Unit : 6 Underground Cables and Distribution System

Syllabus : Underground Cables - Classification – construction - insulation resistance

– capacitance – dielectric stress in single core cable (Simple numericals). Grading of
cables. Laying of cables – Cable Terminations, cable jointing – causes of failure –
cable faults and location of faults.
Distribution System – Classification – A.C. distribution connection schemes -
requirements of distribution system – design consideration – design of radial, ring
distributors for concentrated, distributed loads.

Underground Cables Cables :

6.9.1 Underground Cables :

• In thickly populated area, overhead transmission lines are not suitable for providing
supply to the consumers due to the public safety and space available.
• Therefore in such areas underground cables are used for transmission / distribution of
electric supply.
• Basically cable consists of a conductor covered with insulation and protecting cover.
6.9.2 Construction of Cable :
Fig. 6.9.1 shows the construction details of the cable.

Fig. 6.9.1 : Construction of cable

It consists of following parts :
1) Conductors :
• Conductors used for cables are generally made up of tinned copper or aluminium.
• To provide the sufficient flexibility conductors are used in stranded form.
• Cable may consists of one, two, three or four conductors depending upon the
service required.
2) Insulation :
• As the cable is laid underground conductor has to be provided with sufficient
thickness of insulation.
• The type and thickness of insulation depends upon the voltage level.
• Insulating materials should provide the following properties :
1) High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
2) High mechanical strength.
3) Non porous.
 4) Chemically inert.
5) High dielectric strength.
6) Non inflammable.
• Following are the different materials used for cable insulation :
1) Rubber.
2) V.I.R. i.e. Vulcanized India Rubber.
3) Impregnated paper.
4) P.V.C. i.e. Polyvinyl Chloride.
5) Varnished cambric.
3) Metallic sheath :
• As the cable is placed under ground, soil may present, moisture, gases and some
other liquids.
• Therefore to protect the cable metallic sheath made up of lead or aluminium is
provided over the insulation.
4) Bedding :
• To protect the metallic sheath from corrosion and some mechanical injury,
bedding is provided.
• It is made up of some fibrous material such as jute or hessian tape.
5) Armouring :
• Armouring is used to protect the cable from mechanical injury while handling.
• It consists of one or two layers of galvanised steel wire or steel tape.
6) Serving :
• Serving is provided to protect the armouring from atmospheric conditions.
• It is made up of some fibrous material like jute.

6.10 Classification of Cables :

Underground cables are generally classified into two ways :

1) According to the voltage level.
2) According to the insulating material used.
Generally first method of classification is preferred and it is further classified as :
1) Low tension (L.T.) cables = upto 1000V.
2) High tension (H.T.) cables = upto 11,000V.
3) Super tension (S.T.) cables = from 22 kV to 33 kV.
4) Extra high tension (EHT) cables = from 33 to 66 kV.
5) Extra super voltage cables = beyond 132 kV.
6.10.1 Low Tension Cables :

• These cables are generally used for voltages upto 1000 V. These cables can be used for
6600 V also as the electrostatic stress developed in the cable are very small.
• Fig. 6.10.1 shows the cross section of a single core low tension (L.T.) cable.
• It consists of one circular core of tinned stranded copper (or aluminium) conductors
insulated by layers of impregnated paper.
• Insulation is surrounded by a lead sheath which protects the cable against moisture.
• In order to protect the lead sheath against the corrosion, serving of compounded fibrous
material or Hessian tape is provided.
• Single core cables are generally not provided with the armouring in order to avoid
excessive loss in the armouring.
6.10.2 H.T. Cables :
• Fig. 6.10.2 shows the cross sectional view of 3 cope belted type High tension (H.T.)
cable.
• These cables are used upto 11,000 volts.
• It consists of three cores of stranded copper (or aluminium conductor).
• These three cores are insulated from each other by layers of impregnated paper.
• Three insulated cores are bunched together and wrapped with impregnated paper (called
as paper belt).
• To have a circular cross sectional area the gaps between the insulated core are filled
with fibrous insulating material.
• Lead sheath is wrapped around the paper belt which provides the protection against
moisture.
• Cable is provided with armouring to protect the cable against the mechanical injury.
• Finally serving is provided over the armouring.
• These type of construction is not suitable for the voltages above 22,000 volts as both the
radial and tangential stresses have to be considered.
• The tangential stresses acts along the layers of insulation.
• Insulation resistance of layers of paper is quite small therefore tangential stresses setup
the leakage current further which may cause local heating and break down of insulation.

Fig. 6.10.1 : LT cable Fig. 6.10.2 : HT cable (3 core belted type)

6.10.3 Super Tension Cable :

• For voltages above 11,000 volts, special construction of cable is required.

• Screened cables are used upto 33,000 volts in which leakage currents are diverted to
earth through metallic sheath.
• Screened cables are of two types :
(a) H type cables
(b) S.L type cables
(a) H type cables :

• These types of cables was invented by H. Hochstadter and hence the name is
given.
• It consists of three cores and each core is insulated by impregnated paper of
desired thickness.
• The insulation of each core is covered with the metallic screen which is made up
of perforated aluminium foil.
• Cores are arranged such a way that each metallic screen makes contact with each
other.
• Additional conducting tape (made up of cotton with fine wires of copper) is
wrapped round all the three cores.
• Cable has no insulation belt, but provided with the lead sheath bedding armoring
and saving as usual.
• As all the four screens and lead sheath are at earth potential, the electric stresses
are completely radial also the dielectric losses are reduced.
• Another advantages of metal screen is that, heat dissipating capacity of cable
increases and there are no sheath losses.
• Also, the perforations in the metallic screens assist in the complete impregnation
of the cable with the compound and thus the possibility of air pockets and voids in
the dielectric is eliminated.
• Fig. 6.10.3(a) shows the cross sectional view of ‘H’ type cable.

(a) H type cable (b) SL type cable

Fig. 6.10.3
(b) S. L. type cables :
• Fig. 6.10.3(b) shows the constructional details of the S.L. type of cable.
• The construction of S.L. type of cable is same as that of the ‘H’ type of cable,
only the difference is that each core is covered with separate lead sheath.
• The three cores are just equivalent to three separate cables.
• There is no overall lead sheath but armouring and serving are provided as usual.
• Following are the two major advantages of S.L. cable over H type cable :
 (a) As each core is provided with separate lead sheath, it provides less
possibility of core to core break down.
(b) Bending of cable becomes easy as there is no overall lead sheath.
• The disadvantages of S.L. type of cable is that the great care is required in
manufacturing because of thinner lead sheaths.
• S.L. types of cables can be used upto 66 kV.

6.10.4 Extra High Tension Cables :

• The cables considered uptill now are used upto 33 kV and a very limited extent they are
used for 66 kV.
• These cables are also known as solid cable and there is no extra facility used to increase
the dielectric strength and to avoid the possibility of formation of voids.
• Thus the solid cables above 66 kV are unsound and owing to development of modern
technique it would be impossible to avoid the formation of voids.
• When these voids are subjected to electrostatic stresses, ionisation takes place and some
times acts as a primary cause of breakdown of cables.
• In order to meet the increased voltage demand the extra high tension and extra super
voltage power cables useful for 132 kV and 275 kV have been developed.
• In above mentioned cables voids have been eliminated by increasing the pressure of
compound and that is why such cables are also called as pressure cables.
• There are two common types of pressure cables generally used viz : oil filled cables and
gas pressure cables.

(i) Oil filled cables :

• In oil filled cables, ducts or channels are provided in cable for oil circulation.
• Fig. 6.10.4(a) shows a single core oil filled cable.
• This type of cable consists of oil channel at the center of core by stranding the
conductor wires around a hollow cylindrical steel spiral tape.
• Oil used for such type of cable is same mineral oil of low viscosity used for
impregnation purpose.
• The oil is constantly supplied to the channel by means at external oil reservoirs
and feeding tanks along its length at certain pressure.
• The oil pressure compresses the layer of paper insulation and prevents the
possibility of void formation.
• The system is so designed that when oil gets expanded due to increase in
temperature at heavy load condition of cable, extra (expanded) oil is get collected
in the external reservoir.
• When there is fall in temperature during light load condition same oil is sent back
during contraction.
• The major disadvantage of such type of cable is that complicated jointing system
as the channel is at the middle of cable and is at full of voltage with respect to
earth.
 • Fig. 6.10.4(b) shows another type of single core oil filled cable.
• In this type of cables, conductor is made similar with solid type of cable and solid
insulated oil ducts are provided in the metallic sheath either by grooving the
sheath or by arranging the spacers between dielectric and lead sheath.
• Fig. 6.10.4(c) shows a cross sectional view of a 3 core oil filled cable.
• In this type of cable, oil ducts / channels are located within the filling space.
• The channels are made up of perforated metal ribbon taking.

(a) Single core conductor channel oil filled cable (b) Single core sheath channel oil filled cable

(c) Three core oil filled cable

Fig. 6.10.4

(ii) Pressure cable :

• Constructionally pressure cable is similar to that of an ordinary solid type of cable
except that it has triangular shape.
• Triangular formation helps to reduce the weight of the cable.
• Also the thickness of lead sheath is 75 percent of that of solid type of cable.
• Bedding and servings are not provided to pressure cable which helps in
decreasing the thermal resistance.
• But cable is provided with thin layer of armouring. So that the formation of any
abnormal ties over its surface is avoided.
• Cable is installed in gas tight metal pipes of
some what larger area and the pipe is filled
with nitrogen gas at a pressure of 12 to 15
atmospheres which continuously compresses
the cable radially from outside so that radial
breathing of cable occurs and any voids etc.
are closed.
Fig. 6.10.4(d) : Gas pressure cable
6.11 Insulation Resistance of Cable :

6.11.1 Expression for Insulation Resistance of a Cable :

• For obtaining the expression of insulation resistance, refer Fig. 6.11.1(a) and (b).

(a) Construction of a cable (b) Section of radius “r”

Fig. 6.11.1 : Insulation resistance

• Fig. 6.11.1(a) shows a cable in which the inner conductor is completely covered by
layers of insulating materials.
• Due to finite insulation resistance of the insulating material used, some leakage current
flows from the conductor in the outward direction. This current flows in the radially
outward direction, as shown in Fig. 6.11.1(b).
• Therefore to obtain the expression for Ri we will have to consider a small section of
radius “r” of the cable as shown in Fig. 6.11.1(b).
• Let the thickness of this small section be “dr”. The leakage current flows radially
outwards hence to calculate a small leakage resistance dRi we will substitute
length = dr and cross sectional area = 2 rl
length of path followed by leakage current
 dRi =  ×
Area
dr
 dRi =  ×
2 r l
Where l = length of the cable
• The total insulation resistance Ri can be obtained by integrating “dRi” over
the entire radius of the insulating material i.e. from R1 to R2 as shown in Fig. 6.11.1(a).
R2 R2 R2
 dr  dr dr 
 Ri =  dRi =  
R
= = [loge r] R2
2rl 2rl r 2l 1
R1 R1 R1

Ri = [ loge R2 – loge R1 ]
2l

 Ri = loge [ R2 / R1 ]  ...(6.11.1)
2l
Where R1 = Radius of the conductor
R2 = Radius of the cable including the conductor and insulator.
This is the expression for the insulation resistance.
Conclusions :
1. The insulation resistance Ri is inversely proportional to the length “l” of the cable.
2. The insulation resistance Ri is directly proportional to logarithm of radius of the
insulating material (R2 – R1).
3. Insulation resistance is directly proportional to the specific resistance of the insulating
material used.

6.12 Solved Examples :

Ex. 6.12.1 : A single core cable has 1.5 cm diameter conductor and the thickness of
insulation is 2.2 cm. The resistivity of insulating material is 9.2 × 1012 ohm. m.
Determine the insulation resistance per km length of the cable. If the working
voltage of the conductor is 1100 V, what is the leakage current per km length of
the cable ?
Soln. :
Conductor diameter = 1.5 cm  Radius = R1 = 0.75 cm
V = 1100 volts,  = 9.2 × 1012  – m Leakage current / km = ?

1. Insulation resistance Ri = × loge [R2 / R1]
2l
9.2 × 1012
loge  0.75 
0.75 + 2.2
=
2  × 1000  
Note that R2 = (thickness of insulation + radius of conductor)
= (0.75 + 2.2) cm and l = 1 km = 1000 m
 Ri = 2 × 10  per km
9

2. Leakage current for 1 km length.

V 1100
I = =
Ri 2 × 109
 I = 0.55 × 10–6 A or 0.55 A ...Ans.
Ex. 6.12.2 : A single core copper cable has conductor diameter of 2 cm with an insulation of
thickness 1.8 cm. The resistivity of copper is 1.73 × 10–8  m and that of
insulation is 8 × 1012  m. Determine i) resistance of conductor and (ii) insulation
resistance if cable length is 100 m.
Soln. :
Conductor radius = R1 = 1 cm
Insulator thickness = 1.8 cm  R2 = (1 + 1.8) = 2.8 cm
c = 1.73 × 10–8  m i = 8 × 1012 m, l = 100 m
Part I : Resistance of copper conductor :
Resistance of the conductor is given by,
l
Rc = c a
2 2
But a =  R1 =  × (1 × 10 –2) = 3.14 × 10 – 4 m2
100
Rc = 1.73 × 10 –8 × = 0.0055  ...Ans.
3.14 × 10 – 4
Part II : Insulation resistance :
i  R2  8 × 10 log  2.8 
12
Ri = loge  R  =
2l  1  2  × 100 e
 1 
 Ri = 1.31 × 1010  ...Ans.
Ex. 6.12.3 : A single core cable has its conductor diameter as 1.5 cm and outer diameter as
3.9 cm. The resistivities of conductor and insulator are 1.73 × 10 –6
 – m and
8 × 10 12
 – m respectively. Find for a cable length of 100 m its insulation
resistance and conductor resistance.
Soln. :
Given : R1 = 0.75 cm, R2 = 1.95 cm, c = 1.73 × 10 – 8  – m,
i = 8 × 1012  – m, l = 100 m
To find : (1) Conductor resistance Rc
(2) Insulation resistance Ri
(1) Conductor resistance ( Rc ) :
l 100
Rc = c × = 1.73 × 10– 8 ×
 ( 0.75 × 10 – 2)
2
a
 Rc = 9.789 m  ...Ans.
(2) Insulation resistance ( Ri ) :
i
Ri = × loge [ R2 / R1 ]
2 l
8 × 1012
= loge [ 1.95 / 0.75 ] = 1.2165 × 1010  ...Ans.
2 × 100

6.13 Capacitance of a Single Core Cable :

Fig. 6.13.1 : Capacitance of single core cable

• Consider a single core cable to be equivalent to two co-axial cylinders where core of the
cable is the inner cylinder while the outer cylinder is lead sheath which is at earth
potential.
Let d = diameter of core
D = inner diameter of lead sheath
r = relative permittivity of dielectric in between the core sheath
• Consider a co-axial cylinder of radius x meter and length 1 m. Therefore surface
area is = 2  x ... m2.
• Therefore, electric field intensity at any point x metres from the centre of the inner
cylinder is
Q
Ex = ...volts/metre
2   0 r x
• The work done in moving a unit positive charge from conductor to a sheath
(i.e. potential difference V) is given as
 D/2 D/2
Q
V =  Ex dx =  2 0 r x
dx
d/2 d/2
Q D
= loge d ...volts ...(6.13.1)
2 0 r
Q
• Capacitance of cable, C =
V
Q
= Q ...F/m
D
loge d
2   0 r
2   0 r
= D ...F/m
loge d

2  × 8.854 × 10 – 12 × r
= ...F/m
2.303 log10  d 
D
 
r × 10 – 9
= D ...F/m
41.4 log10 d

0.024 r × 10 – 9
= D F/m ...(6.13.2)
log10
d

6.14 Solved Examples :

Ex. 6.14.1 : A single core cable having a conductor diameter of 1.5 cm and internal sheath
diameter of 2.1 cm. If the relative permittivity of impregnated paper is 4,
calculate the capacitance of cable for length of 1 km.
Soln. :
Given : d = 1.5 cm D = 2.1 cm
r = 4 l = 1 km = 1000 m
Find : C=?
• According to Equation (4.11.2)
0.024 r × 10 – 9
C = D  l F/m
log10 d

0.024 × 4 × 1000 × 10 – 9
=
log10 
2.1 
 1.5 
C = 0.657 F / m ...Ans.
Ex. 6.14.2 : A single core cable is used on a 3 phase 66 kV system at 50 Hz frequency. The
length of the cable is 1.5 km and core diameter of 10 cm and an impregnated
paper insulation of thickness 8 cm. The relative permittivity of the insulation may
be taken as 4. Calculate the charging current of cable.
Soln. :
Given : VL = 66 kV f = 50 Hz
L = 1.5 km d = 10 cm
D = 10 + 2 × 8 = 26 cm r = 4
To find : Charging current IC = ?
• According to Equation (4.11.2)
0.024 r × 10 – 9
C = D × l ...F/m
log10 d

0.024 × 4 × 10 – 9 × 1500
=
log10  10 
26
 
C = 0.347 × 10 – 6 F / m
 Capacitive reactance
1 1
XC = = = 9172.9 
2  FC 2 ×  × 50 × 0.347 × 10 – 6
66 × 103
• Voltage per phase =
3
= 38.10 × 103 volts
VPh
Charging current, IC = X
C

38.10 × 103
=
9172.9
= 4.15 Amp. ...Ans.
Ex. 6.14.3 : A 3 phase underground cable of 5 km long has three conductors. Each of the
conductor has a diameter of 3 cm and radial thickness of insulation is 0.6 cm.
Determine the total charging kVAR if supply voltage is 33 kV at 50 Hz. Assume
the the relative permittivity of insulation to be 4.
Soln. :
Given : VL = 33,000 V f = 50 Hz
l = 5 km = 5000 m d = 3 cm
D = 3 + ( 2 × 0.6 ) = 4.2 cm r = 4
To find : Changing kVAR = ?
• According to Equation (4.11.2)
0.024 r × 10 – 9
C = × l ...F/m
log10  d 
D
 
0.024 × 4 × 10 – 9 × 5000
C =
log10  3 
4.2
 
C = 3.285 × 10 – 6 F / m
33000
• Voltage / phases, Vph =
3
= 19052.56 V
Vph
• Charging current / phase = IC = X
C

1 1
XC = =
2  fc 2  × 50 × 3.285 × 10 – 6
= 968.98 
19052.56
 IC = 962.98 = 19.66 A

• Total charging kVAR = 3 Vph Ic

 = 3 × 19052.56 × 19.66
= 1123.86 kVAR

6.15 Dielectric Stress in a Single Core Cable :

Fig. 6.15.1 : Dielectric stress in a single core cable

• Insulation of a cable is always subjected to electrostatic stresses under operating

conditions. This stress is known as dielectric stress.
• Dielectric stress at any point in the cable is defined as the rate of increase of potential at
that point.
• Consider a Fig. 6.15.1 which shows a cross section of a single core cable.
Let d = core diameter
D = internal sheath diameter
• As mentioned earlier, the electric intensity at a distance ‘x’ from the centre O of the
cable is given as :
Q
Ex = ... volt / meter
2   0 r x
• According to defination, electric intensity is equal to potential gradient
Q
 potential gradient g = ... V /m ...(6.15.1)
2   0 r x
• From Equation (6.15.1) potential difference V between conductor and sheath is
Q D
V = loge d ...volts
2   0 r
2   0 r V
or Q = D ...(6.15.2)
loge d

• Substituting value of Q from Equation (6.15.2) into Equation (6.15.1), we get

2   0 r V 1
g = 
D 2  0 r x
loge d
V
= D ...volts / m ...(6.15.3)
x loge d

• As the potential gradient g varies inversely with respect to x, potential gradient will be
maximum when x is minimum i.e. x = d/2 and will be minimum when x is maximum i.e.
x = D/2.
• Substituting x = d/2 and D/2 in Equation (6.15.3), we get
2V
gmax = D ... volts / m ...(6.15.4)
d loge d
2V
and gmin = ...volts / m ...(6.15.5)
D
d loge d

Taking the ratio of Equation (6.15.4) and Equation (6.15.5)

D
gmax 2 V / d loge d
=
gmin D
2 V / D loge d
D
= d

• Expression (6.15.4) shows the maximum stress at the conductor surface but it is
assumed that the conductor surface is smooth cylindrical.
• But actually the stranded conductors are used so the dielectric stress is increased round
about 15 to 20 percent at its surface due to greater curvature of each conductor at
surface.
• Maximum permissible value of g is taken only about one fifth of break down value
i.e. 4 – 5 kV / mm as the dielectric losses increases rapidly with potential gradient.

6.16 Solved Examples :

Ex. 6.16.1 : A single core cable has a conductor diameter of 1.2 cm and a sheath of inside
diameter 3.8 cm. If the working voltage is 33 kV find the minimum and maximum
stresses in insulation.
Soln. :
Given : d = 1.2 cm; D = 3.8 cm; V = 33 kV
According to Equation (6.16.4)
2V
gmax = D
d loge d
2 × 33
= 3.8 ...kV/cm
1.2 loge  1.2 
 
gmax = 47.71 kV / cm ...Ans.
According to Equation (6.16.5)
2V
gmin = D …kV / cm
D loge d
2 × 33
= 3.8 ...kV/cm
3.8 loge  1.2 
 
gmin = 15.06 kV / cm ...Ans.

Ex. 6.16.2 : A single core conductor has a core area of 0.7 cm2 and the internal sheath
diameter of 2.5 cm. The permittivity of the dielectric used in the cable is 3.5. If
the working voltage is 11 kV at 50 Hz find the maximum and minimum stresses
in the cable. Also find the charging current.
Soln. :
Given : a = 0.7 cm2 D = 2.5 cm
r = 3.5 V = 11 kV
f = 50 Hz
To find : gmax = ? gmin = ?
IC = ?
4a 4 × 0.7
• Diameter of conductor, d = =
 
d = 0.94 cm
• Maximum electrostatic stress in cable is
2V 2 × 11
gmax = D= 2.5
d loge d 0.94 loge 0.94

= 23.93kV / cm
• Minimum electrostatic stress in cable is
2V 2 × 11
gmin = D= 2.5
d loge d 2.5 loge 0.94

= 8.99kV / cm
• Capacitance of cable per km
0.024 r –9
C = D × 10 ...F
log10 d
0.024 × 3.5
= × 10 – 9
log10  0.94 
2.5
 
= 0.198 × 10 – 9 F
• Charging current per phase per km length of cable
IC = 2  fC Vp
11000
= 2 ×  × 50 × 0.198 × 10 – 9 ×
3
= 0.39 mA

6.17 Grading of Cables :

• It has been discussed earlier that in a single core cable, the electrostatic stress is
maximum at the conductor surface and goes on decreasing towards the sheath.
• The maximum working voltage that can be safely applied to the cable is decided by the
electrostatic stress at the conductor surface.
• To have a safe working of a cable, if some one uses the dielectric of higher strength,
then it is useful to conductor surface only where the stress is maximum.
• But as we move away from conductor surface, the stress decreases, therefore the
dielectric will be unnecessarily strong and expensive.
• As the unequal stress distribution in cable either lead to break down of insulation or to
avoid breakdown, thicker insulation is required which increases the size of cable.
• To overcome this difficulty, the stress can be so distributed that its value in outer layers
of dielectric is increased without increasing the stress near the conductor, therefore
thinner insulation is sufficient for any given working voltage.
• Thus the process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the cables is known as
grading of cables.
• There are two methods of grading of cables -
(a) Capacitance grading
(b) Inter sheath grading
6.18 Capacitance Grading :
• In this method of grading to achieve the uniformity in dielectric stress, homogeneous
dielectric is replaced by various layers of different dielectrics in such a manner that the
permittivity, r of each layer is inversely proportional to its distance from the centre.
1
i.e. r  x

where x = distance of dielectric from the centre

Q
and potential gradient at a distance x from the centre is, g =
2  0 r x
Q
g =
2  0   x
1
x
Q
= = constant
2  0
• Thus by using various layers of different dielectrics, the value of dielectric stress at any
point is made constant and it is independent of distance from the centre.
• But practically two or three dielectrics are used in grading of cable in such a manner that
the permittivity of the dielectric nearer to the core has highest value and the outermost
layer has minimum value.
• Consider a single core cable as shown in Fig. 6.18.1 in which 3 layers of dielectrics are
used in cable.
• Let d1, d2 and D be the outer diameters of 3 layers having relative permittivity
r1, r2 and r3 respectively.
• If the permittivities are such that r1 > r2 > r3 and if each dielectric is subjected to a
constant maximum stress then
r1 d = r2 d1 = r3 d2
• Potential difference across the inner layer is
d1 / 2
V1 =  g dx
d/2
d1 / 2
Q
=  2  0 r
dx
d/2
Q d1
= loge d
2   0 r
 d d1
= gmax 2 loge d

• Similarly potential difference across second layer and third layer is given by
d1 d2
V2 = gmax 2 loge d
1

d2 D
and V3 = gmax loge
2 d2

• Total potential difference between core and earthed sheath is

V = V1 + V2 + V3
gmax  d1 d2 D
= 2   d log e d + d 1 loge
d1 + d2 loge d2  ...(6.18.1(a))

• For a homogeneous dielectric of a cable the

potential difference between core and earthed
sheath for same values of d, D and gmax is
d D
V  = gmax 2 loge d ...(6.18.1(b))

• If we compare Equation (6.18.1(a)) and

Equation (6.18.1(b)), then we find that V > V 
i.e. graded cube can work at higher potential
than homogenous (or non graded) cable for the
same dimensions.
Or for the same permissible safe potential, the
size of the graded cable will be smaller than
non-graded cable.

Fig. 6.18.1 : Capacitor grading of single core cable

6.18.1 Inter Sheath Grading :

• In this method of grading, a

homogeneous dielectric is used.
• But this dielectric is divided into number
of layers by placing the metallic inter
sheaths between the core and lead sheath.
• These inter sheaths are held at certain
potentials which are in between the core
potential and earth potential.
• Thus the more uniform potential gradient
is obtained.
• Consider a single core cable as shown in
Fig. 6.18.2.
 Fig. 6.18.2 : Inter sheath grading

• Let d is the conductor / core diameter

D is the outer lead sheath diameter
d1 and d2 be the diameter of two inter sheaths
V1, V2 and V3 be the voltage between core and respective inter sheaths.
•  Maximum stress between core and inter sheath is
V1
g1 max = d1
d
2 log e d

V2
g2 max = d
2 d2
loge
2 d1
V3
g3 max =
d2 D
2 log e d2
• As the dielectric is homogeneous we have
g1 max = g2 max = g3max = gmax
V1 V2 V3
 = = = gmax
d d1 d2 d2 d2 D
2 loge d 2 loge d1 2 loge d2
• Since all these capacitors acts in series, all the potentials are in phase i.e.
Voltage between conductor and earthed lead sheath is
V = V1 + V2 + V3

Disadvantages of grading :

(a) Capacitance grading suffers from the following disadvantages :

• Cost of cable increases as it required few high grade insulating materials which
may be costly than a single homogeneous dielectric.

• Possibility of change of permittivity with time which may lead to break down of
insulating material even at normal rated voltage.
(b) Inter sheath grading suffers from following drawbacks :

• Possibility of damage to inter sheath during transportation and installation.

• Charging currents causes the losses in the inter sheaths.

6.19 Capacitance of Three Core Cables :

 Fig. 6.19.1 : Capacitance in 3 core cable

• In case of cables, the effect of capacitance is more dominant than the overhead
transmission line as the conductors are much nearer to each other and secondly they are
separated by a dielectric media which has higher permittivity than air.

• Fig. 6.19.1 shows the locations of existence of capacitance in a 3 core cable.

Where Cc is the capacitance between core to core and

Ce is the capacitance between core to earth (sheath)

• Fig. 6.19.2 shows the connections of these capacitances. Where Cc are delta connected
and Ce are star connected in which lead sheath forms a star point.

Fig. 6.19.2

• Fig. 6.19.2 is a simple delta-star network which can be solved as follows and equivalent
phase capacitance can be found out.
• The outer delta of (C) can be converted into its equivalent star as follows :

Fig. 6.19.3

• Then this equivalent capacitances are in parallel with Ce which can be shown as follows
(Fig. 6.19.4).

Fig. 6.19.4

Now Ceq and Cc are in parallel

  CN = Ceq + Ce
= 3 Cc + Ce ... ( ∵ Ceq = 3 Cc )
• If Vph is phase voltage then charging current IC is
Vph
Ic =
capacitive reactance per phase
= 2 f Vph CN
= 2  f Vph ( Ce + 3 Cc ) ...(6.19.1)
Values of capacitances Ce and Cc are generally found by measurement as follows
• Firstly capacitance is measured between the three conductors bunched together and the
earthed sheath.
This eliminates the three capacitances between core and gives only three capacitances
between core and earthed sheath in parallel which can be treated as CA
 C1 = 3 Ce
C1
or Ce = 3 ...(6.19.2)

• Secondly capacitance between two conductors is measured with third conductor which
is either insulated or connected to sheath.
This eliminates one of the Ce and can be treated as C2
Cc Ce
 C2 = Cc + 2 + 2
1
= ( 3 Cc + Ce )
2
1
C2 = C ...(6.19.3)
2 N
• Finally the capacitances is measured between the two cores shorted with the sheath and
the third core. This gives C3
 C3 = 2 Cc + Ce ...(6.19.4)
• From above equations values of Cc and Ce are determined.

6.20 Solved Examples :

Ex. 6.20.1 : Calculate the charging current taken by a 10 km long cable. Its capacitance per
kilometer is 0.5 F between the two cores with third core connected to lead
sheath. Supply voltage is 3 phase 11 kV at 50 Hz.
Soln. :
Given : l = 10 km C2 / km = 0.5 f
VL = 11 kV f = 50 Hz
To find : Ic = ?
• According to Equation (4.16.3), C2 is the capacitance of cable measured between two
conductors with third conductor is either insulated or earthed.
 C2 for 10 km length
= 0.5 × 10 = 5 f
1
and C2 = 2 CN

or CN = 2 C2
= 2 × 5 = 10 f
 11 × 103
• Phase voltage = = 6351 V
3
• Charging current Ic
Ic = 2  f Vph CN (Equation (4.16.1))
= 2 ×  × 50 × 6351 × 10 × 10 – 6
= 19.95 Amp.

6.21 Heating of Cable :

• Temperature of a body depends upon the rate of generation of heat and rate of
dissipation of heat by that body.
• For a constant temperature, rate of dissipation of heat should be equal to rate of
generation of heat in a body.
• The rise in temperature in a cable mainly depends upon the following conditions :
• Generation and dissipation of heat upto its periphery.
• Dissipation of heat by surrounding medium.
• Current carrying capacity of the cable.
• Nature of loading i.e. continuous or intermittent or possibility of short-circuits etc.
• Heat produced in the cable is mainly due to the following reasons :
• Copper loss in the conductor
• Dielectric loss in the insulation
• Losses in the metallic sheath and armouring
6.21.1 Copper Loss in Conductor :

• Copper losses are mainly caused due to the resistance of the conductor. If the resistance
of the conductor is RA at ambient temperature then due to copper losses the temperature
of conductor increases due to which resistance of conductor also increase.
• The resistance of conductor at that temperature can be calculated as follows :
R2 = RA [ 1 + 0 ( t2 – tA ) ]
Where RA is the resistance of conductor at ambient temperature tA and
R2 is the resistance of conductor at higher temperature t2
• Generally in case of cables, stranded conductors are used instead of solid conductors,
therefore for stranded conductor the resistance of a single core cable is multiplied by the
factor 1.02. In case of multicore cables, the resistance is further multiplied by the factor
1.02 in order to allow for the lay of the whole conductor.
6.21.2 Dielectric Losses :

• Dielectric losses are mainly occurs in insulating (dielectric) materials.

• Though, theoretically we says that insulating material has infinite resistance but
practically it is not the case. Therefore it carries certain amount of leakage current. This
leakage current causes the loss in dielectric material and is independent of supply
frequency therefore occurs in both the cases i.e. AC as well as DC supply.
• This loss can be computed as
2
= Il R
where Il is the leakage current through the dielectric and R is the resistance of dielectric.
• Secondly when the cable carries alternating currents, an energy is required in reversing
the stresses in dielectric which appears into heat.
• In order to take into account the above losses, the charging current drawn by the cable is
assumed to have two components.

(a) Equivalent diagram of cable (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 6.21.1

• Fig. 6.21.1(a) shows a equivalent diagram of a cable and Fig. 6.21.1(b) shows the
phasor diagram of it.
• As mentioned above charging current has two components :
Ic is right angle to the supply voltage and known as capacitance current
IR is in phase with supply voltage equivalent to dielectric loss
• If the applied voltage is V and C is the capacitance of cable,  is the cable power factor
V
then charging current Ic = X = CV
c

and dielectric loss per phase = VI cos 

= VI sin  = V Ic tan 
= V  CV tan 
= V2  C tan  ...wats
• The angle  is small and called as the dielectric loss angle, or dielectric power factor.

Cable Fault Location Technique

The Process of cable fault location comprises of four distinct, but interrelated stages viz.
1. Testing for detection of the nature of fault.
2. Conditioning / burning of faults for location.
3. Prelocation : Approximate location based on changed electrical relationship due to fault.
4. Pin Point location.
The nature of fault commonly experienced in practice are :

1. Core to armour / metallic sheath fault (earth fault)

2. Core to core faults short circuits between phases.
3. Total break of one conductor, open circuit fault.
4. High resistance fault.
5. Flashing or intermittent faults.
The methods of faults location for H.T. cables can be catergorised as :
1. Conventional methods.
2. Modern methods.
The following are some conventional methods :

1. Murray loop method.

2. Varley loop method.
3. Fisher loop test.
4. Fall of potential method.
Some modern methods are as mentioned below :

1. Pulse echo method.

2. Impulse current method.

The conventional methods are basically variation of common Wheatstone bridge. To
find the cable fault by H.T. bridge. It is necessary to have at least one core healthy and
should be continuous through out the length.’ Following is the procedure to find the
fault by H.T. bridge.
3. Short circuit the faulty and healthy core at one end of cable.

4. Make the proper connections.

5. Apply D.C. voltage so that 20 mA to 40 mA current will, pass and adjust the
potentiometer so that the null point will be shown on galvanometer.
6. Fault length = Slide wire reading x 2L, where, L = length of cable.

Murray loop method

• A method of localizing a fault in a cable by replacing two arms of a Wheatstone bridge

with a loop formed by the cable under test and a good cable connected to the far end of
the defective cable is known as Murray loop method.

Murray loop bridge

• It is a modified Wheatstone bridge use for locating faults in underground cables.

• One end of the faulted cable is connected through a pair of resistors to the voltage
source. Also a null detector is connected.
• The other end of the cable is shorted as shown in Fig. 6.21.2.
• The bridge is brought to balance by changing the values of RB1 and RB2, which is
achieved when :
Rx RB1
Rg + Ry = RB2
 which is equivalent to:
RB1
Rx = (Rg + Ry) · R
B2

• The value of resistance Rx is proportional the length Lx, thus the location of the fault can
be calculated:
RB1
Lx = 2 · L · R
B2

where L is the total length of the cable under test - a value proportional to Rg.

Fig. 6.21.2 : Murray loop bridge

The modern method are described as :

1. Pulse Echo Method : In this method, a low voltage short duration pulse is injected in
the cable and time taken by the pulse to travel to the point, where change in insulation
occur, and back is measured. Limitation of this method is, only short circuit faults can
be located.

2. Impluse Current Method : The impulse method uses the current transients which are
created when an Impulse Generator is connected in to a faulty cable. Faults are located
by detecting direct reflections of applied impulse from fault or from the transients
created by break down of the spark gap. After prelocating fault by above methods, it is
then pinpointed by use of acoustic detector.
 Components of Distribution System

6.1 Introduction :

Electrical energy is generated far away from the consumers. Hence it is transmitted over
a long distance and finally distributed to the various consumers. In previous chapter we have
studied the transmission system. In this chapter we will discuss about distribution system.
Distribution system is a electrical network through which electrical energy is actually
distributed to consumer for utilization.
The major difference between transmission and distribution is the voltage level and
distance. In transmission system voltage level is very high (upto 220 kV or 400 kV) also the
distance is large. In case of distribution system generally voltage is at utilization level i.e. (415
V) or in some cases 11 kV and also, the distance is much less than transmission system.

6.2 Components of Distribution System :

Fig. 6.2.1 : Components of distribution system

Fig. 6.2.1 shows the different parts of the distribution system which consists of feeders,
distributors and service mains.
1) Feeder :

In the substation (s), the voltage magnitude is reduced to a utilization level and then the
electrical power is distributed to various areas through the conductors which is known as
feeders.
Feeders has no tappings on it and current through it always remains same hence while
designing a feeder the main consideration is its current carrying capacity.
2) Distributor :

Distributor is a conductor which distributes the electrical power in particular area. It has
number of tappings on it through which the electrical power is actually reached to consumer’s
premises.
 In Fig. 6.2.1, conductor PQ, QR, RS and SP are the distributors. As there are number of
tappings on distributors, the current flowing through it doesn’t remains same. Hence while
designing a distributor, the main consideration is voltage drop and the variation should be
within  6% of rated voltage.
3) Service mains :

Service main is a conductor (generally a cable instead of bare conductor) which actually
feeds the electrical power consumer.

6.3 Classification of Distribution System :

Following are the ways by which distribution system may be classified as :

• Nature of supply :

According to nature of supply, distribution system is classified as :

a) D. C. distribution system.
b) A. C. distribution system.
Nowadays A. C. distribution system is universally adopted for distribution of electrical
power due to its simplicity and less cost.

• Type of construction :

According to the type of construction, distribution system may be classified as :

a) Overhead system
b) Underground system.
Generally underground system is employed where the public safety is more than the cost
i.e. in thickly populated area.

• Types of connection :

According to type of connection, the distribution system may be classified as :

(a) Radial system
(b) Ring system
(c) Interconnected system.
6.3.1 According to Nature of Supply :
(a) A. C. distribution system :
As the electrical energy is generated and transmitted in a.c. form, it is also convenient to
distribute it in A.C. form. A.C voltage can be step up or step down easily with the help of
transformer.
Further A.C. distribution system is classified into primary distribution system and
secondary distribution system. The classification is made according to the voltage level.
(i) Primary distribution system :
• When the distribution voltage is some what higher than the utilization
level, then that system is known as primary distribution system.
 • Primary distribution system is carried out by 3-phase 3 wire system
and have voltage ranging from 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV or 11 kV.
• Generally a big power is supplied to big consumers like industries, large
commercial complexes etc. Then these consumers erect their own
substation and step down the voltage to utilization level.
• Fig. 6.3.1(a) shows the typical arrangement of primary distribution
system in which supply to substation (33 kV) is taken from secondary
transmission system.

Fig. 6.3.1(a) : Primary distribution system

(ii) Secondary distribution system :

• When the distribution voltage is at utilization level then it is called as
secondary distribution system.
• At the end of primary distribution system there is substation with
transformer which converts the voltage from 11 kV to 415 V.
• Primary of the transformer is Delta connected and secondary is star
connected.
• The output available is in 3-phase, 4 wire system.
• Single phase supply can be obtained by taking any one phase and
neutral which has voltage magnitude as 230 V. This single phase supply
then can be used for residential complexes, small shops etc.
• There are some consumers who requires 3-phase 4 wire supply such as
floor mills, small scale industries etc. which can be directly obtained by
taking all the three phases R, Y, B and neutral N.
• Fig. 6.3.1(b) shows the secondary distribution system.
 Fig. 6.3.1(b) : Secondary distribution system

(b) D. C. distribution system :

• Most of the load on the power system requires A. C. supply but there are certain
applications where D. C. supply is needed such as traction purpose, electroplating,
battery charging, D. C. motors etc.
• Hence in the substation; A. C. supply is converted into d.c. supply with the help of
mercury arc rectifiers or rotary converter etc.
• D. C. supply from the substation may be obtained in the form of (i) 2 wire or (ii) 3
wire for distribution.
(i) 2 wire d. c. system :
• As the name indicates, this system of
distribution consists of two wires,
one is positive or healthy wire and
other is negative or zero potential
wire.
• The load is connected in parallel
with this line. The load may be
lamps or motors and connected as
shown in Fig. 6.3.1(c).
Fig. 6.3.1(c) :
2 wire D. C.

distribution
system

(ii) 3 wire d. c. distribution system :

• It consists of two healthy wires and a neutral which is placed at middle
and earthed at the substation.
• The major advantage of this system is that it makes available two
voltages at consumer terminals.
• The voltage across the neutral and any one healthy wire is V and that
across two healthy wire is 2V.
• Hence loads requiring high voltage are
connected across outers and lamps
and other equipments are connected
in between either outer and neutral.
• Fig. 6.3.1(d) shows 3-wire D. C. distribution system.
Fig. 6.3.1(d) :
3-wire d.c.
distribution
system
Need of balancer set in two wire d.c. generator :
• There are several methods of obtaining 3-wire d.c. system such as two generator
method,
3-wire d.c. generator or balancer set.

Fig. 6.3.1(e) : Balancer set

• Out of above mentioned methods, balancer set method is explained here.

• Fig. 6.3.1(e) shows the general arrangement of balancer set.
• It consists of generator ‘G’ which generates and supplies the power in 2-wire form.
• It consists of two identical d.c. shunt machines A and B coupled mechanically with their
armatures and field windings joined in series across the outers.
• The junction of their armature is earthed and neutral wire is taken out from here.
6.3.2 According to Type of Construction :

According to type of construction, distribution system is classified as overhead

construction and underground cable construction.
The details discussion of overhead and underground system has been discussed in
previous chapter.
6.3.3 According to Method of Connection :

According to method of connections distribution system is classified as :

a) Radial system
b) Ring main system
c) Interconnected system.
(a) Radial system :
• Fig. 6.3.2 (a) shows the simple arrangement
for radial distribution system.
• In this system separate feeder radiates from
the substation to each area and it feeds the
distributor at one end only.
• This is the simplest design of distribution
system and has the lowest initial cost.
Fig. 6.3.2(a) : Radial
system

• This system is used where the power transferred is low and the distance between
substation and load is less.
• Radial system has following disadvantages :
 • Less reliability : As the consumers are fed by single radial feeder only,
therefore fault on the feeder or distributor causes complete shut down
of the consumers who are on the other side of fault.
• The part of the distributor near to feeder is heavily loaded.
• Consumer away from the feeding point suffers from poor voltage
regulation. Also he is subjected to voltage fluctuations.
Owing to above disadvantages this system is used only for short distances.

(b) Ring main system :

• This consists of interconnection of primary of different distribution transformers
which form a loop through the area to be supplied.

Fig. 6.3.2(b) : Ring main system

• The feeder is closed on itself. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.3.2(b) where
the feeder ABCDA forms a complete ring. The distributors are connected at A, B,
C, D as shown.
• This arrangement is similar to two feeders in parallel on different routes.
• The advantage of such arrangement is that :
• It offers a greater reliability of supply.
• In the event of a fault on any section of the feeder, say at ‘x’ the supply to
all consumers can continue to be available by isolating the faulty section
between ‘B’ and ‘C’.
• There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminal.
(c) Interconnected system :
• Fig. 6.3.2(c) shows the single line diagram of interconnected system where the
closed feeder ring LMNOPQRSL is supplied by substation A and B at points L
and P.

Fig. 6.3.2(c) : Interconnected system

• When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two substations then it is
called as interconnected system.
• It has following advantages :
• It offers a greater reliability of supply.
• It reduces reserve power capacity and increases efficiency.

6.4 Requirements of Good Distribution System :

There are certain requirements of distribution system to provide the continuous

electrical energy to consumer with minimum fluctuations.
These requirements are as follows :
1) Low voltage fluctuations :
The variations of consumer’s terminal voltage should be a low as possible. This
variation should be within  6% of the rated voltage at the consumer’s terminal. If the voltage
variation goes beyond this limit, certain equipments may damage.
Low voltage causes more current from supply which may cause burning of motors.
Also, low voltage causes insufficient output of lighting load.
High voltage may cause failure of certain appliances as well as may damage the
insulation of various apparatus.
2) Availability of power on demand :
As electrical energy cannot be stored, therefore it should be supplied whenever there is
requirement by the consumer. To maintain the continuity and to fulfill the requirement of
electrical power, previous load curve should be studied by supply authorities and should
predict the future demand.
3) Reliability :
Reliability is very important factor ; because everywhere electrical energy is used (such
as industries, commercial complexes; irrigation purpose, domestic appliances etc.
Therefore supply authority should provide electrical power with good quality and
continuously.
4) Stability :
Fault on the neighbouring system should not affect the stability of distribution system.
Stability and reliability can be improved by interconnected system, automatic switch gear
system etc.

6.5 Design Considerations :

Design of feeders and distributors requires careful consideration to fulfill above

requirements.
Design consideration for feeder :
(1) Current carrying capacity :
As there are no tappings provided on the feeder, it’s current remains same throughout its
length. Hence while designing the feeder, current carrying capacity is the most important
factor.
The current carrying capacity indicates the cross sectional area required by the
conductor. Further it gives the weight of conductor and required supporting structure.
(2) Type of conductor :
There are different types of materials which can be used as conductor for distribution
system. The type of material depends on the service provided. (i.e. rural area or urban area).
Generally for urban and suburban areas, A.C.S.R conductor is used as a feeder and for
rural areas galvanized steel is used because of small power transmission over a small distance
and economic considerations.
(3) Distance :
While designing a feeder distance plays a important role because it suggests the total
voltage drop in the feeder by which voltage drop in the feeder can be compensated by means
of voltage regulating equipment at substation.
(4) Cost :
Cost plays an important role to choose the type of construction i.e. overhead or
underground. Generally in the city areas (i.e. thickly populated area) where safety is important
criteria, underground cables are used as feeder.
In rural areas as the cost is main criteria. Therefore overhead conductor is used as
feeder.

6.6 A. C. Distribution Calculations :

• As the electrical energy is generated and transmitted in A.C. form it is economical to

distribute it in the same form.
• A.C. calculations differ from those of d.c. distribution as the total voltage drop in A. C.
system is due to impedance (i.e. resistance and inductance).
• Power factor has to be considered for calculations. As the different loads operate at
different power factor, there are two ways of referring power factor i.e. either referred to
supply or receiving end voltage or referred to the voltage at the load point itself.
(a) Power factor referred to receiving end voltage :
• Fig. 6.6.1 shows a.c. distributor AB fed at
point A. Concentrated loads I1 and I2 are
tapped off at points C and B.
• Taking the receiving end voltage VB as the
reference let the power factors at C and B be
cos 1 and cos 2 w.r.t. VB.
Fig. 6.6.1
• Let impedance of section AC be (R1 + jX1) and that of CB is (R2 + jX2)
• Then,
–→
Impedance of section AC = ZAC = R1 + j X1
–→
Impedance of section CB= ZCB = R2 + j X2
→
Load current at point C = I1 = I1 (cos 1 – j sin 1)
→
Load current at point B = I2 = I2 (cos 2 – j sin 2)
–→
Current in section CB = ICB = I2 (cos 2 – j sin 2)
–→ → →
Current in section AC = IAC = I1 + I2
= I1 (cos 1 – j sin 1 ) + I2 (cos 2 – j sin 2)
–→ –→ –→
Voltage drop in section CB = VCB = ICB ZCB
= I2 (cos 2 – j sin 2) (R2 + j X2)
–→ –→
Voltage drop in section AC = IAC  ZAC

= (→I + →I ) Z
2 2 AC

= [I1 (cos 1 – j sin 1) + I2 (cos 2 – j sin 2) ] [R1 + j

X1 ]
–→ –→ –→ –→
Sending end voltage = VA= VB + VCB + VAC
→ → →
Sending end current = IA = I1 + I2

Fig. 6.6.2
(b) Power factor referred to respective voltages :

If the power factors are referred to previous Fig. 6.6.3 and now referred to their
respective load voltages, then 1 is the phase angle between VC and I1 and 2 is phase angle
between VB and I2.

Fig. 6.6.3
→ –→
Voltage drop in section CB = I2  ZCB = I2 (cos 2 – j sin 1) (R2 + j X2)
→
Voltage at point C = VB + Drop in section CB = VC  .
→
Now I1 = I1  – 1 w.r.t. VC
→
I1 = I1  – (1 – ) w.r.t. voltage VB
→
i.e. I1 = I1 [cos (1 – ) – j sin (1 – ) ]
–→ → →
Now IAC = I1 + I2
= I1 [cos (1 – ) – j sin (1 – ) ] + I2 (cos 2 – j
sin 2)
–→ –→
Voltage drop in section AC = IAC ZAC
Voltage at point A = V B + Drop in CB + Drop in AC.

6.7 Solved Examples :

Ex. 6.7.1 : A single phase A. C. distributor AB 300 meters long is fed from end A and
loaded as under :
i) 100 A at 0.707 p.f. lagging 200 m from point A.
ii) 200 A at 0.8 p.f. lagging 300 m from point A.
The load resistances and reactances of distributor is 0.2  and 0.1  per
kilometre. Calculate the total voltage drop in the distributor. The load power
factors refer to the voltage at the far end.
Soln. :

• Impedance of distributor per km is (0.2 + j 0.1) 

–→
• Impedance of section AC = ZAC = (0.2 + j 0.1)  200 / 1000
= (0.04 + j 0.02) 
–→
• Impedance of section CB = ZCB = (0.2 + j 0.1)  100 / 1000
= (0.02 + j 0.01) 
 Fig. P. 6.7.1
→
• Load current at point B = I2 = I2 (cos 2 – j sin 2)
= 200 (0.8 – j 0.6)
= (160 – j 120) A
→
• Load current at point C = I1 = I1 (cos 1 – j sin 1)
= 100 (0.707 – j 0.707)
= (70.7 – j70.7) A
–→ →
• Current in section CB = ICB = I2
–→ → →
• Current in section AC = IAC = I1 + I2
=(70.7 – j 70.7) + (160 – j120)
=(230.7 – j 190.7) A.
–→ –→ –→
• Voltage drop in section CB = VCB = ICB ZCB

=(160 – j120) (0.02 + j 0.01)

=(4.4 – j 0.8) volts.
–→ –→ –→
• Voltage drop in section AC = VAC = IAC ZAC

=(230.7 – j190.7) (0.04 + j 0.02)

=(13.04 – j3.01) volts.
–→ –→
• Voltage drop in the distributor = VAC + VCB

= (13.04 – j3.01) + (4.4 – j0.8)

= (17.44 – j3.81) volts.
2 2
Magnitude of voltage drop = (17.44) + (3.81)
Voltage drop = 17.85 V
…Ans.

Ex. 6.7.2 : A single phase two wire distributor AC has loaded as follows :
1. 120 Amp. at 0.8 p.f. lag at point C.
2. 60 Amp. at 0.8 p.f. lag at point B.
The impedance AB is (0.04 + j0.08)  and that of BC is (0.08 + j0.012) . If the
voltage at the far end C is to be maintained at 450 V, determine the voltage at A
and B.
Soln. :

Fig. P. 6.7.2
• Impedance of section AB, Z1 = (0.04 + j0.08). Impedance of section BC,
Z2 = (0.08 + j 0.12) .
• For calculation purpose refer the power factors of currents at load points B and C are to
receiving end voltage at C, VC.
→
• Current in section BC = I2 = 120 (0.8 – j0.6)
= (96 – j72)A
→ →
• Current in section AB = I1 + I2 = 60 (0.8 – j 0.6) + 120 (0.8 – j0.6)
= (144 – j 108)A
→→
• Voltage drop in section BC = I1 I2 = (96 – j72) (0.08 + j 0.12)
= (16.32 + j 5.76) Volts
–––→ –→
• Voltage drop in section AB = (I1 + I2) Z1
= (144 – j 108) (0.04 + j 0.08)
= (14.4 + j 7.2) Volts
–→ –→ ––→
• Voltage at B, VB = VC + I2 Z2
= (450 + j 0) + (16.32 + j 5.76)
= 456.32 + j 5.76
= 416.32  0.7076 Volts
…Ans.
–→ –→ –––→ –→
• Voltage at supply end A, VA = VB + (I1 + I2) Z1
= (466.32 + j 5.76) + (14.4 + j 7.2)
= 490.72 + j 12.96
= 490.89  1.51 Volts
…Ans.

Ex. 6.7.3 : A two core cable having resistance and reactance of 0.25  and 0.125  per 1
km of cable run respectively; is loaded as shown in Fig. P. 6.7.3. If the voltage at
point D is to be maintained as
400 V, determine voltage at point A.

Fig. P. 6.7.3

Soln. :
• Assuming all power factors referred to far-end voltage VD.
• The impedance of cable = (0.25 + j 0.125)  per 1000 meters
100
• Impedance of section AB = Z1 = (0.25 + j 0.125)  1000

= (0.025 + j 0.0125) 
 150
• Impedance of section BC = Z2 = (0.25 + j 0.125)  1000

= (0.0375 + j 0.01875) 
• Similarly impedance of section CD is Z3 = (0.0375 + j 0.01875) 
→
• Load current I1 = 50 (0.8 – j 0.6) = (40 – j 30) A
→
I2 = 20 (0.5 – j 0.866) = (10 – j 17.32) A
→
I3 = 40 (1.0 – j 0) = (40 – j 0) A
• Considering voltage at D as referrence
–→
VD = 400 + j 0
–→ –→ →→
• Voltage at C, VC = VD + I3 Z3
= (400 + j 0) + (40 – j 0) (0.0375 + j 0.01875)
= (401.5 + j 0.75) V
–→ –→ → → →
• Voltage at B = VB = VC + ( I2 + I3 ) Z2
= (401.5 + j 0.75) + [(10 – j 17.32) + (40 – j 0)] (0.0375 + j 0.01875)
= (403.7 + j 1.038) Volts
–→ –→ → → → →
• Voltage at A = VA = VB + ( I1 + I2 + I3 ) Z1
= (403.7 + j 1.038) + [(40 – j 30) + (10 – j 17.32) + (40 – j 0)]  (0.025 + j
0.0125)
= (403.7 + j 1.038) + [(90 – j 47.32) (0.025 + j 0.0125)]
= 406.542 + j 0.98
= 406.542  0.14 Volts …Ans.