Benha University

Faculty Of Engineering (Shoubra)

Electronics And Communications Engineering

CCE304 Measurements and Instrumentations

ELE245 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentations

Lectures 9 : Signal Generators

Dr. Ibtesam Omar

 References

David A. Bell “Electronic instrumentation and measurements”, oxford higher

education/oxford university press, third edition, 2013.

Chapter 13:Signal Generators

 Signal generator
It is one of a class of electronic devices that generates electrical signals
with set properties of amplitude, frequency, and wave shape.

3
 Introduction

▪ The signal generators usually found in electronics laboratories may be

classified as:

o Low-frequency (LF) signal generator

o Function generators.
o Pulse generators
o Radio-frequency (RF) signal generator
o Sweep frequency generators

4
 Low Frequency Signal Generator
Description:

o It is an electronic device that generates electronic signals.

o It is generally used in designing, testing, troubleshooting and
repairing electronic devices.
o It is also known as function generator and test oscillator.

5
 Low-frequency Signal Generators
Wein Bridge Oscillator Circuit:
It gives a low distortion output waveform
with good frequency and amplitude
stability.
➢ Bridge components are R1, R2, R3, R4, C1,& C2
➢ Non-inverting amplifier with R3 and R4

➢ From analysis of Bridge balance at:

R3 R1 C1 1
= + &f=
R4 R2 C2 2𝜋 R1C1R2C2

➢ If R1 = R2 =R & C1 = C2 = C

1
⸫ R3 = 2R4 & f = 2πRC
6
 Wein Bridge Oscillator

▪ Voltage gain of the non-inverting

amplifier is:
R3+R4
A=
R4

▪ R3 = 2R4 ⇛ Av = 3. Amplifier gain

must be slightly greater than this to
sustain (Maintain) oscillations.

To avoid the problem, R3 is split into two

components, R5 and R6, and diodes D1 and
D2 are connected in parallel with R6,

7
 Stabilize the Output Amplitude
▪ When the output amplitude is small ⇛ The voltage drop
across R6 is not large enough to forward bias the diodes.
R5+R6+R4
A=
R4
▪ When the output amplitude is large enough to forward
bias the diodes, ⇛ R6 is short-circuited, and
the gain is reduced to:
R +R
A= 5 4
R4

If (R5 + R4)/ R4 is arranged to be less than 3, large

output oscillations will not be sustained, but small-
Figure 13-2 Including the diode circuit in a Wein amplitude oscillations continue.
bridge oscillator stabilizes the output amplitude
8
by reducing the gain of the amplifier at high
output amplitudes.
 Example

A wein bridge oscillator, as shown in fig. has the following

components: R1 and R2 variable from 500 Ω to 5 kΩ and C1 =
C2 = 300 nF. Calculate the maximum and minimum output
frequencies.
Solution:
𝟏 𝟏
fmin= = = 106 Hz
𝟐𝝅𝑪𝑹max 𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐅𝒙 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
fmax= = = 1.06 kHz
𝟐𝝅𝑪𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒎 𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐅𝒙 𝟓𝟎𝟎

9
 Frequency Range Changing
𝟏
▪ Frequency of oscillations can be altered by adjustment of either R or C. ⇛ f =
𝟐𝛑𝐂𝐑
▪ The frequency range of a Wein bridge oscillator can be changed by
switching capacitor values and maintaining C1 = C2.

10
 Frequency Range Changing

▪ Frequency adjustment within each range is made by adjusting R1,& R2

simultaneously while maintaining R1= R2

11
 Output Controls
▪ The output amplitude of an oscillator may be adjusted by a simple voltage divider
and potentiometer attenuator circuit. Shorting R2 by switch S1, changes the output
voltage range.

12
 Output Controls

• The operational amplifier is connected as a voltage follower (buffer amplifier/unity gain

amplifier) to provide a low output impedance from the signal generator.
Their high input impedance & low
output impedance allow them to interface
effectively between high-impedance sources
& low impedance loads.

13
Example: A 5 V sine wave from a Wein bridge oscillator is applied to the attenuator circuit in
shown Fig. Calculate resistances for R1, R2, and R3 to give output voltage (VR3) ranges of
0 to 0.1V(S1 Open) and 0 to 1V (S1 Closed). The input bias current to the operational
amplifier is IB = 500 nA.
(Assume I3 ≫ IB, Select I3=100μA)
Solution:
S1 Open ⇛ VR3 range 0 to 0.1V
⸪ I3= 100μA
VR3 0.1
⸫ R3= = = 1kΩ (potentiometer)
I3 100 μA

With R1 & R2 in the circuit, VR3 = 0.1 V

⸪ vi = VR1 + VR2 + 0.1
⸫ VR1 + VR2 = 5 ‒ 0.1 = 4.9 V
VR1 + VR2 4.9
⸫ R1+ R2 = = = 49 kΩ
I3 100 μA 14
 Example….Cont.
S1 Closed ⇛ VR3 range 0 to 1V

With R2 switched out of the circuit

VR3 1V
⸫ I 3= = = 1mA
R3 1kΩ

⸪ vi = VR1 + 1V
⸫ VR1 = 5 ‒ 1= 4V
VR1 4V
⸫ R1 = = = 4 kΩ
I3 1mA

⸪ R1+ R2 = 49 kΩ
⸫ R2 = 49 ‒ 4 = 45 kΩ 15
 Block Diagram
▪ An LF signal generator normally consists of :
− sinusoidal oscillator
− sine-to square wave converter
− attenuator output stage.
▪ When required, the square-wave shaping circuit is switched into the system
between the oscillator output and the attenuator input.

Figure 13-5 Block diagram of a sine/square-wave generator. 16

Sinusoidal- or square-wave output is selected at the attenuator input.

 Application

▪ LF signal generator is used as signal

source for an audio amplifier.
▪ A dual-trace oscilloscope is
connected to monitor the input &
output waveforms of the amplifier
under test.
▪ Frequency meter is included to give Figure 13-5 Block diagram of a sine/square-wave generator.
an accurate indication of signal Sinusoidal- or square-wave output is selected at the attenuator
17
input.
frequency.
 Application

▪ Normally, the amplifier is tested for

frequency response and phase shift.

▪ Frequency response determining

amplifier’s ability to maintain
consistent gain regardless of the
signal frequency
Figure 13-5 Block diagram of a sine/square-wave generator.
Sinusoidal- or square-wave output is selected at the attenuator
18
input.
Section Review:
13-1.1 Sketch the circuit of a wein bridge oscillator. Explain the circuit
operation, and write the equations for output frequency and amplifier gain.

Practice Problem:
13-1.1 A Wein bridge oscillator circuit as in has C1 = C2 = 250 nF, and R1 = R2 =
(variable from 200Ω to 3 kΩ). Calculate the maximum and minimum output
frequencies. Determine capacitor value required to give f max= 300 Hz.
Ans: fmin = 212 Hz , fmax = 3.18 kHz, C= 2.7 µF

19
 Function Generators
▪ The usual method of generating both square & triangular waves is to use an
integrator & Schmitt trigger circuit as the following arrange.

A function generator
produces sine, square, and
triangular waveform outputs.

Figure 13-7 A basic function generator circuit consists of an integrator and a Schmitt trigger circuit. The 20
integrator
output is a negative-going ramp voltage when the Schmitt output is positive, and vice versa
 Function Generators
Function:
a) Now assume that a positive input voltage (+v1) is applied to R2. Therefore, all of v1
appears across R2, and a constant current I2 flows through R2, (I2 = v1/R2).

b) Current I2 ≫ input bias current to the op amp. So, all of I2 flows into C1 charging it
with a polarity: + on the left, - on the right.

+V

v2(t) Per. Triangular -V v2(t) Per. square

wave wave

𝟏 21
The equation for a capacitor charging linearly v2(t) = ‫ ׬‬I𝟐 d𝒕
𝑪𝟏
 Function Generators
c) As C1 charges and because its left-hand (+) terminal is at ground level, the op-amp
output voltage decreases linearly.
d) When the polarity of v1 is inverted, I2 is reversed, and C1 commences to charge with
the opposite polarity. This causes the integrator output voltage to reverse direction.

+V

-V
v2(t) Per. Triangular v2(t) Per. square
wave wave

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 Function Generators
➢The frequency of the output waveforms is determined by the time required for C1
to charge from the UTP to the LTP, and vice versa. The equation for a capacitor
charging linearly is: v2(t) = 𝑪𝟏 ‫ ׬‬I𝟐 d𝒕
𝟏

⸫ ∆𝑣 = CI2 t where: ∆𝑣 =UTP‒ LTP

1
UTP−LTP
Time period (T) = 2t = 2C1 ( I2
)
⸫ R1 is a frequency control.
Frequency range is selected by switching different capacitor values into the circuit.

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 Sine Wave Conversion
▪ If diodes D1& D2 and resistors R3 and R4 were not present in the circuit shown R1 and R2
would simply behave as a voltage divider. vo = vi R2
R1+R2
▪ If vR2 exceeds +V1. At this point D1 forward biased,

vo = vi R2//R3
R1+ R2//R3

▪ If vR2 below -V1, ⸫ D2 forward biased

vo = vi R2//R4
R1+ R2//R4

24
With R3 = R4 the negative half-cycle of the output is similar
in shape to the positive half-cycle.
Sine Wave Conversion

25
 Function Generator Block Diagram
▪ The integrator output is fed into the Schmitt trigger and the sine-wave converter.
▪ A switch is provided for selection of sine, triangular, or square waves.

26
Function Generator Performance

27
Review:
13-2.1 Sketch square/triangular-wave generator that uses an
integrator and a Schmitt trigger circuit. Carefully explain its
operation, and discuss how the output frequency may be
adjusted. +V

Practice Problem: -V
13-2.1 The integrator in Fig. has R2 = 5.6 kΩ, and C1 = 0.2 µF.
The Schmitt circuit has ±0.75 V trigger points and the supply voltage is ±15 V, If R1 = 1 kΩ determine the
output frequency when its moving contact is at the center point.
1 1
Ans: v1 = vR1 = (±14) = ±7V
2 2
I2 = VRR2 = Rv1 = 5.6±7kΩ = 1.25 mA
2 2
UTP−LTP 0.75−(−0.75)
T = 2C1 ( ) = 2 x 0.2 µF ( ) = 480µs
I2 1.25 mA 28

f = 1/(T) = 2.08 kHz

 Radio Frequency (RF) Generator
• A radio frequency (RF) signal generator is used in generating high frequency
signals at a specific frequency for testing laboratories. The output frequency may
range for example from about 100 kHz to around 40 GHz.
Component of RF generator:
‒ RF oscillator
‒ Amplifier
‒ Output level meter
‒ Calibrated attenuator

The oscillator circuit that is used in RF

generator is normally either a Colpitts
or Hartley oscillator. 29
 Radio Frequency (RF) Generator
Component of RF generator:
‒ RF oscillator ” Includes a continuous frequency control and a frequency range switch, to set the
output to any desired frequency.”
‒ Amplifier “The amplifier has an output amplitude control. This allows the voltage applied to the
attenuator.”
‒ Output level meter “ It must always be reset to the calibration point each time the frequency
is changed.”
‒ Calibrated attenuator “Displays the correct voltage level from the amplifier.

30
 Oscillator Circuit

• The oscillator circuit used in an RF signal

generator is usually either a Hartley oscillator
or a Colpitts oscillator.

• Each circuit consists of an amplifier and a

phase-shifting feedback network.

• The frequency of oscillations for both circuits

is the resonant frequency of the phase shift
network:
𝟏
f=
2𝝅 LTCT
31
The oscillating frequency of each circuit can be altered by
changing the component values in the phase shift network.
 Example
The Colpitts oscillator circuit in shown fig. has C1 = 150 pf and C2 = 125 pf. Determine the required
inductance value to produce a 1.5 MHz output frequency.
Solution:
C1C2
CT =
C1 + C2
150𝑥125
= =68.18 pf
150+125
𝟏
f=
2𝝅 LCT
𝟏
1.5x106 =
2𝝅 L x 68.18 𝒑𝒇
L= 163 µH
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 Example

For the RF oscillator below determine the frequency,

assuming negligible loading on the feedback circuit.
Solution:
C1C2
CT =
C1 + C2
0.1𝑥0.01
= = 0.0091 µf
0.1+.01

1
f= = 7.46 kHz
2𝜋 50mH x 0.0091µf

33
 Common Features RF Generators
o Many RF generators have features for amplitude modulation (AM) and
frequency modulation (FM) of the output.
o Switches are provided on the front panel to allow the user to select no
modulation in addition to internal or external AM or FM modulation.

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 Block Diagram For RF Signal Generator

➢The whole system is completely

shielded. This shielding is necessary
to prevent:

‒ RF interference between the

components.
‒ Emission of RF energy from any
point with the exception of
output terminals.
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Applications of RF Generators?????

End of Lecture
With Best Wishes