Introduction to

Structural Dynamics of
Buildings and Towers
Lecture by: Engr. Wilbert John Silva
About the lecturer
• Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering in De La Salle University – Dasmarinas,
under SFA Grant
• Master of Science in Civil Engineering, Major in Structural Engineering, in Mapua
University, under DOST-ERDT
• Sustainable engineering; structural engineering; green structures; project
management

• Design, construction, and management of A&E projects, ranging from residential,

to industrial, up to energy facilities, and oil & gas.
Outline
1. Types of Structural Loads
2. Characteristics of Dynamic Loads and Its Applications
3. Dynamic Modeling of Structures
4. Degrees of Freedom
5. The Single Degree of Freedom System
6. Structural Damping
7. Structural Stiffness
8. Introduction to Forced Vibration of Structural System
Types of Structural Loads:
Static Loading
• Our fundamental for structural analysis. Generally,
these are the loads applied to the structure that
we assume to be gradual or constant (without
acceleration or momentum). Best example is self-
weights.
• To some extents, gravity loads such as dead and
live, and environmental such as seismic, wind, and
rain loads are deemed static, assuming it, in a
practical manner, that it is “gradually” applied to
the structure.
• We can also say, although, not always, that static
loading is the simplification of actually a more
complex dynamic loading.
• For static loading, the basic condition that needs to
be satisfied is
• Σ𝐹 = 0
• No “time” is considered in this equilibrium. https://www.reddit.com/r/gifs/comments/bg5p5r/earthquake_resistant_building_model_demonst
ration/#lightbox
Types of Structural Loads:
Dynamic Loading
Dynamic loading is simply the application of loads that varies with time. It
is more “realistic” in the sense that loads applied can be fittingly related
to time.
Instead of static equilibrium, the system is under dynamic equilibrium:

Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
for every instant of time.
Since the system is in dynamic equilibrium, technically-speaking, the
external forces are equalized by the inertial forces
Inertial forces – the force opposite in direction of an accelerating body
(equal to the product of mass and acceleration)

https://www.reddit.com/r/gifs/comments/bg5p5r/earthquake_resistant_building_m
odel_demonstration/#lightbox
Types of Structural Loads:
Dynamic Loading
This is also referred in general, as Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Again, we may recall that acceleration is the second derivative of the
position vector with respect to time, while the first derivative is its
velocity at that point. This is important, as our succeeding processes are
primarily based in this equation.
Conventionally, for plane motion, Newton’s Second Law yields us the
following general equations at planar system:
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑎𝐺 𝑥
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑎𝐺 𝑦
Σ𝑀𝐺 = 𝐼𝐺 ∗ 𝛼
Where: 𝑎𝐺 is the acceleration components along subscript’s axis of
center of mass G; 𝐼𝐺 is the mass moment of inertia, and 𝛼 is the angular
acceleration

https://www.reddit.com/r/gifs/comments/bg5p5r/earthquake_resistant_building_m
odel_demonstration/#lightbox
Types of Structural Loads:
Static vs. Dynamic Loading
Static loading Dynamic loading
F(t) y
F
y u(t), v(t), a(t) x
x F(t=𝑡1 )
u(x)
At t= t1
The static loading F yields fixed reactions, displacements, and
internal forces. u(t= 𝑡1 ), v(t= 𝑡1 ), a(t= 𝑡1 )
Inertial forces
F(t= 𝑡2 )
At t= 𝑡2

u(t= 𝑡1 ), v(t= 𝑡1 ), a(t= 𝑡1 )

Inertial forces

The reactions, displacements, and internal forces are varying to:

dynamic loading F(t) and inertia forces (forces opposite in
direction to an accelerating force acting on a body and equal to
the product of the accelerating force and the mass of the body.
Dynamic Loads
What influences the dynamic loading and system’s
dynamic response?
https://ph.pinterest.com/pin/396246467186558113/
1. Initial conditions (initial position, velocity,
acceleration)
2. Nature of load (live load such as varying foot https://www.flickr.com/photos/pipoyjohn/8707200586

loads, wind patterns, accumulating snow)

3. Movement of supports (earthquake, support
displacements, support rotations)

https://www.geoengineer.org/news/disastrous-retaining-wall-failure-
followed-by-building-collapse-in-turkey
Dynamic Loads
Dynamic loads may be classified based on its
characteristics or “pattern” with time:
1. Periodic (rotating machines, oscillating machines)
2. Non-periodic (impulsive or quick such as
explosion, shock; random such as earthquake)

https://www.geoengineer.org/news/disastrous-retaining-wall-failure-
followed-by-building-collapse-in-turkey

Image from Structural Dynamics by Yong Bai & Zhao Dong Xu

Dynamic Analysis
Why use dynamic analysis?
1. Response. Structure’s response is more accurate than the simplified static Σ𝐹 = 0
analysis (meaning, we can further predict the behavior of our structure at Σ𝐹 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑎
design loads). Non-linear and inelastic limits of systems can also be 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐 𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑡)
performed using dynamic analysis
2. Loading. The impacts of time-varying loads are considered (meaning
loadings such as earthquake, shock loading, explosions, and other quickly
propagating loads are analyzed with more precision). Variable and random
loadings can also be applied (which static analysis only adds a multiplier to
its static equivalent to get approximate dynamic equivalent)
3. Applicability. Dynamic analysis can be used, basically, in all kinds of system
(unlike static analysis, which are generally limited to certain heights and
structure’s regularity). Dynamic analysis is also required for the evaluation
of existing structures.
4. Flexibility. Dynamic analysis can precisely account the system’s damping,
inertia, stiffness, and the system’s excitation (if we have dampers, dynamic Image_from_https://help.solidworks.com/2012/english/so
lidworks/cworks/dynamic_loads.htm
analysis is the best method to account these dampers).
Despite these, what is the catch?
1. Complexity. Dynamic analysis is far more complex to perform than
simplified static analysis
2. Duration. Due to complexity and lengthy calculations, dynamic analysis is
Figure from ASCE 7, Types of Horizontal Irregularities
longer to analyze.
Dynamic Analysis: NSCP 2015 Provisions for
Earthquake Analysis
Static Lateral-Force Procedure MAY be used for: Dynamic Lateral-Force Procedure SHALL be used for:

As extracted from NSCP: Based from US codes:

a. The word “shall” is always mandatory; shall: a term that indicates a provision is a Code requirement.
b. Provisions of sections are mandatory even if the word “shall” is not used; … may: a term that indicates a provision is neither required nor prohibited.
… e. The word “or” indicates that all connected items, conditions, requirements, or events are alternatives, at least one of which shall be satisfied
Dynamic Modeling of Structures: The Lumped
Mass Model
Also called “stick” model
This is the simplification of the structural system, to
represent the mass distribution of structure and its
support’s stiffness
We will limit our discussions and examples on models
of buildings and towers, as dynamic modeling is Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

broad and applied to almost any structures and Singe Degree of Freedom (SDOF)
mechanisms other than these.

https://www.geoengineer.org/news/disastrous-retaining-wall-failure-
followed-by-building-collapse-in-turkey

Image from Simplified Dynamic Analysis of High-Rise Buildings by Hideo Takabatake , Yukihiko
Kitada , Izuru Takewaki , Akiko Kishida

Multiple Degree of Freedom (MDOF)

Dynamic Modeling of Structures: The Lumped
Mass Model
Building – any structure usually enclosed by walls and a roof,
constructed to provide support or shelter for an intended use or
occupancy (NSCP 2015)

Low-rise:
(NSCP 2015; ASCE 7-22)
✓ Mean roof ht <= 18m
Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra
✓ Mean roof ht < least horizontal dimension
Singe Degree of Freedom (SDOF)
(IRR of PD 1096)
✓ 1 to 5 storeys; 3m to 15m from established grade

High-rise (IRR of PD 1096):

✓ 16 storey and taller; 48m and taller from established grade

Medium-rise (IRR of PD 1096):

✓ 6 to 15 storeys; 18m to 45m from established grade
https://www.geoengineer.org/news/disastrous-retaining-wall-failure-
followed-by-building-collapse-in-turkey

Image from Simplified Dynamic Analysis of High-Rise Buildings by Hideo Takabatake , Yukihiko
Kitada , Izuru Takewaki , Akiko Kishida

Multiple Degree of Freedom (MDOF)

Dynamic Modeling of Structures: The Lumped
Mass Model
Tower – one of those nonbuilding structures similar to buildings
(ASCE 7); not typically occupied by person (NSCP 2015). By colloquial
definition, towers are made for specific purpose other than general
habitation.
But additionally, IRR of PD 1096 define “tower” as fully-enclosed
component of building/structure situated between the podium and
roof, which shall not be higher than 5x the podium height
Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Podium – fully-enclosed component of the building/structure Singe Degree of Freedom (SDOF)

situated between established grade and the first of a typical
floor building/structure’s tower component

Structure – assemblage of framing members designed to support

gravity and resist lateral forces; categorized as building or non-
building (NSCP 2015)
Again, additionally by IRR of PD 1096: edifice or building of any kind,
or any piece of work artificially built up or composed of parts joined
together in some definite manner https://www.geoengineer.org/news/disastrous-retaining-wall-failure-
followed-by-building-collapse-in-turkey

*Nowadays, the term “tower” is used synonymously with tall Image from Simplified Dynamic Analysis of High-Rise Buildings by Hideo Takabatake , Yukihiko
buildings, whose height is significantly longer than its width. Kitada , Izuru Takewaki , Akiko Kishida

Multiple Degree of Freedom (MDOF)

Dynamic Modeling of Structures: The Lumped
Mass Model
Degree of Freedom – the number of independent displacements or coordinates
required to define the displaced positions of all the masses relative to their
original position at any time
- this is similar to determination of determinacy of a structure if it is
determinate or indeterminate
- simply put, it is the number of directions the structure can move freely.
- For our example building, the discretized simple masses has its own
independent displacement in every story. Thus, having multiple degrees of Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra
freedom. And in this case, equal to number of levels the building has
Singe Degree of Freedom (SDOF)
Idealizations for Lumped Mass Model:
1. The mass is considered “simple” and is discretized in one point
2. The massless supports (for our case, the columns of the floors) are
converted to equivalent single “stick” that supports the discretized mass in
the lateral direction
3. The supports are inextensible axially
When we convert a structural system to its lumped mass model, we “idealized”
the model.
When we say “discretized”, mathematically, we break down a continuous https://www.geoengineer.org/news/disastrous-retaining-wall-failure-
Image from Simplified Dynamic Analysis of High-Rise Buildings by Hideo Takabatake , Yukihiko
followed-by-building-collapse-in-turkey
functions or models, or equation into easier or more manageable sections. Kitada , Izuru Takewaki , Akiko Kishida

Multiple Degree of Freedom (MDOF)

Dynamic Modeling of Structures:
Simplifying Assumptions
Simplifying Assumptions and Idealizations for Dynamic Analysis
1. Material assumptions –properties are simplified to homogenous (uniform composition at any
point) and isotropic (identical properties in every direction, at any point), while behavior is linear
and elastic
2. Loading assumptions – “simply applied”; some common assumptions are: load is considered
concentrated at a geometric point; and forces are suddenly applied, and external forces follows
the force function throughout the loading duration
3. Geometric assumptions – some of the assumptions for members are: these are to be formed by
unidirectional elements; spatial and planar frames are simplified to two-dimensional or to a
more basic Stick Model; and structures may be analyzed as discrete systems by specifying
locations (or nodes) and directions for displacement (coordinates)

https://www.geoengineer.org/news/disastrous-retaining-wall-failure-
followed-by-building-collapse-in-turkey
Single Degree of Freedom
Components of an SDOF System
1. Applied force – also termed “excitation”, it is the external
force acting to the mass, usually time as independent
variable.
Resisting forces:
2. Spring force – the displacement component. It is
proportional to the displacement of mass. It is the resisting Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra
force of the system’s stiffness (k). In physics, it is the
restoring force and potential energy storage of the structure
Σ𝐹 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑢ሷ
3. Damping force – the velocity component. It is 𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝 𝑡
proportional to the system’s velocity after the applied force.
It is the resisting force of the system’s damping (c). In theory, m*a also Mass-spring-damper System
it represents the frictional characteristics and energy
dissipation of the structure
4. Inertia force – the acceleration component. It is the
relation of the system’s mass to the resulting acceleration. It Image from Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation

is the resisting force of the inertial mass of the system, equal by Mario Paz

to the product of mass and acceleration

Single Degree of Freedom
Components of an SDOF System
• Note that we should be extra careful with our
units, as the nature of our system is a mix of units,
and even system sometimes (US convention and
Metric).
• This serves as one of our “checking” of our work. If
the unit does not correspond to what it is defining, Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

were pretty sure that there’s something wrong

with what we are doing Σ𝐹 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑢ሷ
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝 𝑡

m*a also Mass-spring-damper System

Image from Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation

by Mario Paz
Single Degree of Freedom: Analogy
Components of an SDOF System
1. Applied force – also termed “excitation”, it is the external
force acting to the mass, usually time as independent variable.
F(t)
Resisting forces:
2. Spring force – the displacement component. It is proportional
to the displacement of mass. It is the resisting force of the
system’s stiffness (k). In physics, it is the restoring force and =
potential energy storage of the structure
3. Damping force – the velocity component. It is proportional to Image from Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation
the system’s velocity after the applied force. It is the resisting by Mario Paz

force of the system’s damping (C). In theory, it represents the Images from Dynamics of Structures by
Anil Chopra
frictional characteristics and energy dissipation of the structure
4. Inertia force – the acceleration component. It is the relation
of the system’s mass to the resulting acceleration. It is the
resisting force of the inertial mass of the system, equal to the
product of mass and acceleration
Single Degree of Freedom:
Solution for the SDOF’s Equation of Motion
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝 𝑡
➢In order to define the structure’s dynamic properties and response, we need to
find the solution to the structure’s general equation of motion
➢Any approach for differential equation may be used, but some of the notable for
structural dynamics are:
1. Classical Solution – finding the exact solution using techniques from differential equations
2. Duhamel’s Integral – a special form of the convolution integral; the system’s response to
the applied force p(t), at time, t, is obtained by adding the responses to all impulses up to
that time.
3. Frequency-Domain Method – uses Laplace and Fourier transforms for solutions of
differential equations
4. Numerical Methods – approximation techniques for differential equations. This is the most
practical approach as (1) Real excitations are too complicated to define analytically (the
analytical solution will be very complex); (2) it can be used on any loadings or excitations;
and (3) it can be used even on inelastic behavior of structures, unlike for the first three,
which are analytical
Single Degree of Freedom: Common
Examples

Image from https://blog.bitmex.com/lightning-network-part-4-all-

adopt-the-watchtower/

Image from
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/c
oncrete-water-tower

https://signsofthetimes.com/switching-static-billboard-structures-digital/
 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝 𝑡 𝑘
➢ Now in physics, 𝑚
is a the system’s natural frequency, denoted by
➢ Simplest case of dynamic system, thus we start our study of structural 𝜔𝑛 :
dynamics on this. 𝑣0
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡)
𝜔𝑛
➢ We consider the system, during its motion or vibration, to be free from
external actions and forces - in form of sine function, thus it is periodic (specifically harmonic type of
periodic, since it is again in function of sine).
➢ We also disregard or neglect the inherent frictional force of the
structural system, which counters the motion or “damps” the
movement.
➢ And lastly, the system’s motion is only governed by initial conditions at
time, t=0
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑘𝑢 = 0
𝑢(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑢0
𝑑𝑢
(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑢(𝑡ሶ = 0) = 𝑣0
𝑑𝑡
➢ What we want is to find the solution to this differential equation so
that we can expound the properties of our system. Applying
differential equations and initial boundary conditions mentioned,

𝑘 𝑣0 𝑘
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢0 cos 𝑡 + sin( 𝑡)
𝑚 𝑘 𝑚
𝑚 Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Free Vibration of an Undamped System

Notice that this is also just similar to our study of waves in
advanced physics (such as electromagnetism and acoustics) Since no external forces affects the system, the motion or the
displacement of the structure will not decay
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
• Solution to Free Vibrating Undamped System (applying our methods from 𝑣0
differential equations) 𝑢 = 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡)
𝑣0 𝜔𝑛
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡)
𝜔𝑛
• Applying trigonometric relations, we can also rewrite the solution to: Media_from_https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Mass_Spring_System_
𝑢 = 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝛼 Undamped_case_Simple_harmonic_motion.gif

Where: 𝑢= displacement or position at time t

𝑢0= initial displacement (𝑢 at t = 0)
𝜔𝑛 = natural frequency
𝑡= time, defining the position
𝑣0 = initial velocity (𝑢ሶ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0)
𝑣 2
𝐶= amplitude of motion, 𝑢02 + 𝜔0
𝑛

𝛼= ratio of initial boundary condition’s displacement and

velocity components.

Free vibration – the structure is said to be in free vibration when it is disturbed from
static equilibrium and then allowed to vibrate or oscillate without any external dynamic
excitation
• want the structure to yield lesser deflections? we may increase the stiffness, or we Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra
may decrease the mass

Free Vibration of an Undamped System

 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
• Angular natural frequency, 𝜔𝑛 𝑣0
𝑢 = 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡)
- also “circular natural” frequency or simply “angular” frequency, it is the rate at which 𝜔𝑛
an object oscillates back and forth around a stable equilibrium position. For me, I
personally describe it as “how many radians are covered per second elapsed” or it is the
“scaling” of the variable, t inside the sine function
𝑘
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
Where: 𝜔𝑛 = angular natural frequency, rad/s
k = stiffness of the system, N/m (lb/in)
m = mass of the system, kg (lb)
- notice the graph of SHM, showing the formula for period T (which will be discussed
later). The smaller the angular frequency is, the larger the time between initial position,
to deflected position, and then back to its initial position. This means that low frequency
structures have slower oscillations against time (x axis)
- based on the formula, we can manipulate the structure’s frequency by controlling the
structure’s stiffness and mass.
- by inspecting also the general formula for displacement, we can see that increasing
the stiffness and/or decreasing the mass, increases the value of angular frequency, and
thus decreases the values of u. Note that the governing coefficient for the amplitude
(which will be discussed later also) is the coefficient of sine functions, as the coefficient
of time inside the sine functions give its periodicity. So, we can say that if we want the
structure to yield lesser deflections, we may increase the stiffness, or we may decrease
the mass
Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Periodic motion – any motion that repeats itself with respect to time
Oscillation – periodic motion that goes back-and-forth (e.g. pendulum, oscillating tool), typically in Free Vibration of an Undamped System
translational motion (and sometimes depicted to macro and slow motion)
Vibration – periodic motion (in some instances, non periodic too) that is usually used for motions of
“linear, macro, and fast”. (e.g. operating pumps, hammer drill)
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
• Natural period (of vibration), 𝑇𝑛 𝑣0
𝑢 = 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡)
- the time required for undamped system to complete one cycle of free vibration 𝜔𝑛
- since sine functions have period of 2𝜋 as one cycle, one sinusoidal period is equal to angular frequency
multiplied by time required to complete 1 cycle, or 𝑇𝑛 :
𝜔𝑛 ∗ 𝑇𝑛 = 2𝜋
2𝜋
𝑇𝑛 =
𝜔𝑛
- in units of seconds (but it should be understood that it is “seconds per cycle” as it is the time required to
complete one cycle, noting its periodicity)

• Natural frequency (of vibration), 𝑓𝑛

- sometimes called as natural “cyclic” frequency, it measures “how frequent” the cycles over time. It is the
inverse of natural period.
1
𝑓𝑛 =
𝑇𝑛
- in units of cycles per second, cps or Hertz (Hz)
• Amplitude of motion, 𝐶 (capital letter C, to differentiate from damping coefficient, c)
- (or sometimes, u_o, noting that u_0 is function of u at t=0, for initial boundary conditions, and u_o is
different, and is the max distance from equilibrium position)
2
𝑣0
𝐶= 𝑢02 +
𝜔𝑛

- notice that our displacement function and amplitude formula depends on initial boundary conditions of
displacement and velocity. If the structure is at its equilibrium state, which means zero displacement and
zero velocity, the structure also remains at rest (value of u is always 0) Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Free Vibration of an Undamped System

Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
Some code provisions for fundamental period
• Notice our use of the qualifier “natural”. This is to
emphasize that these are natural properties
exclusive only for that system, when it is allowed to
vibrate freely. In advance topics where excitations,
damping, and other parameters are considered,
these natural properties will also play a vital role in
evaluation of such systems
• To relate these in our design code, the natural
period we are talking about is similar to the
fundamental period of structures𝑥described by
ASCE/SEI 7 to be equal to 𝐶𝑡 ℎ𝑁 or (0.1 ∗
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑦), or3 more familiar to us, in NSCP,
equal to 𝐶𝑡 ℎ𝑁 4
• Notice that the approximation formula is directly
proportional to exponents of height. Based on this, From NSCP 2015

we can say that the taller the structure is, the

longer the period is.
From ASCE/SEI 7
 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
Approximate Natural Periods of Structures

Figure from Notes of Dr. Gilford Estores for Structural Dynamics Course

This can be one way to check or verify if your calculated period for
a certain structure is precise.
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
Aside from analytical approach,
how do we know, derive, or check
these natural properties of
structural systems, in actual?

Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
Aside from analytical approach,
how do we know, derive, or check
these natural properties of
structural systems, in actual?

Images from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
Eccentric Mass Shaker. Image from the
1. Forced vibration tests article Use of Ambient and Forced
Vibration Tests to Evaluate Seismic
Properties of an Unreinforced Masonry
- based on resonance a dynamic Building Rehabilitated by Dampers by R.
Taleb, F. Bouriche, A.Remas, and M.
harmonic force on the top of the Boukri, F. Kehila

building is introduced using a

mass shaker. The measured
frequency of the force that
resonates the building, is the
natural frequency of the building.

ANCO MK-150 Uniaxial Eccentric Mass Structural Vibrator, by ANCO Engineers. Video from
YouTube: ANCO MK-150 Uniaxial Structural Eccentric Mass Vibrator (youtube.com)
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
2. Ambient vibration tests
- based on modal testing, this
method captures building
vibrations made by ambient
excitations, primarily, wind and/or
traffic. It is recorded by ultra
sensitive seismometers, enough
to excite several modes of
structural vibration, thus deriving Performing the Ambient Vibration Test. Video courtesy of Sumit Paudel, extracted from YouTube:

the fundamental frequency of the https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zHy0Xj3AHeE

structure.
Review: Spring System
Springs in Parallel Springs in Series
- deflections are equal, total load is - applied load is same throughout,
the sum of individual springs total deflection is sum of individual
springs

𝑃 = 𝑘𝑒 ∗ Δu 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
= 𝑘1 ∗ Δu + 𝑘2 ∗ Δu + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 ∗ Δu Δ𝑢 = = + + ⋯+
𝑘𝑒 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
𝑘𝑒 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝑘𝑒 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
Review: Equivalent Stiffness of Structures
Assumptions:
• Follows material, loading, and geometric
assumptions (as stated earlier)
• Simplified system is only flexural in nature (if you
may remember in physics and mechanics, we
analyze axially-loaded springs and stiffness refers
to its axial stiffness. Normally, in our analysis of
buildings and towers, we analyze it similarly, but
Figure from Notes of Dr. Gilford Estores for
we consider the flexural stiffness, which is still the
Structural Dynamics Course ratio of load and displacement)
• Shear buildings assume that there is no rotation
Where: 𝐸= modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus), N/mm^2 or MPa (psi) along the column’s axes (similar to shear walls –
𝐼= second moment of area along analyzed axis, mm^4 (in^4)
visually, only shear is acting and walls are
essentially not rotating. This is also derived from
Together, EI is called the flexural rigidity (because it determines the resistance of
system to flexural loading. The larger this product, the more rigid the system is). the formula for two fixed end supports that
deviated perpendicularly)
In ACI, AISC, NSCP, and structural dynamics textbook it is termed as “flexural
stiffness” or “lateral stiffness”. For the sake of familiarization, since we both
study the theory and the code, we’ll use them interchangeably
 Review: Equivalent Stiffness of Structures
Assumptions:
Rigid Beam (Shear building) (𝐸𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = ∞)
• Moreover, shear buildings assume that the transfer
beam is considerably rigid (imagine the rigidity of
slab and beam system, compared to columns, thus
the infinity assumption):
12𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
𝑘= ෍ = 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
Rigid Beam (Shear Building) Flexible Beam
𝐿3 𝐿
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠

𝑘= ෍
12𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
= 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 𝑘= ෍
3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
= 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
Beam with no stiffness or flexible beam (cantilever
𝐿3 𝐿 𝐿3 𝐿 column) (𝐸𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0)
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠

• This assumes that the transfer beam is

considerably flexible (imagine a series of
cantilevered column), and thus:
3𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
𝑘= ෍ = 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
Stiffness – conceptually it is the column’s rigidity per its unit length, or EI/L, but codes
use this as the rigidity, EI
𝐿3 𝐿
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
Flexibility – the inverse of rigidity, this is the measure the deflection of system, given
the loading
 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
Solution
Sample Problem #1
• Mass, m (note that we are in inch-lb system)
Consider the steel frame shown having a rigid horizontal W = 200 lb/ft * 25’ = 5000 lb (this is pound-force)
member to which a horizontal dynamic force is applied. As
m = 5000 lb / 386 in/s^2 = 12.95 lb-mass
part of the overall structural design it is required to
determine the natural frequency of this structure. Assume • Flexural stiffness, k
that the masses of the columns are neglected, the columns I = 82.7 in^4 (from AISC Shapes Database)
are loaded at its strong axis, and the horizontal members are E = 30 x 10e6 psi (steel’s modulus)
sufficiently rigid to prevent the rotation at the top. 12∗82.7𝑖𝑛4 ∗
30𝑥106 𝑙𝑏
12𝐸𝐼 𝑖𝑛2
𝑘= σ𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 3 =2∗ 12" 3
𝐿 15′ ∗ ′
1

= 10209.88 lb/in

• Angular natural frequency, 𝜔𝑛

𝑘 10209.88 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛
𝜔𝑛 = = = 28.07 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑚 12.95 𝑙𝑏

• Natural frequency, 𝑓𝑛
𝑟𝑎𝑑 1
𝜔𝑛 ∗ 𝑇𝑛 = 2𝜋 → 28.07 ∗ 𝑓 = 2𝜋 ; 𝑓𝑛 = 4.46 𝑐𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑧
𝑠 𝑛

Reference: Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation by Mario Paz

 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
Solution
Sample Problem #2 • Natural period, 𝑇𝑛 (given)

The steel frame shown is fixed at the base and has a rigid 𝑇𝑛 =
1
10
𝑠 = 0.1𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 -> original Tn
top slab that weighs 1000 lb. Experimentally, it has been • Mass, m (given)
found that its natural period in lateral vibration is equal to W = 1000 lb (this is pound-force)
1/10 of a second. It is required to lengthen its period by 20%
m = 1000 lb / 386 in/s^2 = 2.59 lb-mass
by changing the weight or shorten its period by 20% by
𝑘
changing the columns (stiffness). Neglecting column’s Note that 𝜔𝑛 ∗ 𝑇𝑛 = 2𝜋 and 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
. Solving for k

weight, determine needed change in weight to lengthen the • Flexural stiffness, k

period and change in stiffness to shorten its period. 𝑘 𝑘
∗ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 = ∗ 0.1 𝑠 → 𝑘 = 10224.91 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛
𝑚 𝑛 2.59 𝑙𝑏

a. Lengthen the period by 20% by changing the mass

𝑘
𝜔𝑛 ∗ 𝑇𝑛 = 2𝜋 = ∗ 𝑇𝑛
𝑚

10224.91 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛
∗ 0.1𝑠 ∗ 120% = 2𝜋
2.59+Δ𝑚
Δ𝑚 = 1.14 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 439.89 𝑙𝑏

a. Shorten the period by 20% by changing the stiffness

(10224.91+Δ𝑘)𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛
∗ 0.1𝑠 ∗ 100% − 20% = 2𝜋
2.59 𝑙𝑏
Δ𝑘 = 5751.51 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛
Reference: Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation by Mario Paz
 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of an Undamped
(c=0) SDOF System
Solution
Sample Problem #3
1. Equation of motion (undamped (c=0), free vibration ( (F(t)=0 ) along north-south axis.
A small one-story industrial building, 6 by 10 m in plan, is shown, with moment
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝐹 𝑡 → 𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑘𝑢 = 0
frames in the north-south direction and braced frames in the east-west
direction. The mass of the structure can be idealized as 150 kg/m2 lumped at m = 150 kg/m2 * 10m * 6m = 9000 kg
the roof level. The horizontal cross bracing is at the bottom chord of the roof k = 12 EI / L* 4 columns
trusses. All columns have their second moments of cross-sectional area about
the x and y axes are Ix = 2510 cm4 and 925 cm4, respectively; for steel, E = = 4* 12*200000 N/mm2 * (2510 cm4) *(10mm/1cm)^4 / (4000mm)^3
200,000 MPa. The vertical cross bracings are made of 25 mm-diameter rods. = 3765 N/mm (also kN/m)

1. Formulate the equation governing free vibration in the north-south direction 2. Natural properties at north-south direction

2. Determine the natural circular frequency and natural cyclic frequency of the 2.1 Natural circular frequency
north-south direction 𝑚
𝑘𝑔∗ 2
3765𝑥1000 𝑠
𝑘 𝑚
𝜔𝑛 = = = 20.45 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
3. Given the stiffness of the one (1) braced axis = 9425 kN/m (already 𝑚 9000 𝑘𝑔
considering the bracing), determine the natural period at the braced axis (east-
2.2 Natural cyclic frequency
west direction)
𝑟𝑎𝑑
1 𝜔𝑛 20.45
𝑠
𝜔𝑛 ∗ = 2𝜋 → 𝑓𝑛 = = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 3.26 𝑐𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑛 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

3. Natural properties at east-west direction

3.1 Natural period of vibration, Tn

𝑘𝑁 1000 𝑁
𝑘 2 ∗ 9425 ∗
∗ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 = 𝑚 1 𝑘𝑁 ∗ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 → 𝑇 = 0.1373 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑚 𝑛 9000 𝑘𝑔 𝑛 𝑛

Reference: Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Damped Free Vibration)
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝 𝑡
➢ We still consider the system, during its motion or vibration, to be free ➢ Three cases of damping is possible, based on the values of 𝜁 and c
from external actions and forces
Case 1: Overdamped (c > ccritical → 𝜁 > 1)
➢ But this time, we will not disregard the inherent frictional force of the
structural system, which counters the motion or “decays” the Case 2: Critically damped (c = ccritical → 𝜁 = 1)
movement.
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 0 Case 3: Underdamped (c < ccritical → 0 < 𝜁 < 1) -> our interest
➢ We arrange the variables to isolate the properties associated to the
free vibration of viscously damped system:

𝑢ሷ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑢ሶ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑢 = 0
c c
where: 𝜁 = 2m𝜔 = c (called damping ratio)
𝑛 critical

𝜔𝑛 = natural frequency (defined earlier)

2k
ccritical = 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 = 2 𝑘𝑚 = 𝜔 (called critical damping)
𝑛

Figure from https://support.sw.siemens.com/en-

US/okba/KB000038729_EN_US/How-to-calculate-damping-from-a-FRF/index.html
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Damped Free Vibration)
➢ Applying Differential Equations, the characteristic equation for the system is
𝑚𝑝2 + 𝑐𝑝 + 𝑘 = 0
with roots equal to:
𝑝1 𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑝2 = − 2𝑚 ± 2𝑚
−
𝑚

Case 1: Overdamped (c > ccritical → 𝜁 > 1)

Solution is in the form of:
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑝1 𝑡 + A2 ep2 t
Case 2: Critically damped (c = ccritical → 𝜁 = 1)
Image from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Solution is in the form of:

𝑐𝑐𝑟
− 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡 𝑒 2𝑚

The coefficients A are determined using initial boundary conditions (just like
what we have done in undamped free vibration.
We are not that much interested to overdamped and critically damped system
because our structures of interest all falls conservatively under underdamped
case: buildings, towers, even bridges, dams, and other structures of any industry.
Even shock absorbers falls under underdamped case.
Just to satisfy our curiosity, over and critically damped structures do exist, such
as door closers, pushing boxes on carpets, gimbals, push - pull of syringe
Figure from https://support.sw.siemens.com/en-
US/okba/KB000038729_EN_US/How-to-calculate-damping-from-a-FRF/index.html
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Underdamped Free Vibration)
Case 3: Underdamped (𝐜 < 𝐜𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 → 𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏)
➢ Our structures of interest all falls in underdamped case
➢ Damping ratio of buildings, towers, dams, tanks, foundation, and other
similar systems is less than 0.10 or 10% of the critical damping

• Solution to Viscously Underdamped Free Vibration

𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑢0
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝐷 𝑡
𝜔𝐷

Where: 𝜔𝐷 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 (called natural frequency of damped vibration)

➢ Notice that if we set variables related to damping equal to zero, we will
arrive at our undamped free vibration Image from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

➢ Also, notice that damping ratio lowers the natural frequency from 𝜔𝑛 to 𝜔𝐷
(remember also that lower frequency means lengthier period, as they are
inversely related)
➢ And it can be seen also that the amplitude is decreasing every cycle of
vibration at an exponential manner with time (enveloped by the equation
𝜌𝑒 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 )
➢ By curiosity, if we set 𝜁 to critically damped case, natural damping period,
which is the inverse of frequency becomes a very large number – another
way of saying that the system will not oscillate
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Underdamped Free Vibration)
Case 3: Underdamped (𝐜 < 𝐜𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 → 𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏)
Properties Derived from the System
• Solution to Viscously Underdamped Free Vibration
𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑢0
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝐷 𝑡
𝜔𝐷

Where: 𝜔𝐷 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2
c c
𝜁 = 2m𝜔 = c
𝑛 critical

2k
ccritical = 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 = 2 𝑘𝑚 =
𝜔𝑛

All other variables, as defined earlier Image from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

• Natural frequency of damped vibration, 𝜔𝐷

𝜔𝐷 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2
- similar to natural angular frequency, only damped
- in terms of rad/s (note that 2 pi is in radians unit of one rotation)
- same formula goes for other frequency-related variables 𝑓𝐷 (natural cyclic frequency
𝜔 2𝜋
of damped vibration equal to 2𝜋𝐷 ) and 𝑇𝐷 (natural period of damped vibration = 𝜔 )
𝐷

Note: Be careful with the 𝜔𝐷 and 𝜔𝑛 in the equation

Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Underdamped Free Vibration)
Case 3: Underdamped (𝐜 < 𝐜𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 → 𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏)
Properties Derived from the System
• Damping ratio, 𝜁
𝑐 𝑐
𝜁= =
𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 2𝑚𝜔𝑛
And using experimental datas (datas that may be gathered thru actual testing of the
system)
1 𝑢𝑖 1 𝑢𝑖ሷ
𝜁= ln = ln
2𝜋𝑗 𝑢𝑖+𝑗 2𝜋𝑗 𝑢𝑖+𝑗 ሷ
Where: j = # of cycles
𝑢𝑖 = amplitude at “ith” cycle

𝑢𝑖+𝑗 =amplitude at “i+j th” cycle

Image from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

- the “fraction of critical damping”, it indicates how much of the vibration is damped
based on smallest oscillation-inhibiting damping
- in terms of percentage, but most of the time, given as its decimal value
- our formula using experimental datas uses displacement and acceleration, which is
basically similar. Why is that? Because displacement and accelerations are easier to
measure using our tools. Technically, we can also substitute it with velocity, but
displacement and acceleration is easier to measure
- if we look closely we can see that larger mass corresponds to smaller damping ratio,
which means the smaller the damping force, thus longer time of oscillation. The larger
the damping ratio, the more the system negates deflections Media from https://mltshp.com/p/1D04N Media_from_https://www.reddit.com/r/gifs/comment
s/2w3287/the_benefits_of_a_damper_in_a_building/
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Underdamped Free Vibration)
Case 3: Underdamped (𝐜 < 𝐜𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 → 𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏)
Properties Derived from the System

• Damping constant, c
𝑐 = 𝜁 ∗ 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝜁 ∗ 2𝑚𝜔𝑛

- also damping coefficient, basically, this denotes the coefficient of resistive force to
velocity (inherently, this is also related to the system mass and stiffness)

- in N-s/m (lb-s/in)

• Critical damping, 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

2𝑘
𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 = 2 𝑘𝑚 =
𝜔𝑛
- the smallest value of c that inhibits oscillation. It represents the dividing line between
oscillatory and non-oscillatory motion of vibrating systems
Image from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra
- in N-s/m (lb-s/in)

Damping - technically, it is the loss of an energy of an oscillating (or vibrating) system by

dissipation. This loss is due to innate frictional resistance of structures, typically associated
to the structure’s joints.

- difficult to determine and mostly determined via experimentation of the real structure

Viscous - technically means a fluid with high viscosity, which is the resistance of fluid
material to change shape or movement caused by shear and tensile stress. In simpler terms,
it is the state of being sticky due to internal friction. (We use the term viscous as the
damping of our studied system is similar to that viscous material, as visualized by dashpot to
our free body diagram earlier.)
Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Underdamped Free Vibration)
Case 3: Underdamped (𝐜 < 𝐜𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 → 𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏)
Properties Derived from the System
• Logarithmic Decrement, 𝛿
𝑢1 2𝜋𝜁
𝛿 = ln = 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑇𝐷 =
𝑢2 1 − 𝜁2
And if the damping ratio is very small, (the formula’s denominator basically
approaches unity
𝛿 = 2𝜋𝜁
- the ratio of displacement at time, t, to its value, a full vibration period Td
- it is logarithmic because the rate follows exponential decay (and decrement,
meaning decreasing gradually) Image from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra
 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Underdamped Free Vibration)
Typical Building Damping Ratio Values Range of Damping for Most Structures
Material Damping
o Steel - 0.001 to 0.002 (0.1% to 0.2%)
o RC - 0.007 to 0.010 (0.7% to 0.1%)
o Prestressed concrete - 0.04 to 0.07 (4% to 7%)

Building Damping Graph from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

o Steel Building (Ht > 100 m) – 0.007 to 0.013 (0.7% to 1.3%)

o RC Building (Ht > 100 m) – 0.01 to 0.02 (1% to 2%) Visualization of the Free Vibrations of Different Damping Ratios
o Steel Building (Ht about 50 m) – 0.015 to 0.025 (1.5% to 2.5%)
o RC Building (Ht about 50 m) – 0.02 to 0.03 (2% to 3%)

Source: H. Bachmann, et.al., Vibration Problems in Structures (as extracted from

lectures of Dr. Gilford Estores for Structural Dynamics Course)
 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Damped Free Vibration)
Sample Problem # 4 Solution
a. Damping ratio, 𝜁
A free vibration test is conducted on an empty elevated water tank
1 𝑢𝑖 1 5𝑐𝑚
similar to the image below. A cable attached to the tank applies a 𝜁 = 2𝜋𝑗 ln 𝑢 = 2𝜋 (4 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠) ln 2.5 𝑐𝑚 = 0.02756 = 2.76%
𝑖+𝑗
lateral (horizontal) force of 80 kN and pulls the tank horizontally by 5
cm. The cable is suddenly cut and the resulting free vibration is b. Natural period of undamped vibration, 𝑇𝐷
recorded. At the end of four complete cycles, the time is 2.0 s and (Remember our discussions earlier to be mindful of the units and what is the meaning
the amplitude is 2.5 cm. From these data compute the following: (a) behind it?)
damping ratio; (b) natural period of undamped vibration; (c) 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
stiffness; (d) weight; (e) damping coefficient; and (f) number of 𝑇𝐷 = = 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
4 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
cycles required for the displacement amplitude to decrease to 0.5 (Or more conceptual, seconds per whole cycle)
cm.
c. Stiffness, k
𝑃 80𝑥1000 𝑁 𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑘=Δ= 5𝑥10 𝑚𝑚
= 1600 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑚

d. Weight, W
(Formula that is related to weight is the natural angular frequency)
𝑚
𝑘 𝜔𝐷 1600 ∗ 1000 𝑘𝑔. 2 /𝑚 2𝜋/𝑇𝐷
𝜔𝑛 = = = 𝑠 =
𝑚 1 − 𝜁2 𝑚, 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔𝑠 1 − 𝜁2
𝑚 = 10214.4 𝑘𝑔𝑠
e. Damping coefficient, c
𝑚
𝑠 2
c = 𝜁 ∗ 2 𝑘𝑚 = 0.02756 ∗ 1600𝑥1000 𝑘𝑔. ∗ 10214.4 𝑘𝑔
𝑚
kg s
Reference: Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra = 7056.76 or N.
s m
 Free Vibration ( F(t)=0 ) of a Damped (c≠0) SDOF
System (Viscously Damped Free Vibration)
Sample Problem # 5 Solution
a. New natural period of vibration, 𝑇𝑛
The weight of water required to fill the tank of previous example is
40,000 kg. Determine the natural vibration period and damping ratio new m = 10,214.4 kgs + 40,000 kgs = 50,214.4 kgs
of the structure with the tank full. 50214.4 𝑘𝑔𝑠
𝜔𝑛 𝑇𝑛 = 2𝜋 → 𝑇𝑛 = 2𝜋 𝑚 = 1.11 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
1600∗1000 𝑘𝑔. 2 /𝑚
𝑠

(Or more conceptual, seconds per whole cycle)

b. New damping ratio, 𝜁
𝑠
𝑐 7023 𝑁.
𝑚
𝜁= = = 0.01239 𝑜𝑟 1.24%
2 𝑘𝑚 𝑚
2
2 1600∗1000𝑘𝑔. 𝑠 ∗50214.4 𝑘𝑔𝑠
𝑚

Reference: Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

Some of the Damper Mechanisms Used in
Structures
Tuned Mass Dampers Viscous Dampers
- a large mass such as concrete block or steel pendulum, mounted - dampers that operate using pistons and absorbs energy through
to structure and connected via springs or other damping fluid viscosity, dissipating the vibration and energy as heat
mechanisms. The mass is tuned to move out of phase with the
building's natural frequency, thereby counteracting the vibrations.
Viscoelastic Dampers
- similar to viscous dampers, but instead of fluid, it uses materials
exhibiting a combination of viscous and elastic property, to dissipate
energy

Tuned Mass Damper of Taipei 101. Image from Samples of Dampers as Diagonal Members. Media from
https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/tuned-mass-damper-of-taipei-101 https://makeagif.com/gif/dampers-for-earthquake-protection-xekfa-
Some of the Damper Mechanisms Used in
Structures
Base Isolators Friction Dampers
- placed at the base of a building, base isolators allow the structure - dampers that primarily rely on the friction between moving parts
to move independently from the ground during an excitation (usually metal components) to dissipate vibration. As the building is
excited, the damper components slide against each other, and
dampens the structures response by means of friction concept

Image from products of DampTech Earthquake Protection

Media from product presentation of Hebei Jumai New Materials Technology Development Co.
 Response to General Excitations and Time-Varying
Loadings of an SDOF System (Forced Vibration)
Types of Dynamic Systems based on Excitations
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝒑 𝒕

1. Periodic Excitation Beam Machine

𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 Sample Periodic Forced Vibration Function
(Example of System with Periodic Excitation)

- sometimes expressed in sinusoidal form for an

analytical solution (called harmonic)
- sample systems are rotating machines sitting on
support pedestal

(a) Unit Impulse; (b) Response to Unit Impulse

Reference: Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra and Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation by Mario Paz
Schematic Visualization of Arbitrary Load
 Response to General Excitations and Time-Varying
Loadings of an SDOF System (Forced Vibration)
Types of Dynamic Systems based on Excitations
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝒑 𝒕

2. Arbitrary Time Varying Forces Beam Machine

Sample Periodic Forced Vibration Function
(Example of System with Periodic Excitation)
2.1 Unit Impulse
𝑚𝑢ሷ = 𝑃
➢ A very large force that acts for a very short
time, but with a finite time integral
➢ Sample load is a car hitting a wall

Impulsive force - a significantly large force that acts for a significantly short time
(a) Unit Impulse; (b) Response to Unit Impulse

Reference: Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra and Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation by Mario Paz
Schematic Visualization of Arbitrary Load
 Response to General Excitations and Time-Varying
Loadings of an SDOF System (Forced Vibration)
Types of Dynamic Systems based on Excitations
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝒑 𝒕

2. Arbitrary Time Varying Forces Beam Machine

Sample Periodic Forced Vibration Function
(Example of System with Periodic Excitation)
2.2. General Arbitrary Load
𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑝 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 (based on impact and
momentum in physics)
➢ Loading is represented by sequence of
infinitesimally short impulses, it is generally
called arbitrary load
➢ The response of the system at time t is the
sum of the responses to all impulses up to
that time
(a) Unit Impulse; (b) Response to Unit Impulse

Reference: Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra and Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation by Mario Paz
Schematic Visualization of Arbitrary Load
 Response to General Excitations and Time-Varying
Loadings of an SDOF System (Forced Vibration)
Types of Dynamic Systems based on Excitations
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝒑 𝒕

3. Step and Ramp Forces

𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑃 (a) An SDF System; (b) Step Force; (c) Dynamic Response

- a step force jumps suddenly from zero to P, and

stays constant at that value
- an example of such system is one of the loading
method of a Universal Testing Machine
(a) An SDF System; (b) Ramp Force; (c) Static and Dynamic Response

General Shape of Pulse Excitation

Reference: Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra and Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation by Mario Paz
 Response to General Excitations and Time-Varying
Loadings of an SDOF System (Forced Vibration)
Types of Dynamic Systems based on Excitations
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝒑 𝒕

4. Pulse Excitations
(a) An SDF System; (b) Step Force; (c) Dynamic Response
- single pulse excitation or loading function that
idealizes blasts or explosions
𝑝 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑑
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝 𝑡 = { 𝑜
0 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑑

(5) Earthquake Excitations (a) An SDF System; (b) Ramp Force; (c) Static and Dynamic Response

General Shape of Pulse Excitation

Reference: Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra and Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation by Mario Paz
Earthquake Excitation of an SDOF System
Earthquake Excitations Image from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra

- in engineering point of view, the ground

acceleration is the most useful way of defining the
earthquake
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = −𝑚𝑢ሷ 𝑔 𝑡
Where:
𝑢ሷ 𝑔 (𝑡)=ground acceleration, dependent to the time An SDOF System and Idealized Mass-Spring-Damper Diagram
Earthquake Excitation of an SDOF System
Earthquake Excitations
- in engineering point of view, the ground acceleration is the most
useful way of defining the earthquake
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = −𝑚𝑢ሷ 𝑔 𝑡
Re-arranging variables to visualize important parameters, Ground Motion of
𝑢ሷ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑢ሶ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑢 = −𝑢ሷ 𝑔 𝑡 Some of the Well-
Known
Where: 𝑢ሷ 𝑔 (𝑡)=ground acceleration, dependent to the time Earthquakes

➢ Clearly, the response of the system depends only on natural

frequency and damping ratio, thus any system having same
period and damping ratio will have the same deformation
response
➢ Ground acceleration varies irregularly, to the point that an
analytical approach is impractical, making the numerical method
our option to evaluate the response
➢ For our design of structures (such as design of beams, columns,
and load-resisting frames), the deformation response is evaluated
first by dynamic analysis (as what we are studying right now), and
then the internal forces are determined by static analysis of the
structure at each time instant (and as per our design concept,
design the members at the maximum effect of the load
Graph from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra
Earthquake Excitation of an SDOF System
Response Spectrum Concept
- a response spectrum is used to provide the most
descriptive representation of the influence of a given
earthquake on a structure or system
- what we are interested the most is the maximum relative
displacements, velocities, and accelerations, which are
generally referred to spectral parameters. Earthquake
response spectra are plots of this quantities as a function of
undamped natural period

Approximate Graph of Spectral Acceleration of

Ground During 1940 El Centro Earthquake
Response to General Excitations and Time-Varying
Loadings of an SDOF System (Forced Vibration)
Numerical Evaluation of Dynamic Response Methods
1. Time-stepping Methods
2. Methods Based on Interpolation of Excitation
3. Central Difference Method
4. Newmark’s Method (most used iteration method for earthquake response analysis)

Other methods of evaluation:

1. Finite Element Methods
Forced Vibration of an SDOF System:
Resonance
Resonance
𝜔𝑛 ≅ 𝜔𝑝(𝑡)
- it is the phenomena where the forced vibration
excitation’s frequency, matches the natural frequency
of the system
- resonance amplifies the amplitude of vibration,
thus giving larger displacements to the system or
structures
- in case of our earthquake excitation, this means
that:
High frequency earthquakes will produce larger
displacements in structures with high frequency and
Low frequency earthquakes will produce larger
displacements in structures with low frequency
Graph from Dynamics of Structures by Anil Chopra
Forced Vibration of an SDOF System:
Resonance
Resonance
𝜔𝑛 ≅ 𝜔𝑝(𝑡)
- it is the phenomena where the forced vibration
excitation’s frequency, matches the natural frequency
of the system
- resonance amplifies the amplitude of vibration,
thus giving larger displacements to the system or
structures
- in case of our earthquake excitation, this means
that:
High frequency earthquakes will produce larger
displacements in structures with high frequency and
Low frequency earthquakes will produce larger Referenced from lectures of Dr. Gilford Estores for Structural Dynamics Course; video by Professor Kwon of
Missouri S&T; video extracted from Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV_UuzEznHs

displacements in structures with low frequency

Forced Vibration of an SDOF System:
Resonance
High frequency earthquakes Low frequency earthquakes
- Usually from moderate to large earthquakes (but - Usually from large earthquakes, typically produced
other quakes may also produce these, depending from far away epicenters (offshore trenches, etc.)
on different parameters such as ground and fault
- Critically affects taller structures
characteristics), typically produced by nearby faults
(structures near the fault lines) - Long “rolling” feeling
- Affects shorter structures significantly - Difference of high and low frequency earthquakes
may be further visualized by observing sailing
- Sharp “jolts” of movement
boats

Image from USGS website

Forced Vibration of an SDOF System:
Resonance

Media from British Pathe. Extracted from YouTube: Media from Ted-Ed. Extracted from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XggxeuFDaDU. YouTube:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x0tcRqf7ciY

Tacoma Bridge Collapse Citicorp Center Engineering Crisis

- collapse was caused by wind-induced resonance (they - although the building didn't collapse, it was discovered
call this type of resonance as aeroelastic flutter) that Citigroup Center was vulnerable to wind-induced
resonance under certain conditions due to an oversight
in its design and construction. The building was
retrofitted with additional dampers to prevent
resonance issues.
References
• Dynamics of Structures. Theory and Applications to Earthquake Engineering by A.K.
Chopra
• Structural Dynamics. Theory and Computation by M. Paz & Y.H. Kim
• National Structural Code of the Phil., 2015, 7th Edition
• ASCE/SEI 7-16 Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other
Structures
• ACI 318-19 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
• ANSI/AISC 360-16 Specification for Structural Steel Buildings
• Lectures of Dr. Gilford Estores for Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering
Course, AY 2020-2022
• Earthquake Hazards Program Publications by United States Geological Survey
• Safety of PH Structures During Quakes, published by MMDA website;
https://mmda.gov.ph/20-faq/297-safety-of-ph-structures-during-quakes.html
Some Codes and Standards for Building and
Similar Structures (for Reference)
• NSCP (PH’s local code)
• IBC (used internationally)
• ASCE 7 (USA-based; for loading provisions)
• ACI 318 (in general for RC); ACI 350 (environmental structures)
• AISC 360 (in general for steel); AISC 341 (seismic provisions)
• API 650; ASME BPVC Section VIII (steel tanks)
• PIP Standards (collection of standards used in different industries)
 Introduction to
Structural Dynamics of
Buildings and Towers
Thank you
Your best quote that reflects your
approach… “It’s one small step for
man, one giant leap for mankind.”
- Neil Armstrong