order to calculate the imprint surface,
it is necessary to accurately measure the imprint diagonal (d). If the
metal is anisotropic, it should measure both diagonals of the imprint
and calculate the diagonal mean value. The imprint surface is
calculated with that value. The micro and macro hardness can be
measured by the Vickers method. When testing micro hardness, the
penetrator is smaller. Significantly less load forces are used (F = 2
(N)). When testing macro hardness, two different load forces are
used. For softer materials a load force of 10 (kp) (approx. 100 N) is
used, while for harder materials, a load force of 30 (kp) (approx.
300 N) is used. A microscope is used to read the imprint diagonal.
Vickers penetrator
This is also the reason why the device for Vickers hardness testing
is called the Vickers microscope.
 Limitations and disadvantages of the Vickers method: the device is
only of laboratory type, impossibility of testing samples of larger
dimensions, the surface is damaged. The device must be calibrated
before each test. That is valid for all hardness test methods.
Calibration is performed by measuring the hardness of a known
standard specimen. As a rule, specimens are of different geometric
shapes in order to avoid the use of the wrong specimen for a
particular method of hardness testing.

Vickers microscope

SHORE HARDNESS TEST (HB)

The Shore hardness test is also based on material elastic

return, but without penetrator imprint as it is with Rockwell
method. The Shore device is simple and portable, and no
special surface treatment is required. From the standard
height, small mallet (impact body) is released onto the test
surface, from which it rebounds backwards. At the highest
point of the rebound, the small mallet is stopped with the
brake. The rebound height is always less than the initial
drop height by the amount spent on the plastic deformation
Always the same of the substrate and the elastic waves in the metal. With
starting height softer materials, the rebound is lower than with harder ones.
The rebound height in millimeters is converted to the
Brinell hardness value via a special table. There are devices
with inductive reading of the position of the mallet after the
Massive specimen rebound and numerical display of results.

LEEB HARDNESS TEST (HL) (Dietmar Leeb, patent, 1976)

For Leeb method hardness testers the rebound height is also a function
of the hardness of the material. The hardness in that case is measured
on the basis of the energy loss of Leeb's impact body (mallet). Using a
Leeb's impact body
(mallet) induction coli, Leeb's mallet, which has a tungsten carbide ball at the
Permanent magnet top, strikes the test surface at specific speed. The collision of the mallet
and the tested surface leads to a small plastic deformation (0.5 mm) of
the surface that absorbs part of the kinetic energy of the impact body.
Tungsten
carbide ball
Plastic deformation leads to loss of collision velocity. With softer
materials, the plastic deformation is higher, so the absorption of
Induction
Coil
collision energy is higher. That means that the rebound recoil will be
lower and thus mallet rebound speed will also be lower than collision
speed with tested surface. Impact speed and rebound speed are
measured without contact. This is achieved by a small permanent
magnet, located in the device body, which by passing through the coil
(located on the housing of the hardness tester) induces a voltage
Schematic representation of the
proportional to the speed of movement of the mallet. The hardness
Leeb hardness tester value according to the Leeb (HL) method is calculated from the ratio
of the impact and rebound velocities of the mallet.
As with Shore method, so with the Leeb method it is also necessary to consider that examined specimen has a
sufficient mass (min 1kg) to prevent loss of part of impact kinetic energy.