UNIT 3 - WAVES

Specification Point 3.1: Use the following units: degree (°), hertz (Hz), metre (m), metre/second (m/s) and
second (s)

The units for: angle = degree (°); frequency = hertz (Hz); wavelength = metre (m); velocity = metre/second
(m/s); time = second (s)

Specification Point 3.2: Explain the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves
Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

 Waves can exist as one of two types:

o Transverse
o Longitudinal

Transverse Waves

 Transverse waves are defined as: Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to the
direction of energy transfer.

 For a transverse wave:

o The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion.
o They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium.
o Transverse waves can move in a liquid or solid, but not a gas.
o Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in a vacuum.

 The point on the wave that is:

o The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest.
o The lowest below the rest position is called the trough.

Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down

 Examples of transverse waves are:

o Ripples on the surface of water.
o Vibrations in a guitar string.
o S-waves (a type of seismic wave).
o Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc).

Longitudinal Waves

 Longitudinal waves are defined as: Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the
direction of energy transfer.
 For a longitudinal wave:
o The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion.
o They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium.
o They can move in solids, liquids and gases.
o They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles).

 The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:
o Close together, called compressions.
o Spaced apart, called rarefactions.

Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly backwards and forwards

 Examples of longitudinal waves are:

o Sound waves.
o P-waves (a type of seismic wave).
o Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas.

 Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is moving parallel to the
direction of energy transfer.
o Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions.
o Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions.

Longitudinal waves are represented as sets of lines with rarefactions and compressions

Comparing Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

 Wave vibrations can be shown on ropes (transverse) and springs (longitudinal).

 Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

 The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the table:

Transverse Waves vs Longitudinal Waves Table

Specification Point 3.3: Know the definitions of amplitude, wavefront, frequency, wavelength and period of a
wave
Describing Wave Motion

 When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to know, including:
o Amplitude
o Wavelength
o Frequency
o Time Period
o Wavefront
Amplitude
 Amplitude is defined as: The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave.
 It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m).
 Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed position.

Wavelength
 Wavelength is defined as: The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave.
 In a transverse wave:
o The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak.
 In a longitudinal wave.
o The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the centre of the next.

 The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m).
 The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram.

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

Frequency
 Frequency is defined as: The number of waves passing a point in a second.
 Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz).

Time Period
 The time period (or sometimes just ‘period‘) of a wave is defined as: The time taken for a single wave to
pass a point.
 The time period is given the symbol T and is measured in seconds (s)

Wavefront

 Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is used to represent a single
wave.
 The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
o The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes called a ray.
o The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength.
o When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with a short wavelength.
o When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with a long wavelength.
 Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts

Specification Point 3.4: Know that waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter

 Waves transfer energy and information.

 Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point.
o For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down.
o Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth.
 In all cases, waves transfer energy without transferring matter.

 Objects floating on water provide evidence that waves only transfer energy and information and not matter.

Waves transfer energy and information, but not matter. This toy duck bobs up and down as water waves pass
underneath

 The type of wave on the surface of a body of water is a transverse wave.

o This is because the duck is moving perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
 The plastic duck moves up and down but does not travel with the wave.
 All waves transfer energy, but they do not transfer the particles of the medium.
o This means when a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it, the points on the wave
just vibrate back and forth about fixed positions.
 Objects floating on water, like the toy duck, simply bob up and down when waves pass under them,
demonstrating that there is no movement of matter in the direction of the wave, only energy.

Exam Tip:
Exam questions may ask you to describe waves and this is most easily done by drawing a diagram of the wave
and then describing the parts of the wave – a good, clearly labelled diagram can earn you full marks!
You may also be asked to give further examples of transverse or longitudinal waves – so memorise the lists given
here!
Specification Point 3.5: Know and use the relationship between the speed, frequency and wavelength of a
wave

 All waves obey the wave equation, which is used to calculate the wave speed:
 Where:
o v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
o f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
o λ = wavelength in metres (m)

 The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done using this formula triangle:

Specification Point 3.6: Use the relationship between frequency and time period:
frequency = 1 / time period
f=1/T
Frequency & Time Period

 The equation which relates the frequency of a wave to its time period is:

 Where:
o T = time period, measured in seconds (s)
o f = frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz)

Specification Point 3.7: Use the above relationships in different contexts including sound waves and
electromagnetic waves

 The wave equation can be applied and rearranged to calculate properties of waves, such as:
o wave speed
o frequency
o time period
 The wave equation applies to all types of waves, including sound waves and electromagnetic waves.

Exam Tip
 When stating equations make sure you use the right letters:
For example, use λ for wavelength, not L or W
 If you can’t remember the correct letters, then just state the word equations.
 Be careful with units: wavelength is usually measured in metres and speed in m/s, but if the wavelength is
given in cm you might have to give the speed in cm/s.
 Likewise, watch out for frequency given in kHz: 1 kHz = 1000 Hz.
 Specification Point 3.8: Explain why there is a change in the observed frequency and wavelength of a wave
when its source is moving relative to an observer, and that this is known as the Doppler effect

 The Doppler Effect is defined as:

The apparent change in wavelength and frequency of a wave emitted by a moving source.

 This effect can be observed in a variety of scenarios whenever sources of waves move:
o The frequency of the sound waves emitted by ambulance or police sirens goes from a high pitch to a low pitch as
the vehicle whizzes past.
o Galaxies in outer space emit electromagnetic radiation – light waves – which appear to be redder than normal
because the stars are moving away from us.

Explaining the Doppler Effect

 Usually, when a stationary object emits waves, the waves spread out symmetrically.

This stationary police car emits sound from the siren and the waves spread out symmetrically

 If the object emitting waves begins to move, the waves can get squashed together at one end of the object,
and stretched at the other end.

To an observer in front of the moving car, the wavelength appears to be smaller because they squash together.
To an observer behind the moving car, the waves appear to stretch out

 The waves at the front of the moving vehicle appear to be squashed together:
o This means the wavelength decreases (and the frequency of the waves increases).
 The waves behind the moving vehicle appear to be stretched out:
o This means the wavelength increases (and the frequency of the waves decreases).
 Exam Tip:
 Remember that the Doppler Effect is an apparent change in wavelength and frequency and that this only
happens because a wave emitter is moving away from or towards an observer.
 Because the speed of the waves emitted stays constant, if the wavelength of the wave appears to decrease,
this must mean the frequency appears to increase, and vice versa.
Specification Point 3.9: Explain that all waves can be reflected and refracted

 All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can be reflected and refracted.

 Reflection occurs when:

A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but instead stays in the original
medium.

A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and undergoes a change in direction.

Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different densities
Specification Point 3.10: Know that light is part of a continuous electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio,
microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma ray radiations and that all these waves travel at the
same speed in free space.
Specification Point 3.11: Know the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of decreasing wavelength and
increasing frequency, including the colours of the visible spectrum.

 Electromagnetic waves are defined as:

Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber

 All electromagnetic waves share the following properties:

o They are all transverse.

o They can all travel through a vacuum.

o They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum.

 There are 7 types of electromagnetic waves, which all together form a continuous spectrum.

 The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on the wavelengths or frequencies
 This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest frequency) to shortest wavelength
(highest frequency).
 Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum

 The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation.
 Radiation with higher energy is:
o Highly ionising.
o Harmful to cells and tissues causing cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays).
 Radiation with lower energy is:
o Useful for communications.
o Less harmful to humans.

Visible Light

 Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths which are visible to humans.
 Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye.
o However, it only takes up 0.0035% of the whole electromagnetic spectrum.
o In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are able to perceive beyond visible light
and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths of light.

 Each colour within the visible light spectrum corresponds to a narrow band of wavelength and frequency
 The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:
o Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency and energy).
o Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency and energy).

 Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, this means that:

o An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency (towards the red end of the spectrum).
o A decrease in wavelength is an increase in frequency (towards the violet end of the spectrum).

Remember:

 Radios are big (long wavelength).

 Gamma rays are emitted from atoms which are very small (short wavelength).
 Specification Point 3.12: Explain some of the uses of electromagnetic radiations, including:
 radio waves: broadcasting and communications
 microwaves: cooking and satellite transmissions
 infrared: heaters and night vision equipment
 visible light: optical fibres and photography
 ultraviolet: fluorescent lamps
 x-rays: observing the internal structure of objects and materials, including for medical applications
 gamma rays: sterilising food and medical equipment.

Electromagnetic waves have a large number of uses. The main ones are summarised in the table below.

Specification Point 3.13: Explain the detrimental effects of excessive exposure of the human body to
electromagnetic waves, including:
microwaves: internal heating of body tissue
infrared: skin burns
ultraviolet: damage to surface cells and blindness
gamma rays: cancer, mutation and describe simple protective measures against the risks

 In general, electromagnetic waves get more and more dangerous the shorter their wavelength: Radio waves have
no known harmful effects whilst gamma rays can cause cancer and are regarded as extremely dangerous.
 The main risks associated with electromagnetic waves are summarised below:
 Specification Point 3.14: Know that light waves are transverse waves and that they can be reflected and
refracted

 Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum which means it is a transverse wave.
o This means the direction the light particles vibrate is perpendicular to the direction of the energy transfer.
o This means the direction the light particles vibrate is perpendicular to the direction of the energy transfer.

Light waves are transverse: the particles vibrate in a perpendicular direction to the energy transfer

 Light can undergo:

o Reflection
o Refraction
 All waves in the electromagnetic spectrum can be reflected and refracted.

Sound

 Sound waves are vibrations of air molecules.

 When a sound wave comes into contact with a solid those vibrations can be transferred to the solid.
o For example, sound waves can cause a drinking glass to vibrate.
o If the glass vibrates too much the movement causes the glass to shatter.

 Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

o This means the direction the light particles vibrate is parallel to the direction of the energy transfer
 Hence, it consists of:
o Compressions – regions of higher density
o Rarefactions – regions of lower density

Sound waves are longitudinal: the particles vibrate in the same direction as the energy transfer

 Sound can also undergo:

o Reflection
o Refraction
 The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo.

Specification Point 3.15: Use the law of reflection (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection)

 Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the boundary.
o The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i).
o The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r).
 The angles are the same, so the law of reflection can be written:

Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)

Angle of incidence and angle of reflection

Specification Point 3.16: Draw ray diagrams to illustrate reflection and refraction

Reflection Ray Diagrams:

 Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the boundary.
o The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i).
o The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r).
 The law of reflection states that these angles are the same.

Reflection of a wave at a mirror

 When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling.
o An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary.
o A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary.
 The angles of incidence and reflection are usually labelled i and r respectively and measured from the normal.

Refraction Ray Diagrams:

 Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different transparent media.
 At the boundary, the rays of light undergo a change in direction.
 The direction is taken as the angle from a hypothetical line called the normal.
o This line is perpendicular to the surface of the boundaries and is usually represented by a straight dashed or dotted
line.

 The change in direction depends on the difference in density between the two media:
o From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the normal.
o From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the normal.
o When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all.

How to construct a ray diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a rectangular block

 The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in different substances.
o When light passes into a denser substance the rays will slow down, hence they bend towards the normal.

 The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength – the frequency of waves does not
change.
o Different frequencies account for different colours of light (red has a low frequency, whilst blue has a high
frequency).
o When light refracts, it does not change colour (think of a pencil in a glass of water), therefore, the frequency does
not change.

Exam Tip
When drawing ray diagrams for reflection:
1. A simple straight line with an arrow is enough to represent the wave.
2. You do not need to draw the wavefronts unless asked to do so! Take care to draw the angle correctly.
If it is slightly out it won’t be a problem, but if there is an obvious difference between the angle of incidence and
the angle of reflection then you will probably lose a mark!
Practice drawing refraction diagrams as much as you can! It’s very important to remember which way the light
bends when it crosses a boundary:
As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line.
Remember: Enters Towards
When it leaves the block, it bends away from the normal line.
Remember: Leaves Away
Don’t forget to draw the arrows for the direction of the light rays and make sure they are drawn with a ruler and a
sharp pointed pencil.

Specification Point 3.17: Practical: Investigate the refraction of light, using rectangular blocks, semi-
circular blocks and triangular prisms
Aim of the Experiment

 To investigate the refraction of light using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and triangular
prisms

Variables

 Independent variable = shape of the block

 Dependent variable = direction of refraction
 Control variables:
o Width of the light beam
o Same frequency/wavelength of the light

Equipment List
Method

Apparatus to investigate refraction

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the rectangular perspex block
using a pencil.
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block.
3. Mark on the paper:
o A point on the ray close to the ray box.
o The point where the ray enters the block.
o The point where the ray exits the block.
o A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block.
4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the points are.
5. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines.
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the block at a
different angle.
7. Repeat the procedure for each shape of Perspex block (prism and semi-circular).

Analysis of Results

 Compare the different refraction patterns for each block

Summary of the refraction patterns seen in different shaped blocks

 i and r are always measured from the normal.

  For light rays entering Perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central line:

i>r

 For light rays exiting the Perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the central line:

i<r

 When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray does not refract, it passes
straight through the block:

i=r

 If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should follow the pattern, as shown below:

How to measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

 An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly

o Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines

Random Errors:

 The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked.
o Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam.
 The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately.
o Use a protractor with a higher resolution.

Safety Considerations

 The ray box light could cause burns if touched.

o Run burns under cold running water for at least five minutes.
 Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes.
o Avoid looking directly at the light.
o Stand behind the ray box during the experiment.
 Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper.

Specification Point 3.18:Know and use the relationship between refractive index, angle of incidence and
angle of refraction:
n = sin i / sin r
 Snell's Law

 When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the normal.
o How much the light bends depends on the density of the material.

Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block

 If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass),

r < i (bends towards the normal)

 If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air),

r > i (bends away from the normal)

 The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell’s Law:

 Where:
o n = the refractive index of the material
o i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
o r = angle of refraction of the light (°)

 ‘Sin’ is the trigonometric function ‘sine’ which is on a scientific calculator.

 This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:

Snell’s law formula triangle

 The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the material (which is always
less than the speed of light in a vacuum):
  The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for different materials.
o Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, eg. n is about 2.4 for
diamond.
o Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is about 1.5 for
glass.

 Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units.

Exam Tip:
 Important: (sin i / sin r) is not the same as (i / r). Incorrectly cancelling the sin terms is a very
common mistake!
 When calculating the value of i or r start by calculating the value of sin i or sin r.
 You can then use the inverse sin function (sin–1 on most calculators by pressing ‘shift’ then
‘sine’) to find the angle.
 One way to remember which way around i and r are in the fraction is remembering that ‘i’
comes before ‘r’ in the alphabet, and therefore is on the top of the fraction (whilst r is on the
bottom).
Specification Point 3.19: Practical: investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block.
Core Practical: Investigating Snell's Law
Aim of the Experiment:

 To investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block.

Variables

 Independent variable = angle of incidence, i

 Dependent variable = angle of refraction , r
 Control variables:
o Use of the same perspex block
o Width of the light beam
o Same frequency / wavelength of the light

Equipment List

 Ray box
 Protractor
 Sheet of paper
 Pencil
 Ruler
 Perspex rectangular block

Resolution of measuring equipment:

o Protractor = 1°
o Ruler = 1 mm

Method
 Apparatus set-up to investigate Snell’s Law

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block using a pencil.
2. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block.
3. Use a protractor to measure the angles of incidence to be studied and mark these lines on the paper.
4. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block at the first angle to be
investigated.
5. Mark on the paper:
o A point on the ray close to the ray box.
o The point where the ray enters the block.
o The point where the ray exits the block.
o A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block.
6. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines.
7. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a rays striking the block at the
next angle.

 An example table of results might look like this:

Analysis of Results

 If the angles have been measured correctly, the paper should end up looking like this:

The angles of incidence and refraction are related by Snell’s Law:

  Where:
o n = refractive index of the material
o i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
o r = angle of refraction of the light (°)

 Plot a graph of sin i on the y-axis against sin r on the x-axis

o The refractive index is equal to the gradient of the graph.
 An example graph might look like this:

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

 An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly.

o Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines.

Random Error

 The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
o Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam.
 The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
o Use a protractor with a higher resolution.

Safety Considerations

 The ray box light could cause burns if touched.

o Run burns under cold running water for at least five minutes.
 Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes.
o Avoid looking directly at the light.
o Stand behind the ray box during the experiment.
 Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper.

Specification Point 3.20: Describe the role of total internal reflection in transmitting information along optical
fibres and in prisms

 Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, instead of being refracted,
all of the light is reflected.
o This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

 Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:

The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident material is denser than the second
material.

 Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:

o The angle of incidence > the critical angle.
o The incident material is denser than the second material.

Critical angle and total internal reflection

 Total internal reflection is utilised in:

o Optical fibres e.g., endoscopes.
o Prisms e.g., periscopes.

Optical Fibres

 Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they can be used for
o Communications
o Endoscopes
o Decorative lamps
o Safety reflectors on bicycles, cars and roads

 Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits the edge of the fibre.

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

 Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body
 Endoscopes utilise total internal reflection to see inside a patient’s body

Prisms

 Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:

o Periscopes
o Binoculars
o Telescopes
o Cameras

 A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects.

o It consists of two right-angled prisms.
 The light totally internally reflects in both prisms.

Exam Tip

If asked to name the phenomena make sure you give the whole name – total internal reflection.

Remember: total internal reflection occurs when going from a denser material to less dense material and ALL of the
light is reflected.

If asked to give an example of a use of total internal reflection, first state the name of the object that causes the
reflection (e.g., a right-angled prism) and then name the device in which it is used (e.g., a periscope).

Specification Point 3.21: Explain the meaning of critical angle c

Specification Point 3.22: Know and use the relationship between critical angle and refractive index:
sin c = 1 / n
 As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until it gets closer to 90°.
 When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the boundary.
o At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c.

As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually surplus the critical angle and lead to total internal reflection
of the light

 When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is now reflected.
o This is total internal reflection.

Exam Tip

If you are asked to explain what is meant by the critical angle in an exam, you can be sure to gain full marks by
drawing and labelling the same diagram above (showing the three semi-circular blocks)

Calculating Critical Angle

 The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n

 The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:

 This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:

 This equation shows that:

o The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle.
o Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to be totally internally reflected.

Exam Tip

When calculating the value of the critical angle using the above equation:
 First use the refractive index, n, to find sin(c).
 Then use the inverse sin function (sin–1) to find the value of c.

Specification Point 3.23: know that sound waves are longitudinal waves which can be reflected and refracted.
Sound & Oscilloscopes

 An oscilloscope is a device that can be used to study a rapidly changing signal, such as:
o A sound wave
o An alternating current

Oscilloscopes have lots of dials and buttons, but their main purpose is to display and measure changing signals
like sound waves and alternating current

 When a microphone is connected to an oscilloscope, the (longitudinal) sound wave is displayed as though it
were a transverse wave on the screen.
 The time base (like the 'x-axis') is used to measure the time period of the wave.

Pitch

 The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the vibrating source of sound waves.
o If the frequency of vibration is high, the sound wave has a high pitch.
o If the frequency of vibration is low, the sound wave has a low pitch.

The pitch of the sound is related to the frequency of the sound waves
 This image shows two sound waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The red wave has smaller wavelength than the
blue wave hence it has higher frequency and higher pitch

Loudness

 The loudness of a sound is related to the amplitude of the vibrating source of sound waves.
o If the sound is loud, the sound wave has a large amplitude.

This image shows two sound waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The blue wave has twice the amplitude of the
green wave because the blue wave is louder

Range of Human Hearing

 The human ear responds to the vibrations caused by sound waves.

 The frequency range for human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.

The range of human hearing is between 20 – 20 000 Hz. Below 20 Hz is known as infrasound. Above 20 000 Hz is
known as ultrasound

A sound wave is displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen of the oscilloscope. The time base can
be used to measure a full time period of the wave cycle
 The height of the wave (measured from the centre of the screen) is related to the amplitude of the sound.
 The number of entire waves that appear on the screen is related to the frequency of the wave.
o If the frequency of the sound wave increases, more waves are displayed on screen.