Chapter Four

Functions

4.1. Functions

Now, we define a function as a rule.

Definition 4.1. A function ( mapping) f from a non-empty set

A into a non-empty set B is a rule which assign to each element
of A a unique element in B .
The set A is called the domain , and we denote it by D f  A
, and the set B is called the co-domain of f , and we denote it by
CoD f  B .
If f is a function from a set A to a set B , we write
f : A  B . If a  A , then f (a ) is called the image of a in B .
The set Im f  f ( A)   f (a) a  A  R f  B is called the image of
f or the range of f . If f from a non-empty set A into A , then f
is called an operator or a transformation on the set A .

Now, we define a function as a rule.

Definition 4.2. Let A and B be non-empty sets. A function (

mapping) from A to B is a relation f  A  B such that for every
a  A and b1 , b 2  B if (a, b1 )  f and (a , b 2 )  f , then b1  b 2 .
If (a, b )  f , then we write f (a )  b .

To prove that the rule f from a non-empty set A into a non-

empty set B is a well defined function, we let x , y  A such that
x  y , and we prove that f (x )  f ( y ) , that is if the elements in A
are equal, then the images are equal in B , or equivalently , we
let x , y  A such that f (x )  f ( y ) , and we prove that x  y , that is if
the images are not equal in B , then the elements are not equal in
A.

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Example 4.1. The following rules define functions from
into :
1. f (x )  x  1 for all x  . For if x , y  such that x  y , then
x  1  y  1, and hence f (x )  f ( y ) . Thus f is a well-defined
function.
2. f (x )  e x for all x  . For if x , y  , such that x  y , then
e x  e y . Thus f (x )  f ( y ) . Hence f is a well-defined
function.
3. f (x )  sin x for all x  . For if x , y  , such that x  y , then
sin x  sin y . Thus f (x )  f ( y ) . Hence f is a well-defined
function.
4. f (x )  x 2  2 for all x  . For if x , y  , such that x  y ,
then x 2  y 2 , and so x 2  1  y 2  1 . Thus f (x )  f ( y ) . Hence f
is a well-defined function.
5. f (x )  3 x for all x  . For if x , y  , such that f (x )  f ( y ) ,
then 3 x  3 y , and thus x  y . Hence f is a well-defined
function.

Example 4.2. Let A  1, 2,3, 4 and B  a, b , c  . Define a rule f

from A into B by f (1)  b , f (2)  c , f (3)  c and f (4)  b . Then f is a
function, because it assigns to each element in A a unique
element in B . Thus D f  A , CoD f  B and Imf  R f  b , c  .

Example 4.3. Let A  1, 2,3, 4 and B  a, b , c  . Define a rule f

from A into B by f (1)  a, f (1)  b , f (2)  c , f (3)  c and f (4)  b . Then
f is not a function for a  f (1)  f (1)  b .

Example 4.4. Let A  1, 2,3, 4 . Then

1. f  (1, 2), (2,3), (3, 4), (4,1) is a relation on A and also is a
function of A into A . Thus f (1)  2, f (2)  3, f (3)  4 , f (4)  1 ,
and f (f (3))  f (4)  1 .
2. R 2  (1,1), (1, 2), (2,3), (3, 4), (4, 4) is a relation on A , but it is not a
function of A into A , for (1,1)  R 2 , (1, 2)  R 2 , but 1  2 , that is
1 has two images 1 and 2 .

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 3. R 3  (1, 2), (3, 4), (4,1)is a relation on A , but it is not a function
of A into A , for 2  A , but has no image in A , that is 2
does not appear as the first element in any order pair in R 3 .
4. g  (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2) is a relation on A and also is a
function of A into A . Thus f (1)  2, f (2)  2, f (3)  2 , and
f (4)  2 .

Example 4.5.Let A  a, b , c  and B  b ,c , d , e  . Then

1. f  (a, b ), (a, c ), (b , d ), (c , e )  A  B is not a function from A into
B , for (a, b )  f and (a , c )  f , that is f (a )  b , and f (a )  c
which means a has two images b and c , where b  c .
2. g  (a, c ), (b , d ), (c , e ) is a function from A into B . Thus
D g  A and Rang g  g (A )  Im g  c , d , e  .
3. h  (a, b ), (c , d ) is not a function from A into B , for b  A has
no image in B under h .

Definition 4.3. Let f and g be functions defined on the same

domain , that is D f  D g . Then f and g are equal, we write f  g ,
if f (x )  g (x ) for all x  D f  D g .

Example 4.6. Let f (x )  x 2 for all x  1, 2,3 , and g (x )  x 2 for all
x  1, 2,5 . Then f  g , for D f  D g . But if D f  D g  , then f  g .

Definition 4.4. Let A be any set . A function I A  I : A  A

defined by f (x )  x for all x  A is called the identity function.

Definition 4.5. A function f from a set A into a set B is called a

constant function if the element b  B is the image for all the
elements in A , that is f (a )  b for all a  A , and f (A )  b  .

Example 4.7. Let A  a, b , c  and B  b ,c , d , e  . Then the function

f : A  B defined by f (a )  d , f (b )  d , f (c )  d is a constant function
with f (A )  d  .

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Example 4.8. Let A  a, b , c  and B  b ,c , d , e  . Then the function
f : A  B defined by f (a )  d , f (b )  d , f (c )  e is not a constant
function with f (A )  d , e  .

Example 4.9. The function f :  defined by f (x )  4 for all

x  is a constant function with f ( )  4 .
15-5-2023
4.2. Properties of Functions

We have seen that a function f is often regarded as a means of

corresponding to each element of a set A an element in another
set B . We have several questions to ask by this point of view.
For example,
1. If f : A  B , then do two distinct elements of A correspond
to the same element of B under f ?
2. If f : A  B is a function, then does each element of B have
an element of A corresponding to it under f ?

Now, we discuss this questions.

Definition 4.6. A function f from a set A into a set B is called

a one to one or injective if for every x , y  A such that
f (x )  f ( y ) implies that x  y , that is if the images of two
elements are equal, then the elements are equal, or
equivalently, if x  y , then f (x )  f ( y ) , that is that is images of
two different elements are different. If f is a one to one
function, then we write 1  1 .

Example 4.10. Define f :  by the rule f (x )  4x  3 for all

x . Let x , y  such that x  y , then 4x  4 y and hence
4x  3  4 y  3 . Thus f (x )  f ( y ) . Therefore, f is well-defined
function . Next, let f (x )  f ( y ) , that is 4x  3  4 y  3 , and then
4x  4 y . Thus x  y . Therefore, f is one to one function.

Example 4.11. Define f :  by the rule f (x )  x 2 for all x 

. Let x , y  such that x y , then x 2  y 2 . Thus f (x )  f ( y ) .

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Therefore, f is well-defined function . Next, 3,3  , and
f (3)  f (3)  9 , that is the images of two different real numbers 3,3
is the same number 9 . Hence, f is not a one to one fuction.

Example 4.12. Define f :  by the rule f (x )  x 3  2 for all

x  . Let x , y  such that x  y , then x 3  y 3 , and x 3  2  y 3  2 .
Thus f (x )  f ( y ) . Therefore, f is well-defined function . If x  y ,
then x 3  y 3 , and x 3  2  y 3  2 . Hence, f (x )  f ( y ) . Therefore, f is
a 1 1 .

Definition 4.7. A function f from a set A into a set B is called an

onto or surjective if for every element y  B , there is an element
x  A , such that f (x )  y , that is every element of B appears as
the image of at least one element of A . Hence, f is an onto
function if R f  B . If f : A  B is an onto function, then we say f
maps A onto B .

Example 4.13. Let the function f :  defined by

f (x )  4x  3 for all x  . Now, we show that f is an onto
function. Let y CoD f  . Then there exist x  D f  such that
y 3
f (x )  y . Thus 4x  3  y and 4x  y  3 x  . Hence,
4
y 3 y 3
f (x )  f ( )  4( )3 y . Therefore, f is an onto function.
4 4

Example 4.14. Let the function f :  defined by f (x )  x 2 for

all x  . Then f is not an onto function, for the negative
numbers do not appear as the image in range of f . Thus there is
no negative number is the square of a real number.

Example 4.15. Let A  1, 2,3 , and B  4,5 . Define f : A  B by

the rule, f (1)  f (3)  5 and f (2)  4 . Then f is a function and
R f  f (A )  4,5  B . Thus f is onto function. Also, f is not one to
one for 1  3 , and f (1)  f (3)  5 .

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Example 4.16. Let A  1, 2,3, 4 and B  1, 2,3 . Then define a
function f : A  B by f (1)  f (4)  2, f (2)  f (3)  3 . Then
R f  f (A )  2,3  B . Therefore, f is not an onto function.

Example 4.17. Let A  1, 2,3, 4 and B  5, 6, 7 . Then define a

function f : A  B by f (1)  f (4)  6 , f (2)  5 , and f (3)  7 . Then
R f  f (A )  B . Therefore, f is an onto function. Also, f is not 1  1
function.

Definition 4.7. A function f from a set A into a set B is called

bijective if f is one to one and onto, that is if f is injective and
surjective.

Example 4.18. Let A  1, 2,3 and B  5, 6, 7 . Define a function f

by f (1)  6, f (2)  5, and f (3)  7 . Then f is one to one and onto
function. Thus, f is a bijective function.

Example 4.19. (i) If f :  by the rule f (x )  4x  3 for all x 

, then by Example 10, and Example 13, f is one to one and onto
function, that is, f is bijective.
(ii) If f :  by the rule f (x )  x 2 for all x  , then f is not a
one to one and onto function. Thus f is not bijective.

Example 4.20. The identity function is a bijective function.

4.3.Compositions of Relations and Functions

Now, we introduce the composition of relations.

Definition 4.8. Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B , and

S a relation from B to a set C . Then the composition of S and R
is the relation from A to C defined by
S R  (a, c ) There exist b  B such that aRb and bSc   A C

Example 4.21. Let A  a, b  , B  c , d  and C  e , f , g .

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 1. Let R  (a, c ), (b , c ), (b , d ) and S  (c , e ), (d , g ) . Then
S R  (a, e ), (b , e ), (b , g )

2. Let R  (a, c ), (b , c ) and S  (d , e ), (d , f ), (d , g ) . Then

S R ,
The empty relation from A to C , since no b  B does there
exist a  A , and c C such that (a, b )  R , and (b , c )  S .

Example 4.22. Let A  a , b , c  . Consider the relation

R  (a, a ), (a, b ), (a, c ), (b , a )
Then R R  (a, a ), (a, b ), (a, c ), (b , a ), (b , b ), (b , c )  A  A .

Definition 4.9. Let f be a function from a set A to a set B , and

g a function from B to a set C . We define g f , the composition
of g and f by
( g f )(a )  g (f (a ))
for all a  A .
So if a  A , then b  f (a )  B , where, B  D g  CoDf . Then, we
can find g (b )  g (f (a )) C . To see that g f is a function, we let
x , y  A such that x  y . But f is a function, so f (x )  f ( y ) . Also,
we have g is a function. Then g (f (x ))  g (f ( y )) . Therefore,
( g f )(x )  ( g f )( y ) . Hence, g f is a function.

Example 4.23. Let A  a , b , c  , B  1, 2,3 , and C  x , y , z  . Define

f (a )  2, f (b )  3, f (c )  2,
g (1)  x , g (2)  z , g (3)  x .
Then
( g f )(a )  g (f (a ))  g (2)  z ,
( g f )(b )  g (f (b ))  g (3)  x ,
( g f )(c )  g (f (c ))  g (2)  z .

Example 4.24. Let f :  , and g :  be functions defined by

f (x )  x  2, and g (x )  x 2
for all x A . Then
( g f )(x )  g (f (x ))  g (x  2)  (x  2) 2
and

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 (f g )(x )  f ( g (x ))  g (x 2 )  x 2  2
It is clear that, in general f g g f . Also
(f f )(x )  f (f (x ))  f (x  2)  (x  2)  2  x  4
and

( g g )(x )  g ( g (x ))  g (x 2 )  (x 2 ) 2  x 4

We have ( g f )(2)  (2  2) 2  16, and (f g )(2)  2 2  2  6 .

Example 4.25. Let f :A  B be a functions between sets. Then

(I B f )(x )  I B (f (x ))  f (x ) ,
and
(f I A )(x )  f (I A (x ))  f (x ) ,
for all x A . Thus IB f  f , and f IA  f .

Example 4.26. Let e :   , defined by e : x  e x the exponential

function and ln :   , defined by ln : x  ln( x ) the natural
logarithmic functions. Then ln(e x )  x for all x  , and e ln( x )  x
x   . Thus e ln  I , and ln e  I .

Example 4.27. Let f and g be two functions such that:


f :  , defined by f (x )  x
and

g:  , defined by g ( x )  x 2  1
then
( g f )(x )  g (f (x ))  g ( x )  x  1
and
(f g )(x )  f ( g (x ))  f (x 2  1)  x 2  1

Theorem 4.1. Let f be a function from a set A to a set B , and

g a function from B to a set C .
1. If f and g are both one to one (injective) functions, then
g f is a one to one (injective) function.
2. If f and g are both onto (surjective) functions, then g f
is an onto ( surjective) function.

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 3. If f and g are both one to one and onto (bijective)
functions, then g f is a one to one , and onto (bijective)
function.
4. If g f is a one to one and an onto (bijective) function,
then f is a one to one (injective), and g is an onto
(surjective) function.
Proof.
1. Let f and g be both one to one (injective) functions, and
let x , y  A such that ( g f )(x )  ( g f )( y ) , and hence
g (f (x ))  g (f ( y )) . But g is a one to one function . Then
f (x )  f ( y ) . As f is a one to one function, we have x  y .
Therefore, g f is a one to one function.
2. Let f and g be both onto (surjective) functions, and let
c  C . We want to show that there is a  A such that
( g f )(a )  c . Since c  C , and g is onto, there is b  B such
that g (b )  c . Also, b  B , and f is onto, there is a  A such
that f (a )  b . Thus
( g f )(a )  g (f (a ))  g (b )  c .
Therefore, g f is an onto function.

3. It is clear from (1) and (2).

4. Let g f be a one to one and onto function.
(i) Let x , y  A such that f (x )  f ( y ) in B . Then
g (f (x ))  g (f ( y )) in C . Thus ( g f )(x )  ( g f )( y ) . But
g f is bijective and hence one to one. Thus x  y .
(ii) Exercise.

Theorem 4.2. Let A , B , C and D be sets, and let f :A  B ,

g : B  C , and h : C  D be a functions . Then
(h g ) f  h ( g f )
Proof. Two functions are equal if the action on an element in the
domain is the same. If x  A , then
((h g ) f )(x )  (h g )(f (x ))  h ( g (f (x )))  h (( g f )(x ))  (h ( g f ))(x )
Thus
(h g ) f  h ( g f )
4.4. Inverse of a Function

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 Let f : A  B be a function between two sets A and B .
Then the inverse of an element b  B is the set
f 1
(b )  a  A f (a )  b   A
that is f 1 (b ) is the set consists of those elements in A which are
mapped onto b . We read f 1 as f " inverse ".

We notice that f 1 (b ) is a subset of A . In general, f 1 (b )

could consist of more than one element or may be empty set.

If f : A  B is a function between sets, and C B , the we

define the inverse image of C under f is the set
f 1
(C )  x  A f (x ) C   A
Which is called the preimage of C under f . If C  b  , we write,
f 1 (b )  f 1 (a) .

If the function f : A  B is a one to one and onto function,

then for each b  B , then f 1 (b ) consist of a single element in A .
Hence we have a rule that assign to each element b  B a unigue
element f 1 (b ) in A . Therefore, there is a function f 1 : B  A , and
f 1 is called the inverse of the function f . Hence ,
1
f (a )  b  a  f (b )

Example 4.28. Let A  1, 2,3 , and B  a, b , c  . Define a function

f : A  B such that f (1)  c , f (2)  a , and f (3)  b . Then f is a one to
one and onto function. Hence, f 1 : B  A exists and f 1 (a )  2 ,
f 1 (b )  3 , and f 1 (c )  1 . We note that
1
f (1)  c  1  f (c ),
1
f (2)  a  2  f (a ),
1
f (3)  b  3  f (b )

Example 4.29. Let A  1, 2,3 , and B  a, b , c  . Define a function

f : A  B such that f (1)  a , f (2)  a , and f (3)  b . Then f is not a one
to one, and not onto. Thus f 1 : B  A does not exist.

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Example 4.30. Let f :  be defined by f (x )  2x  5 . We want
to find f 1 :  if it is exist. First, we prove that f is a function
and one to one. Let x , y  . Then
x  y  2x  2 y  2x  5  2 y  5  f ( x )  f ( y )
Next, we show that f is onto. So, let b  . Then there is exist an
element x  such that f (x )  b . Hence
b 5
2x  5  b  2x  b  5  x 
2
b 5 b 5
and f (x )  f ( )  2( )  5  b . Therefore, f 1 :  exist. To
2 2
find a formula for f 1 , we set b  f (x )  f 1 (b )  x . Then b  2x  3 ,
and hence x  b  5 . Thus f 1 (b )  b  5 . Replace b by x to get
2 2
x  5
f 1 (x )  .
2

Similarly, if f :  be defined by f (x )  3x  4 , the we can

y 4
show that f 1 (x )  .
3
Example 4.31. Let f :  be defined by f (x )  x 3 . We want to
find f 1 :  if it is exist. First, we prove that f is a function and
one to one. Let x , y  . Then
x  y  x 3  y 3  f (x )  f ( y )

So, let b  . Then there is exist an element x  such that

f (x )  b . Hence x  3 b , and f (x )  f ( 3 b )  ( 3 b )3  b . Thus f is onto.
Therefore, f 1 :  exist. To find a formula for f 1 , we set
b  f (x )  f 1 (b )  x . Then f 1 (x )  3 x .

Example 4.32. Let f : A  x  x  1  be defined by

f (x )  x  1 . First, we prove that f is a function and one to one.
Let x , y  A . Then
x  y  x  1  y  1  x  1  y  1  f (x )  f ( y )
Let b  . Then there is exist an element x A such that f (x )  b .
Hence b  x  1 , and b 2  1  x . Thus
f (x )  f (b 2  1)  b 2  1  1  b 2  b

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So f is onto. Therefore, f 1 exist. To find a formula for f 1
, we
set b  f (x )  f 1 (b )  x . Then f 1 (x )  x 2  1 .

x 2
Example 4.33. Let f :  3   1 be defined by f (x )  .
x 3
Let x , y   3 . Then

f (x )  f ( y )
x 2 y 2
 
x 3 y 3
 (x  2)( y  3)  (x  3)( y  2)
 xy  2 y  3x  6  xy  3 y  2x  6
x  y
Thus f is a function. Next, let
f (x )  f ( y )
x 2 y 2
 
x 3 y 3
 (x  2)( y  3)  (x  3)( y  2)
 xy  2 y  3x  6  xy  3 y  2x  6
x y

Thus f is one to one function.

Now, let Let b   1 . Then there is exist an element x  3
x 2
such that f (x )  b . Thus b
, and hence,
x 3
xb  3b  x  2
 xb  x  3b  2
 x (b  1)  3b  2
3b  2
x 
b 1
and is onto. Therefore, f 1 (x )  3x  2 .
x 1
Example 4.34. Let A  1, 2,3, 4,5 . Definea function f :A  A by
f (1)  4, f (2)  1, f (3)  4, f (4)  2 , and f (5)  4 . Then
f 1 (1)  2 ,
f 1
(2)  4 ,
1
f (3)  ,
f 1
(4)  1, 2,5 ,
1
f (5)  ,
f 1
(1, 2)  2, 4 ,
f 1
(2,3, 4)  4,1,3,5

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Theorem 4.3. Let A , and B be sets, and let f : A  B be a one to
one and onto (bijective) function. Then
1. f 1 : B  A is a one to one and onto (bijective) function.
2. (f 1 )1  f .
3. f 1 f  I A , and f f 1  I B .
Proof.
1. Now, we see that the function f 1 is a one to one (injective)
function. Let u ,v  B such that x  f 1 (u )  f 1 (v ) . Then
u  f (x )  v . Thus f 1 is a one to one (injective) function.
Next, to prove that f 1 is an onto (surjective) function, we
let a  A , then there exists an element b  B such that
f 1 (b )  a . But f is onto, hence for b  B , there is a  A such
that b  f (a ) , that is f 1 (b )  a . Hence f 1 is onto (surjective).
2. We notice that (f 1 )1 : A  B is a function and its domain is
A . Let x  A . By the definition of the inverse of a function,
we have
1 1 1
(f ) (x )  y  x  f ( y )  f (x )  y
Thus, (f 1 )1  f .
3. Let x  A , and let f (x )  y B . Then x  f 1 ( y ) ,
in and
1
(f f )(x )  f 1 (f (x ))  f 1 ( y )  x  I A (x )
1
Thus, f f  I A .
1 1
Similarly, we prove f f  IB . Let y B , and let f (y )  x
in A . Then f (x )  y , and
1 1
(f f )( y )  f (f ( y ))  f (x )  y  I B ( y )

Example 4.35. Let Let A , and B be sets, and let f : A  B , and

g : B  A be functions such that g f  I A . Then
1. g  f 1 is true (see Theorem 4.3 (3)).
2. f is an onto function is false see Theorem 4.1 (4)).
3. f is a one to one function is true see Theorem 4.1 (4)).
4. g is an onto function is true see Theorem 4.1 (4)).
5. g is a one to one function is false see Theorem 4.1 (4)).

Theorem 4.4. Let A , and B be sets, and let f :A  B be a

function. If U  B , and V  B , then

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 1. f 1 (U V )  f 1 (U ) f 1 (V ) .
2. f 1 (U V )  f 1 (U ) f 1 (V ) .
Proof.
1. We show that x  f 1 (U V )  x  f 1
(U ) f 1
(V ) .
1
x f (U V )  f (x ) U V
 f (x ) U  f (x ) V
1 1
 x f (U )  x  f (V )
1 1
 x f (U ) f (V )
1 1 1
2. We show that x f (U V )  x  f (U ) f (V ) .
1
x f (U V )  f (x ) U V
 f (x ) U  f (x ) V
1 1
 x f (U )  x  f (V )
1 1
 x f (U ) f (V )

Theorem 4.5. Let A , and B be sets, and let f : A  B be a

function. If V i i  X , index set be a family of subset of B then
1. f 1 ( V i )  f 1 (V i ) .
i X i X
1 1
2. f ( Vi )  f (V i ) .
i X i X
1
3. f (b )  A .
b B

4. If b , b   B with b  b  , then f 1 (b ) f 1
(b )   .
Proof.
1. We show that x  f 1 ( V i )  x  f 1
(V i ). Then
i X i X
1
x f ( V i )  f (x )  Vi
i X i X

 f (x ) V i , for each i  X
1
 x f (V i ), for each i  X
1
x  f (V i ).
i X
1 1
Thus f ( Vi )  f (V i ) .
i X i X

1 1
2. We show that x f ( Vi )  x  f (V i ). Then
i X i X

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 1
x f ( V i )  f (x )  Vi
i X i X

 f ( x ) V i , for some i  X
1
 x f (V i ), for some i  X
1
x  f (V i ).
i X
1 1
Thus, f ( Vi )  f (V i ) .
i X i X

3) and 4) is a special cases from 1) and 2).

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