Transducers for Measurement

of Electrical Quantities
14.1 Introduction

We need an instrument to sense the wide ranges of different non-electrical energy forms such as
movement, electrical signals, radiant energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc. The input quantity
of the most instruments is a non-electrical quantity. To use electrical method and techniques for
measurement we have to convert non-electrical energy into electrical energy. A device that converts
non-electrical energy into electrical energy is known as transducers.

353
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 755

Now — 8 r-'
dQ- = — C, J2 x 2.5 irl.i
n cx H piezo-electrical crystal and so on. In all cases,
dH 15 * however, the electrical output is measured by standard
dQ, methods, giving the magnitude of the input quantity
or
Q H in terms of an analogous output.

or dQ = ±2.5x0.2506x0.01/0.5 25.7 ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

= ±0.0153 m3/s The art of electrical measurements has been
chiefly used for measurement of electrical quantities
Hence, the discharge can be written as 0.2506 ± but its value in making measurements of non­
0.0153 m3/s. electrical quantities in this new era of automation is
rapidly growing. In order to measure non-electrical
25.6 TRANSDUCERS quantities a detector is used which usually converts
An electronic instrumentation system consists of a the physical quantity into a displacement. This
number of components to perform a measurement displacement actuates an electric transducer, which
and record its results. As explained earlier a generalized acting as a secondary transducer, gives an output that
measurement system consists of three major is electrical in nature. The electrical quantity so
components. produced is measured by standard methods used for
(z) an input device, electrical measurements. The result (electrical output)
gives the magnitude of the physical quantity or
(zz) a signal conditioning or processing device, and
condition being measured.
(zzz) an output device.
The electrical signal may be a current or a voltage
The input device receives the measurand or the or a frequency and production of these signals is based
quantity under measurement and delivers a propor­ upon electrical effects which may be resistive,
tional or analogous electrical signal to the signal
capacitive, inductive etc. in nature.
conditioning device. Here the signal is amplified,
The first stage of a measurement system may
attenuated, filtered, modulated, or otherwise
modified in format acceptable to the output device. simply be called a transducer stage instead of detector
transducer stage by redefining a transducer. A trans­
The input quantity for most instrumentation
ducer, in general form, may be defined as a device
systems is a "non-electrical quantity". In order to use
which converts energy from one form to another.
electrical methods and techniques for measurement,
However, this definition has to be restricted, many a
manipulation or control, the non-electrical quantity is
time especially in the field of electrical instrumen-
generally converted into an electrical form by a device
tatiOfl. keeping this restriction in view, a transducer
called a "transducer". We can define a transducer as a
may be defined as a device which converts a physical
device which, when actuated transforms energy from
quantity or a physical condition into an electrical
one form to another.
signal. Another name for a transducer is pick up.
The broad definition of a transducer includes, for
example, devices which convert mechanical force into 25.7.1 AdvflnfagdS of Electrical Transducers
an electrical signal. These devices form a very large There are a number of transducers which trans­
and important group of transducers commonly used form a variety of physical quantities and phenomena
in industrial instrumentation area. The instrumen­ into electrical signals. The reasons for transforming a
tation engineers and technologists are therefore ph sical phenomenon into electrical form are
primarily concerned with this area of instrumentation. numerous. The advantages of converting physical
Many other physical parameters such as heat, intensity
quantities into analogous electrical quantities are :
of light, flow rate, liquid level, humidity and pH value
may also be converted into electrical form by means of (z) Electrical amplification and attenuation can
transducers. These transducers provide an output be done easily and that too with static devices.
signal when stimulated by a mechanical or a (z'z) The mass-inertia effects are minimised. In
non-mechanical input : a photoconductor converts fact, when dealing with electrical or electronic signals,
light intensity into change of resistance, a the inertia effects are due to electrons which have
thermocouple converts heat energy into electrical negligible mass. In many situations, we do not come
voltage, a force produces a change of resistance in a across mass or inertia problems at all.
strain gauge, an acceleration produces a voltage in a (zzz) The effects of friction are minimised.
 756 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(iv) The electrical or electronic systems can be 25.8 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

controlled with a very small power level. The transducers can be classified
(t?) The electrical output can be easily used, trans­ (z) on the basis of transduction form used,
mitted and processed for the purpose of measurement.
(ii) as primary and secondary transducers,
(vi) Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated
(iii) as passive and active transducers,
measurement systems. The entire aerospace research
(iv) as analog and digital transducers, and
and development is based upon telemetry and remote
control. The ever-enlarging field of radio monitoring (v) as transducers and inverse transducers.
in space research has left us with no alternative but to 25.8.1 Classification based upon
resort to electronic means. This completely eliminates Principle of Transduction
the data transmission through mechanical means and
The transducers can be classified on the basis of
hence electrical and electronic principles have to be
principle of transduction as resistive, inductive,
employed for these conditions. The remote indication
capacitive etc. depending upon how they convert the
or recording is an essential part of modern day
input quantity into resistance, inductance or capaci­
instrumentation technology.
tance respectively. They can be classified as piezo­
(vii) There has been an explosive development in electric, thermoelectric, magnetorestrictive, electro-
the field of electronic components and devices. This kinetic and optical. Table 25.2 lists the classification of
development is on account of the fact that electronic transducers based upon principle of transduction.
devices are very amenable to miniaturization.
Components which are compact, have always an, 25.8.2 Primary and Secondary Transducers
advantage. Miniaturization on account of use of ICs Let us consider the case of a Bourdon's tube as
(integrated Circuits) has completely revolutionised shown in Fig. 25.26. The Bourdon tube acting as a
the field of instrumentation. primary detector senses the pressure and converts the
In short, it can be said that the reasons for pressure into a displacement of its free end. The
transforming a physical phenomenon into electrical displacement of the free end moves the core of a linear
form is that the electrical output can be easily used, variable differential transformer, (L.V.D.T.) which
transmitted and processed for the purposes of produces an output voltage which is proportional to
measurement. Modern digital computers make the the movement of the core, which is proportional to the
use of these transducers absolutely essential. displacement of the free end which in turn is
When the definition of transducer is confined to a proportional to the pressure. Thus, there are two
device that covers the entire detector transducer stages of transduction, firstly the pressure is converted
stage, wherein the transducer converts a non-electrical into a displacement by Bourdon tube then the
quantity into an analogous electrical signal, the trans­ displacement, is converted into an analogous voltage
ducer may be thought of consisting of two important by L.V.D.T. The Bourdon tube is called a "Primary
and closely related parts. These two parts are : Transducer" while the L.V.D.T. is called a "Secondary
A Sensing Element, and Transducer".
A Transduction Element.
In addition, there may be many other auxiliary
parts, such as amplifiers and other signal processing
equipment, power supplies, calibrating and reference
sources, and mechanical mounting features.
1. Sensing or Detector Element. A detector or a
sensing element is that part of a transducer which
responds to a physical phenomenon or a change in a
physical phenomenon. The response of the sensing
element must be closely related to the physical
phenomenon.
2. Transduction element. A transduction element
transforms the output of a sensing element to an Fig. 25.26 Measurement of pressure using Bourdon
electrical output. The transduction element, in a way, tube an L.V.D.T. (Example of primary and Secondary
acts as a secondary transducer. transducers).
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 757
Table 25.2 Types of Electrical
Electrical parameter
and class of transducer Principle of Operation Typical applications

_______________________ __________ Passive transducers (externally powered)

Resistance

Potentiometer device Positioning of the slider by an external force varies the Pressure, displacement.
resistance in a potentiometer or a bridge circuit.
Resistance strain Resistance of a wire or semiconductor is changed by elongation Force, torque,
: gauge or compression due to externally applied stress. displacement.
Pirani gauge or hot Resistance of heating element is varied by convection cooling of Gas flow, gas pressure.
wire meter a stream of gas. x
Resistance Resistance of pure metal wire with a large positive tempe­ Temperature,
thermometer rature co-efficient of resistance varies with temperature. radiant heat
i Thermistor Resistance of certain metal oxides with negative temperature Temperature, flow
coefficient of resistance varies with temperature.
■ Resistance hygrometer Resistance of a conductive strip changes with moisture content. Relative humidity.
. Photoconductive cell Resistance of the cell as a circuit element varies with incident Photosensitive relay.
light.
Capacitance

j Variable capacitance Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an externally Displacement, pressure.
; pressure gauge applied force.

j Capacitor microphone Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a fixed plate Speech, music, noise.
and a movable diaphragm.
Dielectric gauge Variation in capacitance by changes in the dielectric or Liquid level, thickness.
dielectric constant.
Inductance

| Magnetic circuit Self-inductance or mutual inductance of a.c. excited coil is Pressure, displacement.
transducer varied by changes in the magnetic circuit.
Reluctance pick up Reluctance of the magnetic circuits is varied by changing the Pressure, displacement, ■
position of the iron core of coil. vibrations, position.
Differential The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a Pressure, force,
transformer transformer is varied by positioning the magnetic core through displacement, position
an externally applied force.
Eddy current gauge Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of an eddy Displacement,
current plate. thickness.
Magnetostriction gauge Magnetic properties are varied by pressure and stress. Force, pressure, sound.
Voltage and Current

Hall effect pickup A potential difference is generated across a semiconductor plate Magnetic flux, current,
(germanium) when magnetic flux interacts with an applied power.
current.
1
j Ionization chamber Electron flow induced by ionization of gas due to Particle counting,
radio-active radiation. radiation.
Photoemissive cell Electron emission due to incident radiation upon Light and radiation.
photoemissive surface.
Photomultiplier tube Secondary electron emission due to incident radiation on Light and radiation,
photosensitive cathode. photosensitive relays.
Self-generating transducers (no external power)
Thermocouple and An emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar Temperature, heat flow,
thermopile metals or semiconductors when that junction is heated. radiation.
Moving coil generator Motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage. Velocity, vibrations.
Piezoelectric pickup An emf is generated when an external force is applied to certain Sound, vibrations, accele­
crystalline materials, such as quartz. ration, pressure changes.
Photovoltaic A voltage is generated in a semiconductor junction device Light meter, solar cell.
when radiant energy stimulates the cell.
 758 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Let us take another example which is the case of 25.8.3 Passive and Active Transducers
measurement of a compressive force with the help of a Transducers may be classified according to
load cell in conjunction with strain gauges as shown in whether they are passive or active.
Fig. 25.27. (Load cells and strain gauges are explained 1. Passive Transducers. Passive transducers
later in this chapter.) derive the power required for transduction from an
auxiliary power source. They also derive part of the
Force power required for conversion from the physical
quantity under measurement. They are also known as
"externally powered transducers". Typical examples of
passive transducers are resistive, inductive and
capacitive transducers.
Strain A typical example of a passive transducer is a
gauges
'POT' which is used for measurement of displace­
ment. A 'POT' is a resistive transducer powered by a
source voltage e- as shown in Fig. 25.28. This 'POT' is
used for measurement of linear displacement x;.

Force

Fig. 25.27 Force measurement with load cell

and strain gauges.
The load cell is a short column or a strut with
resistance wire strain gauges bonded to it. The
measurand, in this case, is a force and is applied to the
column thereby producing strain. The force is first Fig. 25.28 Linear potentiometer (POT),
a passive transducer.
detected by the column and is converted into strain
which is a mechanical displacement. The higher the Suppose L is the total length of potentiometer
force, the higher is the strain and thus the input signal whose total resistance K •. The input displacement is x^
(force) is converted into an analogous output (strain). :. Output voltage
This strain changes the resistance of the strain gauges.
Thus we have an output which is a change in the value S°=L
of resistance i.e., electrical in form. Hence, in this case,
it takes two processes to convert an input into an In the absence of external power, the transducer
analogous output. The first process involves con­ cannot work and it hence is called a passive transducer.
version of force into mechanical displacement which 2. Active Transducers. Active transducers are
is done by the column, while the second process those which do not require an auxiliary power source
involves conversion of mechanical displacement into to produce their output. They are also known as self
change of resistance which is done by strain gauges. generating type since they develop their own voltage or
current output. The energy required for production of
Thus we see that the force is detected by the
output signal is obtained from the physical quantity
column in the first stage and hence it is called a
being measured.
Primary Transducer. The output signal from the
Velocity, temperature, light intensity and force
primary transducer is converted subsequently into a
can be transduced with the help of active transducers.
usable output by the strain gauges and therefore they
These transducers include tachogenerators, thermo­
are known as Secondary Transducers.
couples, photovoltaic cells and piezoelectric crystals.
In most of measurement systems, there is a Consider the case of a piezoelectric crystal used for
suitable working combination wherein a Mechanical measurement of acceleration as shown in Fig. 25.29
device acts as a primary detector transducer and the The crystal is sandwiched between two metallic
electrical device acts as the secondary transducer electrodes, and the entire sandwich is fastened to a
with mechanical displacement serving as the base which may be the floor of a rocket. A fixed mass
intermediate signal. is placed on the top of the sandwich.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 759

Glass scales can be read optically by means of a

acceleration
light source, an optical system and photocells. Metal
Fig. 25.29 Piezo-electric crystral measuring scales are scanned by brushes making electrical
acceleration - an active transducer. contact with individual tracks.
The property of the piezo-electric crystals is that The resolution depends upon the digits
when a force is applied to them, they produce an comprising the binary number and is 1/2/7 of full scale
output voltage. The mass exerts a certain force on where n is the number of digits.
account of acceleration on the crystal due to which a
voltage is generated. The acceleration is applied to the 25.8.5 Transducers and Inverse Transducers
base, due to which the mass produces a force. The There is a strong association of control with
mass being fixed, the force is proportional to measurement. The basic requirement for control of
acceleration. The voltage output is proportional force physical quantities such as position, speed,
and hence is proportional to acceleration (the mass temperature, pressure and flow rate in an industrial
being fixed). planet is the ability to measure these quantities. The
It should be noted from above that this transducer control action is only possible if the physical quantity
called "accelerometer" which converts acceleration into can be measured. For example, in a position control
electrical voltage does not need any auxiliary power system called "servomechanism", it is desired to control
source to convert a physical phenomenon (accele­ the position of a shaft. This requires an accurate
ration in this case) to an electrical output (voltage in method for measurement of the shaft position in order
this case) and therefore is an active transducer. that its position be accurately controlled. Further, if it
is desired that the shaft be accelerated in a controlled
25.8.4 Analog and Digital Transducers manner, then the position measuring device must be
The transducers can be classified on the basis of able to measure shaft position for rapid changes i.e.,
the output which may be a continuous function of the device must have a fast dynamic response.
time or the output may be in discrete steps. Figure 25.31 shows the block diagram of closed
1. Analog Transducers. These transducers convert loop control system. The controlled (output) quantity
the input quantity into an analog output which is a is usually a non electrical quantity. The control action
continuous function of time. Thus a strain gauge, an is through an input quantity that corresponds to the
L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a thermistor may be
---------------( !--------------
called as "Analog Transducers" as they give an output
Feed- । 1 w
which is a continuous function of time. forward I
2. Digital Transducers. These transducers convert network Actuator
the input quantity into an electrical output which is in (amplifier) [ ।
the form of pulses.
As the binary system uses only two symbols 0 and
Measuring i
1 it can be easily represented by opaque and instrument M-
transparent areas on a glass scale or non-conducting 1 or transducer 1
i ।
and conducting areas on a metal scale. A scale
constructed to show the linear position on a movable --------- Electrical units or signals
object and having five digits is shown in Fig. 25.30.
---------- Mechanical units or signals
The complete binary number denoting position is
obtained by scanning the pattern across the scale at a Fig. 25.31 Feedback control system for control
stationary index mark. of non-electrical quantities.
 760 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

desired output (non-electrical quantity). The input

quantity called reference input is usually an electrical
quantity. The controlled quantity is measured and
converted into an analogous quantity by transducers
which form the feedback loop. The loop input
quantity (electrical in nature) is compared with the
electrical quantity proportional to the output in a
comparator. In case, the two are not equal an error
signal is produced. This error signal is amplified and
applied to an actuator in the forward path, which
--------- Electrical units or signals
corrects the output quantity till the output quantity
----------- Mechanical units or signals
reaches the desired level.
1. Transducers. A transducer can be broadly Fig. 25.32 Feedback control system for control of
electrical quantities using inverse transducer.
defined as a device which converts a non-electrical
quantity into an electrical quantity.
It is evident that the operation of the feedback is
2. Inverse Transducers. An inverse transducer is
similar for both control and measuring systems as
defined as a device which converts an electrical
regards accuracy and stability. The essential
quantity into a non-electrical quantity. It is a precision
differences are in power level of the systems and the
actuator which has an electrical input and a low power
performance requirements of transducing elements.
non-electrical output. A piezoelectric crystal acts as an
The control systems handle relatively high power
inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied
levels through the actuator to directly determine the
across its surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing a
mechanical displacement. output quantity. Therefore, the actuator may have
poor regulation without affecting the control action.
A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field
The transducer and noise at the amplifier input largely
is also an inverse transducer because current carried
determine the accuracy of control. On the other hand,
by it is converted into a force which causes trans­
lational or rotational displacement. Many data the feedback measuring system involves use of fairly
indicating and recording devices are inverse trans­ low power devices at the output. These devices
ducers. An analog ammeter or voltmeter converts include the indicator and inverse transducer.
current into mechanical displacement. However, such However, the inverse transducer essentially
devices which include instruments like indicating determines the characteristics of the system. The noise
instruments, pen recorders, oscilloscopes that convert connected with the transducer and amplifier input
the electrical signals to a mechanical movement are stage is very important.
placed at the output stage (data presentation stage)
are called output transducers. 25.9 CHARACTERISTICS AND CHOICE OF
The most useful application of inverse TRANSDUCERS
transducers is in feedback measuring systems. The When choosing a transducer for any application
development of transducers and inverse transducers, the input, transfer and output characteristics have to be
and the advantages gained through use of feedback taken into account.
has increased their applications manifold and there is
reason to believe that they will continue to grow in 25.9.1 Input Characteristics
importance. 1. Type of Input and Operating Range. The
A block diagram of a feedback control systems foremost consideration for the choice of a transducer is
using inverse transducers is shown in Fig. 25.32 for the input quantity it is going to measure and its
comparison with the simple feedback control system operating range. The type of input, which can be any
shown in Fig. 25.31. In the measuring system, the physical quantity, is generally determined in advance.
output quantity (usually electrical in nature) is A physical quantity may be measured through use of a
converted to a non-electrical form suitable for number of transducers. However, the choice of a
comparison with quantity to be measured particular transducer that is selected for the purpose,
(non-electrical form). The resulting error signal is depends upon the useful range of input quantity over
usually transduced into electrical form and amplified which the transducer can be used. The useful
to give output indication. operating range of the transducer may be a decisive
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 761

factor in selection of a transducer for a particular The scale factor is defined as the inverse of
application. The upper limit is decided by the sensitivity and is therefore,
transducer capabilities while the lower limit of range
is normally determined by the transducer error or by scale factor = — ...(25.35)
S dqi
the unavoidable noise originating in the transducer. In
fact the transducer should maintain a good resolution Some manufacturers specify the scale factor and
throughout its operating range. still call it sensitivity.
2. Loading Effects. Ideally a transducer should 25.9.2B Error
have no loading effect on the input quantity being
The errors in transducers occur because they do
measured. In theory, it is impossible, although in
not follow, in many situations the input-output
practice steps may be taken to reduce the loading
relationship given by qo = ftqj. Any departure from
effects to negligible proportions. The magnitude of the the above relationship results in errors. For example,
loading effects can be expressed in terms of force, the output on account of input, z/(- has to be q0 but in
power or energy extracted from the quantity under practice an output q0 is obtained, then the error of the
measurement for working of the transducers. instrument is,
Therefore, the transducer, that is selected for a e = ^0-r/0 -.(25.36)
particular application should ideally extract no force,
The error, a can be expressed in terms of either
power or energy from the quantity under
input or the output quantity.
measurement in order that the latter is measured
The error analysis has already been given in
accurately.
Chapter 3. The error can be split into three
25.9.2 Transfer Characteristics components, which are,
The transfer characteristics of transducers require A scale error
attention of three separate elements, viz., A dynamic error, and
transfer function A error on account of noise and drift.
A error, and Scale Error
A response of transducer to environmental The scale error comprises of four different types
influences. of errors :
(i) Zero Error. In this case the output deviates
25.9.2 A Transfer Function
from the correct value by a constant factor over the
The transfer function of a transducer defines a
entire range of the transducer. This is shown in
relationship between the input quantity and the
Fig. 25.33.
output. The transfer function is,
% = /(?,) -(25.32)
where q0 and £/• are respectively output and input of
the transducer.
The sensitivity of a transducer is defined as the
differential quotient,
S = -^ ...(25.33)
dcli
In general, the sensitivity of transducers is not
constant but is dependent upon the quantity z/-. Fig. 25.33 Transducer zero error.
However, in some cases the relationship between
(zz) Sensitivity Error. Sensitivity error occurs
the output q0 and input z/(7 is linear. In that case the
where the observed output deviates from the correct
sensitivity remains constant over the entire range of
value by a constant value. Suppose the correct output
the transducer and is defined as, is q the output would be Kq^ over the entire range of
the transducer, where K is a constant. This is shown in
dr/. Fig- 25.34.
 762 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Dynamic Error
Dynamic errors occur only when the input
quantity is varying with time. This is on account of the
fact the systems contain energy storage elements and
due to this the output cannot follow the input exactly
but with a time lag.
Let us consider an R-C series circuit to which a
step input of magnitude E is applied, the voltage
across the capacitor after a time, t of application of step
input is,
Fig. 25.34 Transducer sensitivity error.
ec = E[l-exp(-f/ t)]
(in) Non-conformity. This pertains to a case in
where r = time constant = RC
which the experimentally obtained transfer function
deviates from the theoretical transfer function for The response is shown in Fig. 25.37.
almost every input. This is shown in Fig. 25.35.

Fig. 25.35 Transducer Non-conformity.

Fig. 25.37 Response of RC circuit to a step input.
In the special case of a theoretical linear
relationship between input and output quantities, this
The dynamic or measurement error is,
error is called non-linearity or non-linear distortion.
(iv) Hysteresis. All transducers are subject to the e„;(0= E-ec=exp(-f/r)
effects of hysteresis. The output of a transducer not The dynamic or measurement error can be made
only depends upon the input quantity but also upon small by having a small time constant. It should be
in input quantities previously applied to it. Therefore, understood that the dynamic error is a function of
a different output is obtained when the same value of time. As the time after application of the input
input quantity is applied depending upon whether it increases, the dynamic error reduces. The steady state
is increasing or decreasing. For decreasing values, a
error,
greater output is obtained than with increasing values
eSS=e,n^=e~t/T' =0
for the same value of the input quantity. This is shown
in Fig. 25.36. t —> 00 t —> oo

in this particular case.

Errors due to Noise and Drift

Noise and drift signals originating from the
transducers vary with time and are superimposed on
the output signal. The difference between noise and
drift is that noise consists of a signal of random
amplitude and random frequency whilst drift is a slow
change with time. The magnitude of the noise and
drift is normally independent of the magnitude of the
Fig. 25.36 Transducer hysteresis. input signal.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 763

Errors due to Change of Frequency The high frequency, cutoff (fh) is the frequency at
(Frequency Response) which the transducers gain has fallen to 0.707 of the
Frequency response and the high frequency cut off value it had at its stable low frequency. If the vertical
are the two specifications that describe the response of axis is scaled in db, fh occurs when the gain has
a transducer to a variable frequency sine wave input decreased by -3 db. Figure 25.38 shows that the low
applied to it. For a reasonably, linear transducer, a sine frequency gain is 20 db but drops of 17 db (20 - 3 = 17 db)
wave input yields a sine wave output. As the at a frequency of 4 kHz. Therefore, the high frequency
frequency of the sine wave input is increased, the cutoff takes place at 4 kHz in this case.
transducer is required to respond more and more
The high frequency cutoff can be related to the
quickly. Ultimately, beyond a particular frequency the
rise time by the following relationship :
transducer can no larger respond as rapidly as its
sinusoidal input is changing. So the output of the tr =0.35/fh ...(25.38)
transducer becomes smaller and also the phase shift Therefore, even if the transient response
between the input and output increases. Thus as the specifications are not given, the speed of a transducer
frequency increases the output of the transducer falls. can be determined from its high frequency cutoff.
This roll off of amplitude of output with an increase in
25.9.3 Transducer Response
The response of the transducer to environmental
influences is of a great importance. This is often given
insufficient attention when choosing the best
transducer for a particular measurement. This gives
rise to results that are not as accurate as expected, or,
worse, results that are accepted as more accurate than
they actually are. The performance of the tiansducer is
fully defined by its transfer function and errors,
provided that the transducer is in constant
environments and not subject to any disturbances like
stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields,
mechanical shocks and vibrations temperature
changes, pressure and humidity changes, changes in
supply voltage and improper mechanical mountings.
If transducers are subjected to the above environ­
mental disturbances, which they are, precautions are
taken, so that changes in transfer function and
resulting errors therefrom do not occur.
Therefore, the transducer selected must be
guarded against the interfering and modifying
inputs.

Fig. 25.38 Frequency response plot. 25.9.4 Output Characteristics

The three conditions in the output characteristics
input frequency is the frequency response. The which should be considered are,
frequency response of a transducer is shown in
A Type of electrical output,
Fig. 25.38. The vertical axis is the gain of the
A Output impedance, and
transducer. This may be simply the output to input
ratio. However, the gain is specified in terms of A Useful ouput range.
decibels.
Type of Electrical Output
Gain in db = 20 log (output/input) = 20 log (^Ay,)
The types of output which may be available from
...(25.37) the transducers may be a voltage, current, impedance
The horizontal axis represents the frequency, and or a time function of these amplitudes. These output
is plotted on a 'logarithmic scale in order to cover a quantities may or may not be acceptable to the latter
wide range of frequencies. stages of the instrumentation system. They may have
 764 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

to be manipulated i.e., their magnitudes changed or

they may have to be changed in their format by signal
conditioning equipment so as to make them drive the
subsequent stages of instrumentation system.

Output Impedance
The output impedance, Zo, of a transducer
determines to the extent the subsequent stages of
instrumentation is loaded. Ideally, the value of output
impedance should be zero if no loading effects are
there on the subsequent stage. However, the output
impedance, Zo, cannot made equal to zero and
therefore, its value should be kept as low as possible to
minimise the loading effects.
The output impedance determines the amount of
power that can be transferred to the succeeding stages
of the instrumentation system for a given output
signal level. If the output impedance is low compared
to the forward impedance of the system, the
transducer has the characteristics of a constant voltage
source (provided the output of the transducer is a
voltage), while in case the forward impedance is high
as compared with the output impedance of
transducer, it behaves as constant current source.
This can be explained as under :
An ideal constant voltage source, furnishes at its
output terminals, a voltage that is independent of the and voltage across load
load connected to the source or of the current drawn
from the source. The voltage may or may not vary in ...(25.40)
‘L r0 + rl 1+r<,/rl
time. In fact, it must vary in time, if it represents a
signal which is true of transducers since their output is In case the internal resistance (output resistance)
dependent upon the input signals which vary with R(/ of the source is much smaller than load resistance
time. (for instance : Ro = 1 kQ and RL = 1 MQ) then ratio
R()/RL is very small as compared with unity and hence,
If a constant voltage source having a voltage of E
voltage across the load is,
is [Fig. 25.39(a)] is applied across a resistance R, the
current is E/R as shown in Fig. 25.39(c). A constant el=e ...(25.41)
voltage source in a strict sense does not exist ; the and the current is,
output voltage will always vary with the current 1= E/Rl ...(25.42)
drawn from the source.
Thus the voltage across the load is constant and
This is because a practical voltage source has an
the current is independent of the internal resistance Ro
internal resistance (output resistance), Ro, on account
of the source. Thus the source behaves as a constant
of which the voltage across the load resistance, EL,
voltage source as indicated in region N of Fig. 25.39(e).
decreases with increase of current or decrease of load
An ideal current source furnishes a current that is
resistance RL.
independent of the load resistance. It remains constant
Figure 25.39(d) shows a practical voltage source
even if the load resistance varies. The current
which consists of a voltage source E in series with an
produced by a constant current source may or may not
internal resistance R(/ and a load resistance RL.
vary with time.
The current in this circuit is given by,
If a constant current passes through a resistor R,
£
1 =--- - ---- ...(25.39) as shown in Fig. 25.40(a), a potential difference occurs
Rno + RLr between the terminals which is given by E = IR. In a
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 765

strict sense, as in the case of constant voltage source, a teristics of a constant voltage source. On the other
constant current source does not exist. A practical hand, if the output impedance of the transducer is
current source contains a voltage source E which much higher than that of the succeeding stages, it
causes the current. A constant current source has an exhibits characteristics of a constant current source.
internal resistance Ry which is connected in parallel When the output impedance of the transducer is
with the current source, and is very large as compared equal to that of the following stages of instrumen­
with the load resistance R. The current in such a tation system, matching takes place and maximum
system is determined primarily by magnitudes of E
power is transferred from the transducer to the
and Rl.
succeeding stages. However, it must be understood
The current through load resistance is, that in case maximum power transfer takes place,
^0 I when the output resistance of transducer, is equal to
...(25.43)
the resistance of the succeeding stages, the efficiency is
only 50%. Also, when dealing with a.c. systems, the
If the internal resistance Ro is very large as
impedance matching takes place when the impedance
compared to the load resistance (for instance Ro = 1 kQ
of the load is RL -/XL in case the output impedance is
and Rl = 1Q) the ratio RL/R0 is very small so compared
with I and therefore, load current, rl + 7-xl.
IL= I ...(25.44) Useful Output Range
Therefore, the source behaves as a constant The output range of a transducer is limited at the
current source as depicted in region M of Fig. 25.40(e). lower end by noise signals which may shroud the
There is a region O, between regions M and N where desired input signal. The upper limit is set by the
the source neither behaves as a constant voltage maximum useful input level. The output range can be
source or a constant current source. increased, in some cases, by the inclusion of amplifier
Therefore, we conclude, if the output impedance in the transducer. However, the inclusion of an
of the transducer is low as compared with that of load amplifier also increases the noise level and therefore in
impedance of the successive stages, it has the charac- such situations the amplifier may not be of any use at
all.

25.10 SUMMARY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING

THE CHOICE OF TRANSDUCERS
In the following parts of this chapter, an attempt
has been made to give the details and applications of
the transducers for measurement of different physical
quantities. It will be realised that there are many ways
for measurement of a physical quantity, and in many
cases, there is no best way. The transducers and the
methods used may depend upon the instrumentation
already available and also on the experience of the
user.
Unfortunately most transducers are not sensitive
to just one quantity. If measurements are to be made
under conditions where there is likelihood of two or
more input quantities influencing the transducer, it is
desirable to select a transducer which is sensitive to
the desirable quantity and insensitive to the unwanted
quantity. If this is not possible, ways and means
should be found to eliminate or compensate for the
effects of the unwanted input quantity. The following
is the summary of the factors influencing the choice of
Fig. 25.40 Depiction of constant current source. a transducer for measurement of a physical quantity.
 766 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

1. Operating Principle. The transducers are many under its temperature range. It should be able to work
a times selected on the basis of operating principle in corrosive environments (if the application so requires),
used by them. The operating principles used may be should be able to withstand pressures and shocks and
resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo­ other interactions to which it is subjected to.
electric etc. 10. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals. The
2. Sensitivity. The transducer must be sensitive transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted
enough to produce detectable output. signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
3. Operating Range. The transducer should 11. Usage and Ruggedness. The ruggedness both

maintain the range requirements and have a good of mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer
resolution over its entire range. The rating of the versus its size and weight must be considered while
transducer should be sufficient so that it does not selecting a suitable transducer.
breakdown while working in its specified operating Electrical aspects. The electrical aspects that
12.

range. need consideration while selecting a transducer

4. Accuracy. High degree of accuracy is assured if
include the length and type of cable required.
the transducer does not require frequent calibration Attention also must be paid to signal to noise ratio
and has a small value for repeatability. It may be in case the transducer is to be used in conjunction with
emphasised that in most industrial applications, amplifiers. Frequency response limitations must also
repeatability is of considerably more importance than be taken into account.
absolute accuracy. 13. Stability and Reliability. The transducer

5. Cross sensitivity. Cross sensitivity is a further should exhibit a high degree of stability to be
factor to be taken into account when measuring operative during its operation and storage life.
mechanical quantities. There are situations where the Reliability should be assured in case of failure of
actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and transducer in order that the functioning of the
the transducer is subjected to variations in another instrumentation system continues uninterrupted.
plane. More than one promising transducer design has 14.Static Characteristics. Apart from low static
had to be abandoned because the sensitivity to error, the transducers should have a low non-linearity,
variations of the measured quantity in a plane low hysteresis, high resolution and a high degree of
perpendicular to the required plane has been such as repeatability.
to give completely erroneous results when the The transducer selected should be free from load
transducer has been used in practice. alignment effects and temperature effects. It should
6. Errors. The transducer should maintain the not need frequent calibration, should not have any
expected input-output relationship as described by its component limitations, and should be preferably
transfer function so as to avoid errors. small in size.
7. Transient and Frequency Response. The
25.11 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
transducer should meet the desired time domain
specifications like peak overshoot, rise time, settling It is generally seen that methods which involve
time and small dynamic error. It should ideally have a the measurement of change in resistance are preferred
flat frequency response curve. In practice, however, to those employing other principles. This is because
there will be cutoff frequencies and higher cut off both alternating as well as direct currents and voltages
frequency should be high in order to have a wide are suitable for resistance measurements.
bandwidth. The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed
8.Loading Effects. The transducer should have a by a simple equation that involves a few physical
high input impedance and a low output impedance to quantities. The relationship is
avoid loading effects.
R=pL/ A,
9. Environmental Compatibility. It should be
assured that the transducer selected to work under where R = resistance ; Q,
specified environmental conditions maintains its L = length of conductor ; m,
input-output relationship and does not break down. A = cross-sectional area of conductor ; m2,
For example, the transducer should remain operable and p = resistivity of conductor material; Q-m
 Transducers for Measurement of Electrical Quantities 357
14.6 Selection of Transducer
Following are the factors which need to be considered while selecting a transducer
1. High input impedance and low output impedance, to avoid loading effect.
2. Good resolution over is entire selected range.
3. Highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to unwanted signal.
4. Preferably small in size.
5. High degree of accuracy and repeatability.
6. Selected transducer must be free from errors.
14.7 Strain Gauge
Strain is expressed as the ratio of total deformation to the initial dimension of the material body
in which the forces are being applied. Mathematically, strain,
DL l - L
e= =
L L
where L = the original length of the material body
l = Final length and
DL = Change in length.
A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object. It consists of an insulating
flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a
suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing
its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone
bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
The most popular electrical elements used in force measurements include the resistance strain
gage, the semiconductor strain gage, and piezoelectric transducers. The strain gage measures force
indirectly by measuring the deflection it produces in a calibrated carrier. Pressure can be converted
into a force using an appropriate transducer, and strain gage techniques can then be used to measure
pressure. Flow rates can be measured using differential pressure measurements which also make
use of strain gage technology.
The change in the value of resistance by straining the gauge may be partly explained by elastic
material. Figure 14.4 shows a strip of elastic material, if the tension is applied, if longitudinal
dimension will increase while there will be a reduction in the lateral dimension. When its positive
strain, its length increase while its area of cross-section decreases.
L L DL
F
F D F D – DD F

Fig. 14.4.
The resistance of the conductor is proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its
area of cross-section. The resistance of the gauge increase with positive strain.
Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire. The wire has a resistivity r, the resistance
of unstrained gauge,
L
R= r
A
where L = length of conductor
A = area of conductor
Lets the tensile stress is applied to the wire. The length is increase and area is decrease as
shown in Fig. 14.4.
392 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
15.1 Introduction
Transducer are used for converting non-electrical signal into electrical signal and this electrical
signal is processed by the circuit and then supplied to the output devices.
15.2 Measurement of Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of any matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions
of hot and cold. Heat spontaneously flows from bodies of a higher temperature to bodies of lower
temperature, at a rate that increases with the temperature difference and the thermal conductivity.
No heat will be exchanged between bodies of the same temperature; such bodies are said to be
in “thermal equilibrium”.
Many methods have been developed for measuring temperature. Most of these rely on
measuring some physical property of a working material that varies with temperature. One of
the most common devices for measuring temperature is the glass thermometer. This consists of a
glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working fluid. Temperature
increase causes the fluid to expand, so the temperature can be determined by measuring the volume
of the fluid. Such thermometers are usually calibrated so that one can read the temperature simply
by observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer.
But in industries we use different type of temperature measurement instrument for measuring
temperature. When measuring the temperature we ensure that the measuring instrument
(thermometer, thermocouple, etc.) is really the same temperature as the material that is being
measured. Under some conditions heat from the measuring instrument can cause a temperature
gradient, so the measured temperature is different from the actual temperature of the system. In
such a case the measured temperature will vary not only with the temperature of the system,
but also with the heat transfer properties of the system. We will discuss each type of measuring
instrument one by one in the following pages.
15.3 Thermoelectric Effects
Thermoelectric thermometry is based on thermoelectric effects or thermoelectricity discovered in
the 19th century. Seebeck effect was discovered by Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821 after some
year Peltier effect discovered by Jean Charles Peltier in 1824 and Thomson effect discovered by
William Thomson in 1847, the thermoelectric effects are explained below:
1. Seebeck Effect. Two wires of different metals A Copper A
and B are joined together to form two functions and
if the two junctions are at different temperatures, an
electric current will flow around the circuit. This
is the Seebeck effect. If metal A is of copper and Iron B
metal B of iron, then the current flows from copper
to iron at the hot junction and from iron to copper Hot Cold
at the cold junction as shown in Fig. 15.1. Fig. 15.1.
2. Peltier Effect. This is the reverse phenomenon of
Seeback effect, if an external source of emf Battery
Copper A
is connected and a current is forced to flow
through the junctions. It is observed that
heat is absorbed when the current flows I I
across the iron-copper junction from copper
to iron and liberated if the flow of current Iron B
is reversed. The amount of heat liberated or
absorbed is proportional to the quantity of
Fig. 15.2.
electricity that across the junction, and the
 Transducer for Measurement Non-Electrical Quantities 393
amount of heat liberated or absorbed when one ampere passes for a second is called the
Peltier coefficient.
3. Thompson effect. According to the Thompson effect, when a current flows through a
copper conductor having thermal gradient along length of the conductor, heat is released
at a point where current is in the direction same as the heat flow; while heat is absorbed
at a point where current flows in the direction opposite to that of heat flow.
15.4 Laws of thermoelectric Circuit
There are three laws of thermoelectric circuits which are given below:
1. Law of homogenous materials. A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit
of a single homogenous material however it varies in cross section by the application of
heat alone.
2. Law of intermediate materials. The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric forces in a
circuit composed of any number of dissimilar materials is zero if all the junctions are
at the same temperature. The Seebeck emf E developed is independent of the fact that
a third material C forms two junctions with the + and – materials as shown in the first
part of Fig. 15.3. Since the material C is isothermal the situation is equivalent to a single
measuring junction between the + and – materials as indicated in the latter part of the
figure.
tm C tm tm

– + +
–

E E
tr tr
+ +

Fig. 15.3.
3. Law of successive or intermediate temperatures. The seebeck voltage is E1 with the
measuring junction at t1 and the reference junction at t2. The seebeck voltage is E2 with
the measuring junction at t2 and the reference junction at t3. Then the seebeck voltage is
E3 = E1 + E2 with the measuring junction at t1 and the refencence junction at t3 as show
in Fig. 15.4.

t1 t2 + t2 t3

E1 E2

= t1 t3

E3 = E1 + E2

Fig 15.4.

15.5 Resistance Temperature Detectors

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are used to measure temperature by correlating the
resistance of the RTD element with temperature. The resistance of a conductor changes when its
394 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
temperature is changed. The variation of resistance R with temperature T can be represented by
the following relationship,
R = Ro (1 + a1T + a2T2 + .... + anTn)
Where Ro = resistance at T = 0 K
a1, a2 + ... + an = constants
Fig. 15.5 shows the RTD. The resistances of certain metals are changing with the different
temperature ranges.
By increasing the temperature, the electrical resistance of different metals increases in the
direct relation to the rise of temperature. The basic element of RTD is very simple. Its construction
consists of a wire piece wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. Because of their compact size,
when the space is limited then RTD elements are commonly used. It is made of very thin metal
surface as much as possible to keep the contact is better. The change in resistance caused by
changes in temperature are detected by Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 15.6. The temperature
sensing element which may be nickel, copper or platinum contained in a bulb or well, along with
the balancing bridge form the essential components of a temperature measuring system based
upon this principle.

R1 R2
Connecting
Leads
G

Mounting
R3
Thread
Sheath R5

Lead Support (Sensing R4

Sensing Element Element) RS
  
Fig. 15.5. Fig. 15.6.
The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature coefficient, and R1,
R2 and R5 are made of resistances that are practically constant under normal temperature changes.
When no current flows through the galvanometer, the normal principle of Wheatstone’s bridges
states the ratio of resistances is,
R1 R
= s
R2 R5
The sensing element is away from the indicator and its leads have a resistance, R3, R4, then,
R1 R + Rs + R4
= 3
R2 R5
Now its resistance Rs change cannot be maintained and the galvanometer shows a deflection,
which can be calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale. The RTD element is made from a
pure material whose resistance at various temperatures has been documented. The material has a
predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes; it is this predictable change that is
used to determine temperature.
The requirements of a conductor material to be used in RTD are given below:
1. The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should be as large
as possible
2. The material should have a high value of resistivity so that minimum volume of material
is used for the construction of RTD.
 Transducer for Measurement Non-Electrical Quantities 395
3. The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
Common RTD elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel have a unique, and repeatable
and predictable resistance versus temperature relationship and operating temperature range.
15.6 Thermocouple
A thermocouple consists of a pair of dissimilar conductors welded or fused together at one end to
form the hot or measuring junction with other end available for connection to the cold or reference
junction. A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device that converts thermal energy into electrical
energy. The thermocouple is used as a primary transducer for measurement of temperature,
converting temperature changes directly into emf.
There are two types of effects that arise when Metal A (+)
two dissimilar metals are brought in contact with each
other and the temperature is changed at the junction. T1 T2
One effect produces an electrical potential (Seeback
effect) when heat is applied and the other effect is to
Metal B (–)
cool the junction when a current is passed through the
junction in the proper direction (Peltier effect). These Fig. 15.7.
two effects can be very useful. Since the voltage at the junction depends upon the temperature of
the end points, we may generate a voltage by heating one junction while holding the other constant
in temperature. This effect make a cooling device, a refrigerator, by passing a current through the
junction in the proper direction.
There are two junctions T1 and T2. The junction
Recorder
T2 is kept at constant reference temperature and Hot or
referred as cold junction while the junction T1 is junction Metal
referred as hot junction. When the hot junction
temperature is greater as compared to the cold Cold junction
junction an emf is generated due to the temperature
gradient. The magnitude of the emf depends on the Fig. 15.8.
material used for the wires and temperature difference between the two junctions. A meter or
recorder is used to measures emf as shown in Fig. 15.8.
15.7 Types of Thermocouple
There are several types of thermocouples are available, and different types are designated by capital
letters that indicate their composition according to American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
conventions. For example, a J-Type thermocouple has one iron conductor and one constantan
(a copper-nickel alloy) conductor. The list of thermocouples in given in Table. 15.1.
Table 15.1.

Thermocouple Type Conductors – Positive Conductors – Negative

B Platinum-30% rhodium Platinum-6% rhodium
E Nickel-chromium alloy Copper-nickel alloy
J Iron Copper-nickel alloy
K Nickel-chromium alloy Nickel-aluminum alloy
N Nickel-chromium-silicon alloy Nickel-silicon-magnesium alloy
R Platinum-13% rhodium Platinum
S Platinum-10% rhodium Platinum
T Copper Copper-nickel alloy
396 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
Fig. 15.9 shows the thermal emfs for some common thermocouple materials. The values are
based on a reference temperature of 32°F.

1700 B
S R

1500

N
1300
K
Temperature (Centigrade Degrees)

1100 J

900
E

700

500
T
300

100

–10 –5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
–100
Thermocouple Voltage (mV)

–300

Fig. 15.9.

15.8 Measurement of Temperature with Thermocouple

T Type Thermocouple. Fig. 15.10 shows a T type , uses copper and constantan. Copper used
is an element and constantan use is an alloy of nickel and copper. The copper side is positive
and constant side is negative. Assuming copper wires used to connect the thermocouple to the
next stage and second copper-constantan junction is produced. The junction is called as reference
junction. It generates a seeback voltage that oppose the voltage generated by the sensing junction.
When the both junction are at the sane temperature the output voltage is zero. If the sensing
junction is at high temperature the output voltage is proportional to the difference between the
two junction temperatures.
Copper Copper
+
Sensing Vout = VS – VR
Element VS
– VR
– +
Constantan Copper

Reference
Junction
Fig. 15.10.
 Transducer for Measurement Non-Electrical Quantities 397
With Cold Junction Compensation. The temperature cannot be delivered directly from the
output voltage, it may cause an error produced by the reference junction. This error is overcome
by placing the reference junction in the ice bath of known temperature as shown in Fig. 15.11.
This process is called as cold junction compensation. The reference voltage is maintained at 0°C.
The reference voltage is now predictable from the calibration curve of the T type thermocouple.
Copper

Sensing + V Vout = VS – VR
Element – S
Constantan Copper

– VR +

Ice bath Reference Junction

Fig. 15.11.
For accurate measurement of hot junction temperature the cold junction or reference junction
must kept at 0°C. If the cold junction is at ambient temperature then a voltage corresponding to
this temperature must be added to the measurement to obtain accurate reading.
The standard calibration data for all thermocouples are based on cold junction temperature. In
practice it may not be possible to keep cold junction at zero degree temperature. Hence standard
data need to be corrected. One way is to add the environmental temperature to the value of
temperature determined by thermocouple measurement. In another method, thermistor may be
put in the thermocouple circuit. The voltage drop across thermistor depends on environmental
temperature which then compensates for the error.
J Type Thermocouple Using Isothermal Block. When the copper us not one of the
thermocouple metal then the four junction circuit is formed as show in Fig. 15.12. This is
J type thermocouple uses iron and constantan as the two elements, When it is connected to copper
wires, two iron copper junction, reference junction and sensing junction are formed. Here we used
isothermal block. This block is made of materials that have poor conductor of electricity but a
good conductor of heat. Both iron-copper junctions will be at same temperature and generate the
same seeback voltage and hence these two voltages will cancel. In industry it is not possible to use
the ice-baths method so we use different method for cold junction compensation. The isothermal
block contains two reference junctions and a thermistor. The resistance of the thermistor is function
of temperature. The circuit is used to sense the resistance of thermistor and to compensate for
the voltage introduced by the two reference junctions. An isothermal block with one temperature
sensor can provide compensation for several units.

Copper

Sensing +
Vout
Element –
Copper

Thermister RT

Isothermal Block
and Reference Junction

Fig. 15.12.
398 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
15.9 Types of Junction in Thermocouples
When thermocouples are assembled into metal-sheathed thermocouples, there are the following
ways to assemble the thermocouple junction.
1. Grounded Junction. Fig. 15.13 shows the grounded junction when assembling the
thermocouple into protective metal sheath, the thermocouples junction are weld directly
to the inside tip of the sheath. Grounded thermocouples temperature sensors are widely
used, because it offer faster respond time, more accurate reading at short distant. It is a
preferred junction type for high temperature applications. Precaution for ground loop at
long distances and at low temperature usage.

Fig. 15.13.
2. Ungrounded Junction. Fig. 15.14 shows the ungrounded junction this is similar to the
grounded junction except it is isolated from the metal sheath. Ungrounded thermocouples
are used primarily for isolating the control system from the sensor and to prevent ground
loop. It is more inaccurate and slow respond time.

Fig. 15.14.
3. Exposed Junction. Fig. 15.15 shows the exposed junction. The junction is directly
exposed to the material being heated, the junction responds is very quickly to temperature
changes. There is no sheath or insulation to slow down heat transfer.

Fig. 15.15.
Materials for Thermocouple
Some of the property of material used for thermocouple are given below:
1. Melting point of thermocouple materials must be higher than the measuring temperature.
2. The dissimilar materials on joining should be able to produce large emf for accuracy of
measurements.
3. Temperature is determined indirectly i.e. through calibrations of emf with temperature.
As for as possible, the linear variation of emf with temperature is desired.
4. Thermocouple materials should be resistant to atmospheres in furnaces.
Advantages of Thermocouple
Some of the advantages of thermocouples are given below:
1. The thermocouple junction may be grounded and brought into direct contact with the
material being measured.
2. The thermocouples is rugged in construction
3. It cover a wide range of temperature form –270° C to 2700° C.
4. Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distances transmission for
temperature measurement is possible.
 Transducer for Measurement Non-Electrical Quantities 399
Disadvantages of Thermocouple
Some of the main disadvantages of thermocouple are given below:
1. Temperature measurement with a thermocouple requires two temperatures be measured,
the junction at the work end (the hot junction) and the junction where wires meet the
instrumentation copper wires (cold junction).
2. Thermocouples operation are relatively complex with potential sources of error.
3. They have a lower accuracy and hence they cannot be used for precision work.
15.10 Thermistor
Thermistor are the semiconductor type resistance thermometers. They have high sensitivity but
highly nonlinear characteristics. It also having positive temperature coefficients but generally the
resistor having negative temperature coefficient are called Thermister. Their characteristics can
be expressed as, 1 1 
β − 
T T
RT = Ro e  o

Where RT = resistance at temperature T(K)

R0 = resistance at temperature T0

Resistance
T0 = reference temperature at 25°C
b = constant
Fig. 15.16 shows the characteristics of NTC thermistors. The
resistance of the thermistor decrease as the operating temperature
increases. They are made from oxides of iron, manganese, Temperature
magnesium etc.
Fig. 15.16.
The nonlinear characteristics of thermistors often creates
problem for temperature measurement. The resistance temperature characteristics of the equivalent
resistance would be more linear, but at the cost of sensitivity.
Voltage-Current characteristics
Fig. 15.17 shows the voltage current characteristics of thermistor. As the current increase the
voltage across the thermistor increase after reaching the peak value voltage start decreasing, and
the negative resistance region starts.
Voltage
0°C
In V
25°C
100 Ambient

10
Negative
60°C resistance
1
region

0.1 Current
10–7 10–8 10–5 10–4 10–3 in A

Fig. 15.17.
15.11 Current Time Characteristics
At very low voltages the thermistor takes long time to reach peak current. As the voltage level
increase the time to reach peak current decreases. These characteristics are shown in Fig. 15.18
its also known as current time characteristics.
400 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation

Current
in mA

50 70 V

40 60 V

30 50 V

20 40 V

10 V = 30 V

0 Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 in sec

Fig. 15.18.
Types of thermistor
Different types of thermistor are given below: Leads Glass coated
bead
1. Bead thermistors. Smallest Thermistors are in the form
of heads with a diameter of 0.15mm to 1.25mm. This is
the most familiar type of Thermistor usually glass coated. Fig. 15.19.
Leads
2. Probe Thermistor. Beads may be sealed in the Glass
tips of soild glass rods to form probes. Glass probe
have a diameter of about 2.5mm. the probes are
used for measuring temperature of liquids.
Fig. 15.20.
3. Disc Thermistor. Discs are made by pressing material under high Lead
pressure into cylindrical flat shapes with a diameters ranging from
2.5mm to 25mm. they are mainly used for temperature control.
Fig. 15.21.
4. Washer type Thermistor. Washer type Lead
is usually long cylindrical units. Leads
are attached to the ends of the rods. The
advantage of this type is, it produce high
resistance under moderate power.
Fig. 15.22.
Advantages
Some of the main advantages of thermister are given below:
1. Low cost
2. Sensitivity is high
3. Small in size.
4. Good stability.
5. High output signal.
Disadvantages
Some of the disadvantages of thermister are given below:
1. Not suitable for high temperature measurement.
2. Requires external power supply.
 Transducer for Measurement Non-Electrical Quantities 401
Appilications
Main applications of thermister are given below:
1. Used for measurement and control of temperature.
2. Used for providing time delay.
3. Used as temperature compensation element in electronic equipments.
4. Used for measuring thermal conductivity of a medium
Example 15.1. At Ro = 1050 W at 27°C, the corresponding b = 3140. What is the temperature
when the thermistor resistance is 2330 W.
Solution: Given: Ro = 1050 W; To = 27°C; b = 3140 and RT = 2330 W.
We know that,
1 1 
β − 
T To 
RT = Ro e
1 1 
3140 − 
 T 300 
2330 = 1050 e

1 1 
3140  −  = loge 2219 = 0.797
 T 300 
1
T= = 278.77 K Ans.
35.87 × 10−4
δR
Example 15.2. Find the sensitivity S = of the transducer at the given operating point in
δT
the example.
Solution: Given: RT = 2.330 W; b = 3140 and T = 278.77 K
1 1 
β − 
T To 
We know that, R = Ro e
and sensitivity is given by,
δR  −β 
= R 2 
δT T 
(−2330) × (3140)
= = – 94.14 W/K Ans.
(278.77) 2

15.12 Difference between RTD, Thermocouple and Thermistors

Three difference types of devices are available to measure temperature: the resistance temperature
detector(RTD), thermocouple, and the thermistor. The main difference and characteristics curve
shown in Fig. 15.23 are given below.
1. Resistance Temperature Detector. Its constructed similar to an accurate wire wound
resistor. It is most accurate of the three types of temperature sensing devices because
it has the best stability and the best linear response. Its main disadvantages are a slow
response time, small resistance change, and it is sensitive to self-heating effects.
2. Thermocouple. Its constructed with two dissimilar metals joined together and takes
advantage of the thermoelectric potential property of dissimilar metal junctions. The
main advantages of a thermocouple are that a current source is not necessary and it has
the largest temperature range of the three types of temperature sensors. The primary
402 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
disadvantages are a low voltage (mV) output, a reference (cold junction) temperature is
needed, and it has the lowest sensitivity of the three types.
3. Thermistor. The thermistor has much higher resistance values and exhibits a larger
change in resistance with respect to temperature, but its temperature range is very limited
in comparison to the other two types of temperature sensors.
Resistance

Resistance
Voltage
Temperature Temperature Temperature
RTD Thermocouple Thermistor

Fig. 15.23.

15.13 Basic concepts of Radiation

Fig. 15.24 shows the electromagnetic spectrum. What we see with our eyes is only the small part
(visible region) of a broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. On the immediate high energy
side of the visible spectrum lies the ultraviolet, and on the low energy side is the infrared (IR).
This invisible portion of light carries various supplementary information.
X-rays Ultraviolet infrared

10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 101 102 103 104 wavelength in m

1019 1018 1017 1016 1015 1014 1013 1012 1011 Frequency in Hz

Gamma rays Visible Microwave

Fig. 15.24.

15.14 Planck’s law T = 5500 K

Planck’s law states that the intensity of 800

electromagnetic radiation emitted by a
blackbody is a function of frequency
(or wavelength). Black body will radiate 600
T = 5000 K
energy at all frequencies. The Planck’s law
Intensity

gives a distribution that peaks at a certain

wavelength, the peak shifts to shorter 400
wavelengths for higher temperatures, and T = 4500 K
the area under the curve raise rapidly
with increasing temperature as shown in 200 T = 4000 K
Fig. 15.25. T = 3500 K

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
 in nm
Fig. 15.25.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 805

Iron Cored Coils. The greatest disadvantage of coil. If the short-circuited sleeve is away from the coil,
iron cored coils transducers is that their inductance is the inductance of the coil is high while if the sleeve is
not constant but depends upon the value of the covering the coil, its inductance is low. The change in
current carried by the coil. Also, at high frequencies, inductance is a measure of displacement.
the eddy current loss tends to be high and therefore
Example 23.33 In « variable reluctance type proximity
iron cored coil transducers cannot be used beyond a
inductive transducer shown in Fig. 25.87 the coil has an
particular frequency. The frequency of supply voltage inductance of 2 mH when the target made offerromagnetic
should not exceed 20 kHz for iron core transducers to material is 1 mm away from the core. Calculate the value of
keep the core losses to acceptable values. Hence, for inductance when a displacement of 0.02 mm is applied to the
accurate measurements the frequency of the input target in a direction moving it towards the core. Show that
displacement should not exceed 2 kHz. the change in inductance is linearly proportional to the
The advantages of iron cored coil transducers are: displacement. Neglect the reluctance of the iron parts.
(?) Their size is much smaller than that air cored
transducers on account of high permeability J Displacement
of iron cores. Target
Air gap (iron)
(iz) Iron cored transducers are less likely to
Coil
cause external magnetic fields because their Core
magnetic field is confined to the iron core of Q 6 O O O O O iron
the transducer on account of high
O O O O O
permeability and are less affected by stray
Output
magnetic fields on account of the high
magnetic field produced by them.
Fig. 25.87 Variable reluctance inductive transducer.
Most iron cored transducers are of the variable
reluctance type where the length of air gap in the
Solution. Inductance with air gap length of 1.00 mm,
magnetic circuit is varied. In most applications the
reluctance of magnetic circuit is primarily that of air L=2 mH
gaP- Length of air gap when a displacement of 0.05 mm
is applied,
3. Transducers working on principle of
= 1.00-0.02 =-0.98 mm
production of Eddy Currents
These inductive transducers work on the Now inductance is inversely proportional to the
principle that if a conducting plate is placed near a coil length air gap as the reluctance of flux paths through
carrying alternating current, eddy currents are, iron are neglected. Since the gap length decreases, the
produced in the conducting plate. The conducting inductance increases by AL
plate acts as a short-circuited secondary winding of a
transformer. The eddy currents flowing in the plate L+AL = 2 x —— = 2.04 mH
0.98
produce a magnetic field of their own which acts
against the magnetic field produced by the coil. This Change in inductance AL=0.04mH
results in reduction of flux and thus the inductance of The ratio of change in inductance to the original
the coil is reduced. The nearer is the plate to the coil, inductance is 0.04/2 = 0.02, and ratio of displacement
the higher are the eddy currents and thus higher is the to original gap length is also 0.02. Hence the change in
reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus the inductance is linearly proportional to the displace­
inductance of the coil alters with variation of distance ment. This linear relationship, however, is true of only
between the plate and the coil. very small values of displacements.
A number of arrangements are possible and two
arrangements are shown in Fig. 25.86. The plate may 25.24 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
be at right angle to the axis of the coil. The TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
displacement of the plate causes a change in the The most widely used inductive transducer to
inductance of the coil. In the other arrangement a translate the linear motion into electrical signals is the
conducting sleeve runs in parallel and coaxially over a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). The basic
 806 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

construction of LVDT is shown in Fig. 25.88. The A.C.

transformer consists of a single primary winding P excitation
and two secondary windings Sj and S2 wound on a
cylindrical former. The secondary windings have Primary
equal number of turns and are identically placed on winding
either side of the primary winding. The primary Arm
winding is connected to an alternating current source. Core
A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. Displacement

The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm

row?
attached to the soft iron core. In practice the core is Es
52
made of high permeability, nickel iron which is S2 6
hydrogen annealed. This gives low harmonics, low Secondary
null voltage and a high sensitivity. This is slotted windings
longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The
A.C.
assembly is placed in a stainless steel housing and the
excitation
end lids provide electrostatic and electromagnetic
shielding. The frequency of a.c. applied to primary
Primary
windings may be between 50 Hz to 20 kHz. winding

Former

(b)

Fig. 25.89 Circuits of an LVDT.

Fig. 25.88 Linear variable differential
transformer (L.V.D.T.). Now if the core is moved to the left of the NULL
position, more flux links with winding S1 and less
Since the primary winding is excited by an
with winding S2. Accordingly output voltage £sl, of
alternating current source, it produces an alternating
the secondary winding S]z is more than Es2, the output
magnetic field which in turn induces alternating
current voltages in the two secondary windings. voltage of secondary winding S2. The magnitude of
output voltage is, thus, EQ = Esl -Es-> and the output
The output voltage of secondary. Sr is Esl and
voltage is in phase with say the primary voltage.
that of secondary, S2, is Ej2. In order to convert the
Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null
outputs from S1 and S2 into a single voltage signal, the
position, the flux linking with winding S2 becomes
two secondaries and S2 are connected in series
larger than that linking with winding Sr This results
opposition as shown in Fig. 25.89(b). Thus the output
voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two in £s2 becoming larger than Esl. The output voltage in
voltages. this case is EQ = Es] - Es2 and is 180° out of phase with
the primary voltage. Therefore, the two differential
Differential output voltage,
voltages are 180° out of phase with each other.
E0 = Esl~Es2 -(25-9°)
The amount of voltage change in either secondary
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, winding is proportional to the amount of movement
the flux linking with both the secondary windings is of the core. Hence, we have an indication of amount of
equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus linear motion. By noting which output voltage is
at null position : Es] - £s2. Since the output voltage of increasing or decreasing, we can determine the
the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the direction of motion. In other words, any physical
output voltage £0 is zero at null position. displacement of the core causes the voltage of one
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 807

secondary winding to increase while simultaneously Figure 25.91 shows the core of an LVDT at three
reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding. different positions. In Fig. 25.91(b) the core is at null
The difference of the two voltages appears across the position, it is symmetrical with respect to both the
output terminals of the transducer and gives a secondary windings. This is called the null position. At
measure of the physical position of core and hence the this position Esl -Es2 hence the output voltage EQ =0.
displacement.
As the core is moved in one direction from the
null position, the differential voltage i.e., the
difference of the two secondary voltages, will increase
while maintaining an in-phase relationship with the
voltage from the input source. In the other direction
from the null position, the differential voltage will also
increase, but will be 180° out of phase with the voltage
from the source. By comparing the magnitude and
phase of the output (differential) voltage with that of
the source, the amount and direction of the movement
of the core and hence of displacement may be
determined.
The amount of output voltage may be measured
to determine the displacement. The output signal may
Primary
also be applied to a recorder or to a controller that can winding
restore the moving system to its normal position.
The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function
of core displacement within a limited range of motion,
say, about 5 mm from the null position. Figure 25.90
shows the variation of output voltage against
displacement for various positions of core. The curve
is practically linear for small displacements (upto
about 5 mm as mentioned above). Beyond this range
of displacement, the curve starts to deviate from a
straight line.

Fig. 25.90 Variation output voltage with

linear displacement for an LVDT.

Figure 25.90 shows the variation of output voltage

versus displacement for various positions of core. The
curve is practically linear for a limited range of
displacement from the null position. Beyond this
range of displacement the curve starts to deviate from Fig. 25.91 (a) and (b) LVDT at different positions,
a straight line. (c) Core of LVDT at different positions.
 808 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

When the core is moved to the left as in Fig. 25.91(a) are unique to the LVDT and are not available in any
and is at A, Esl is greater than Es2 and therefore phase other transducers. The features arise from the basic
angle <|)= 0. When the core is moved to the right fact that LVDT is an electrical transformer with a
towards B shown in Fig. 25.91(c) Es2 is greater than separable non-contacting core.
E^and hence the output voltage is negative or a phase Ordinarily, there is no physical contact between
angle of 180°. the movable core and coil structure which means that
The characteristics are linear upto 0 - A and 0 - B the LVDT is a frictionless device. This permits its use
but after then they become non-linear as shown in in critical measurements that cannot tolerate the
Fig. 25.91. addition of low mass core but cannot tolerate friction
Ideally the output voltage at the null position loading. The absence of friction between coil and core
should be equal to zero. However, in actual practice of an LVDT means that there is no wear out. This gives
there exists a small voltage at the null position. This an LVDT essentially infinite mechanical life. This is of
may be on account of presence of harmonics in the paramount importance in applications such as the
input supply voltage and also due to harmonics fatigue-life testing of materials and structures. The
produced in the output voltage on account of use iron infinite mechanical life is also important in high
core. There may be either an incomplete magnetic or reliability mechanisms and systems found in aircrafts,
electrical unbalance or both which result in a finite missiles, space vehicles and critical industrial
output voltage at the null position. This finite residual equipment.
voltage is generally less than 1% of the maximum The frictionless operation of the LVDT combined
output voltage in the linear range. Other causes of with the induction principle by which the LVDT
residual voltage are stray magnetic fields and function is truly infinite resolution. This means that
temperature effects. The residual voltage is shown in LVDT can respond to even minute motion of the core
Fig. 25.92. However, with improved technological and produce an output.
methods and with the use of better a.c. sources, the 3. Immunity front External Effects. The
residual voltage can be reduced to almost a negligible separation between LVDT core and LVDT coils
value. permits the isolation of media such as pressurized,
A Output corrosive, or caustic fluids from the coil assembly by a
voltage, Ea non-magnetic barrier interposed between the core and
inside of the coil. It also makes the hermetic sealing of
the coil assembly possible and eliminates the need for
a dynamic seal on the moving member. Only a static
seal is necessary to seal the coil assembly within the
pressurized system.
The fact that the LVDT is a transformer means
that there is complete isolation between excitation
voltage given to the primary winding and the output
produced by the secondary windings. This makes an
Fig. 25.92 Enlargement of hatched portion LVDT an effective analog computing element without
of Fig. 25.90. the need of buffer amplifiers. It also falicitates the
isolation of the signal ground from excitation ground
25.24.1 Advantages of LVDT in high performance measurement and control loops.
1. High range. The LVDTs have a very high range 4. High input and high sensitivity. The LVDT
for measurement of displacement. This can be used for gives a high output and many a times there is no need
measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm for amplification. The transducer possesses a high
to 250 mm. With a 0.25% full scale linearity, it allows sensitivity which is typically about 40 V/min.
measurements down to 0.003 mm. However, the
5. Ruggedness. These transducers can usually
dynamic response is considerably slower than the
tolerate high degree of shock and vibrations especially
2.5 kHz excitation signal. when the core is spring loaded without any adverse
2. Friction and Electrical Isolation. The LVDT has effects. They are simple in construction and by virtue
many commendable features that make it useful for a of their being small and light in weight, they are stable
wide variety of applications. Some of these features and easy to align and maintain.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 809

6. Low Hysteresis. LVDTs show a low hysteresis 2. Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used
and hence repeatability is excellent under all conditions. as a device to measure force, weight and pressure etc.
7. Low Power Consumption. Most of LVDTs The force measurement can be done by using a load
consume power which is less than 1 W. cell as the primary transducer while fluid pressure can
be measured by using Bourdon tube which acts as
25.24.2 Disadvantages of LVDTs primary transducer. The force or the pressure is
1. Relatively large displacements are required convened into a voltage. In these applications the high
for appreciable differential output. sensitivity of LVDTs is a major attraction.
2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields Some of the typical applications of LVDTs are
but shielding is possible. This is done by providing shown in Fig. 25.93. In Fig. 25.93(a) four LVDTs are
magnetic shields with longitudinal slots. used for measurement of weight or pressure exerted
3. Many a times, the transducer performance is by liquid in a tank. They (LVTDs) are excited in
affected by vibrations. parallel to increase the sensitivity.
4. The receiving instrument must be selected to Figure 25.93(b) shows two LVDTs which are used
operate on a.c. signals or a demodulator network must for measurement and control of thickness of a metal
be used if a d.c. output is required. sheet being rolled. When the thickness equals the
desired value, the two LVDTs are balanced out.
5. The dynamic response is limited
mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically
by the frequency of applied voltage. The frequency of
the carrier should be at least ten times the highest
frequency component to be measured.
6. Temperature affects the performance of the
transducer. But when temperature effects are expected
to influence the performance, manganin wire may be
used instead of copper wire. Unfortunately manganin
has a high resistivity and therefore its use results in
loss of sensitivity. The sensitivity with manganin coils
may be as low as 1/5 of that with copper coils.
Temperature also causes phase shifting effects which
may be minimized by using a capacitor across one of
the secondary windings.

25.24.3 Uses of LVDTs

The uses of LVDTs are numerous. Some of the
major applications of LVDTs are listed below :
1. The LVDT can be used in all applications where
displacements ranging from fraction of a mm to a few
cm have to be measured. The LVDT acting as a
primary transducer converts the displacement direct
into an electrical output proportional to displacement.
This is a fundamental conversion i.e., the mechanical
variable (displacement in this case) is directly
converted into an analogous signal (voltage in this
case) in one stage only. In contrast, the electrical strain
gauge requires the assistance of some form of a
sensing element to act as primary transducer to
convert the mechanical displacement into strain which
in turn is converted into an electrical signal by the
strain gauge acting as a secondary transducer.
Therefore, two stages of signal conversion are
involved in strain gauges while there is only one in
case of LVDT when displacement is being measured.
 810 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Sensitivity of instrument
= amplification factor x sensitivity of LVDT
= 4 x 10“3 x 250 = 1 V/mm = 1000 mV/mm
1 scale division = 5/100 V = 50 mV
Minimum voltage that can be read on the voltmeter
= (l/5)x 50 = 1 mV
.'. Resolution of instrument
= lx (1/1000) = lx IO-3mm

Example 25.38 A steel cantilever is 0.25 m long,

20 mm wide and 4 mm thick.
(a) Calculate the value of deflection at the free end for
the cantilever when a force of 25 N is applied at
this end. The modulus of elasticity for steel is
200 GN/m2*. 3I
(b) An LVDT with a sensitivity of 0.5 V/mm is used.
The voltage is read on a 10 V voltmeter having
100 divisions. Two tenths of a division can be
read with certainty.
Fig. 25.93 Sonic applications of LVDTs.
(c) Calculate the minimum and maximum value of
Figure 25.93(c) shows an LVDT being used for force that can be measured with this arrangement.
measurement of tension in a cord while Fig. 25.93(d) Solution, (a) Moment of area of cantilever
shows a complex system where a number of LVDTs I = —bt3
are used in a manufacturing process where a complex 12
machining gob is to done. = ^-x (0.02 )x (0.004)3
Example £5.36 The output voltage of a LVDT is 1.5 V
at maximum displacement. At a load of 0.5 MD, the = 0.107 x 10~9m4
deviation from linearity is maximum and it is ± 0.003 V
Fl3
from a straight line through origin. Deflection x =-----
3 EI
Find the linearity at the given load.
25x(0.25)3
Solution. %age linearity
3x200x109x0.107x10~9
= ±2^92x100 = ±0.2% = 6.08 x 10-3m = 6.08 mm
1.5
(b) Deflection per unit force
Example 25.37 The output of an LVDT is connected to
x _ 6.08
a 5 V voltmeter through an amplifier whose amplification
F ~ 25
factor is 250. An output of 2 mV appears across the
terminals of LVDT when the core moves through a distance = 0.2432 mm/N
of 0.5 mm. Calculate the sensitivity of the LVDT and that of Overall sensitivity of measurement system :
the whole set-up. The milli-voltmeter scale has 100 = 0.2432^^x0.5 —
divisions. The scale can be read to 1/5 of a division. N mm
Calculate the resolution of the instrument in mm. = 0.1216 V/N
Solution. Sensitivity of LVDT 1 scale division = (10/1000) = 0.1 V
_ output voltage Since two tenths of a scale division can be read
displacement with certainty, resolution = (2 /10)x0.1 = 0.02 V
(c) Minimum force that can be measured
= 2xl-° =4xl0~3 V/mm
= 0.02/0.1216 = 0.1645 N
0.5
Maximum force that can be measured
= 4 mV/mm
= (10/0.1216) =82.2 N
 776 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Solution. The resolution of potentiometer 100°C and therefore de-rating in power dissipation
without the gearing arrangement = 1/400 mm =25 pm. has to done on account of increase in temperature. The
With the gearing arrangement which causes 5 de-rated power dissipation is 650 mW while the
revolutions of the potentiometer shaft with one potentiometer is dissipating 667 mW and hence it will
revolution of main shaft = 25/5 = 5 pm. fail.
Example 25.14 It is necessary to measure the position 25.16 STRAIN GAUGES
of an object. It moves 0.8 m. Its position must be known
within 1 mm. Part of the mechanism which moves the object If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed,
is a shift in a shaft that rotates 250° when the object is its resistance changes on account of the fact that both
moved from one extreme to the other. A control length and diameter of conductor change. Also there
potentiometer has been found which is rated at 300° full is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor
scale movement. It has one thousand turns of wire. Is the when it is strained and this property is called
potentiometer suitable for the application ? piezoresistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain
Solution. The shaft provides a gauges are also known as piezoresistive gauges. The
strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and
250°
------= 312.5°/m or 0.3125°/mm conversion associated stress in experimental stress analysis.
0.8
Secondly, many other detectors and transducers,
A resolution of 1 mm at the object translates into notably the load cells, torque meters, diaphragm type
1 mm x 0.3125° = 0.3125° pressure gauges, temperature sensors, accelerometers
Required resolution for the potentiometer. and flow meters, employ strain gauges as secondary
The potentiometer actually has a resolution transducers.

= 0.300° 25.16.1 Theory of Strain Gauges

1000
The change in the value of resistance by straining
.’. The resolution of the potentiometer is higher the gauge may be partly explained by the normal
than that required for the application and hence the dimensional behaviour of elastic material. If a strip of
potentiometer is very much suited for the application.
elastic material is subjected to tension, as shown in
Example 25.15 A control potentiometer is rated as : Fig. 25.55 or in other words positively strained, its
resistance = 150 Q, power rating - 1 W. De-rate the longitudinal dimension will increase while there will
potentiometer by 10 mW/°C above 65°C, thermal resistance
= 30°C/W.
Can the potentiometer be used with a 10 V supply at 80°C
ambient temperature ?
Solution. Power dissipated by potentiometer
P = (10)2/150 = 0.667 W = 667 mW Fig. 25.55 Change in dimensions of a strain gauge
element when subjected to a tensile force.
The actual temperature of the potentiometer is the
sum of the ambient temperature and temperature rise
be a reduction in the lateral dimension. So when a
produced due to self heating.
gauge is subjected to a positive strain, its length
0pot =80° + (667)x30xl0“3 = 100°C
increases while its area of cross-section decreases as
The allowable power dissipation must be shown in Fig. 25.55. Since the resistance of a conductor
decreased by 10 mW for each °C above 65°C is proportional to its length and inversely proportional
Dissipation allowed to its area of cross-section, the resistance of the gauge
increases with positive strain. The change in the value
= 1.0-10x 10“3(100 -35)
resistance of strained conductor is more than what can
= 0.65 W= 650 mW be accounted for an increase in resistance due to
dimensional changes. The extra change in the value of
A first glance, it would appear that the
potentiometer is well below the rated 1 W power resistance is attributed to a change in the value of
dissipated. This could have been true if the resistivity of a conductor when strained. This
temperature of the potentiometer were 65°C. property, as described earlier, is known as
However, the temperature of the potentiometer is peizoresistive effect.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 777

Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit
wire. The wire has the dimensions : length = L, area = change in resistance to per unit change in length.
A, diameter = D before being strained. The material of r _AR/R
the wire has a resistivity p. Gauge factor Cj r — ...(25.67)
f AL/ L
Resistance of unstrained gauge R -pL/ A.
Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire. This or — = Gf— = Cfx£ ...(25.68)
produces a positive strain causing the length to
increase and area to decrease as shown in Fig. 25.55. where e = strain = —
Thus when the wire is strained there are changes in its L
dimensions. Let AL = change in length, AA = change in The gauge factor can be written as :
area, AD = change in diameter and AR = change in
= 1 + 2v+^P
resistance. ...(25.69)
E
In order to find how AR depends upon the Ap/p
material physical quantities, the expression for R is = 1 + 2v
£
differentiated with respect to stress s. Resistance Resistance Resistance
Thus we get: change due to change due to change due to
change of length change in area piezoresistive effect
= + ...(25.59)
ds A ds A2 ds A ds akm=1+2v+ap/p
f AL/ L AL/ L
Dividing Eqn. 25.59 throughout by resistance
R -pL/ A, we have The strain is usually expressed in terms of
1 dR 1 dL 1 dA 1 dp microstrain. 1 microstrain = 1 pm / m.
------- =----- ----------- +---- — ...(25.60)
R ds Lds A ds p ds If the change in the value of resistivity of a
material when strained is neglected, the gauge factor
It is evident from Eqn. 25.60, that the per unit
is :
change in resistance is due to :
G/=l + 2v ...(25.70)
(0 per unit change in length - AL/ L
(ii) per unit change in area = AA / A and Equation 25.70 is valid only when Piezoresistive
(iii) per unit change in resistivity - Ap / p
Effect i.e., change in resistivity due to strain is almost
negligible.
Area A = -D2 /. — =2.-D.— ...(25.61) The Poisson's ratio for all metals is between 0 and
4 ds 4 ds
0.5. This gives a gauge factor of approximately, 2. The
or ljXJ2K/4)DgD=ljD (2562) common value for Poisson's ratio for wires is 0.3. This
A ds (n/4)D2 ds D ds gives a value of 1.6 for wire wound strain gauges.
:. Equation 25.60 can be written as : Table 25.4 gives the value of gauge factors for the
various materials.
1 dR 1 dL 2 dD 1 dp
-------- =----------------------- 1---------- .. .(Zo.oJ)
R ds L ds D ds p ds Table 25.4 Gauqe Factors
Now, Poisson's ratio Material Gauge Material Gauge Factor
I Nickel
lateral strain dD / D - 12.1 Platinum + 4.8
V =----- -------- :----------------- =-------------- j
longitudinal strain dL/ L
■ Manganin + 0.47 Carbon + 20
...(25.64) j 1
Nichrome + 2.0 Doped
or dD / D = -v x dL/ L 100-5000
; Constantan + 2.1 Crystals
... ...(25.65)
R ds L ds L ds p ds ; Soft iron + 4.2

For small variations, the above relationship can be Example 25.16 A resistance wire strain gauge uses a
written as : soft iron wire of small diameter. The gauge factor is + 4.2.
AR AL AL Ap Neglecting the piezoresistive effects, calculate the Poisson's
— = — +2v — + — ...(25.66)
R L L p ' ratio.
 778 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Solution. The gauge factor is given by Eqn. 25.69, Strain gauges are broadly used for two major
G 1 + 2v + *
P/P types of applications and they are :
J e (i) Experimental stress analysis of machines
and structures, and
If piezoresistive effect is neglected, the gauge
factor is given by Eqn. 25.70 as : (ii) Construction of force, torque, pressure, flow
and acceleration transducers.
Gf= l + 2v
25.17.1 Unbonded Metal Strain Qgug§s
4.2-1
Poisson's ratio v = —----- =--------- = 1.6 An unbonded metal strain gauge is shown in pig.
2 2
25.56. This gauge consists of a wire stretched between
Example 25.17 A compressive force is applied to a two points in an insulating medium such as air. The
structural member. The strain is 5 micro-strain: Two wires may be made of various copper nickel, chrome
separate strain gauges are attached to the structural nickel or nickel iron alloys. They are about 0.003 mm
member, one is a nickel wire strain gauge having a gauge in diameter, have a gauge factor of 2 to 4 and sustain 9
factor of-12.1 and the other is nichrome wire strain gauge force of 2 mN. The length of wire is 25 nun or less.
having a gauge factor of 2. Calculate the value of resistance In Fig. 25.56, the flexture element is connected via
of the gauges after they are strained. The resistance of strain a rod to a diaphragm which is used for sensing of
gauges before being strained is 120 Cl. pressure. The wires are tensioned to avoid buckling
Solution. According to our convention, the tensile when they experience a compressive force.
strain taken as positive while the compressive strain is
taken as negative.
Therefore, strain e = -5 x 10-6 Piaphragm
(1 micro strain = 1 pm / m)
Now AR / R (See Eqn. 25.68)
.•. Change in value of resistance of nickel wire
strain gauge :
AR = G^e x R
= (-12.1)x (-5x 10-6)x 120

= 7.26 xlO’3Q =7.26 mQ

Thus there is an increase of 7.26 mfl in the value of
resistance.
For nichrome, the change in the value of
resistance is :
AR = (2)x (-5x 10~6)x 120
= 1.2xlO’3Q =-1.2 mf)
Thus, with compressive strain, the value of
resistance gauge shows a decrease of 1.2 mQ in the
value of resistance.

25.17 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES

The following are the major types of strain gauges:
A Unbonded metal strain gauges
A Bonded metal wire strain gauges
A Bonded metal foil strain gauges
A V acuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges
A Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges
Fig. 25.56 Set-up of a unbonded strain gauge
A Bonded semiconductor strain gauges
and measurement with a Wheatstone
A Diffused metal strain gauges. bridge.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 779

The unbonded metal wire gauges, used almost sheet of material so as to prevent it from any
exclusively in transducer applications, employ mechanical damage. The spreading of wire permits a
preloaded resistance wires connected in a wheatstone uniform distribution of stress over the grid. The
bridge as shown in Fig. 25.56(b). At initial preload, the carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the
strains and resistances of the four arms are nominally specimen under study. This permits a good transfer of
equal, with the result the output voltage of the bridge, strain from carrier to grid of wires. The wires cannot
eQ = 0. Application of pressure produces a small buckle as they are embedded in a matrix of cement
displacement which is about 0.004 mm (full scale), the and hence faithfully follow both the tensile and
displacement increases tension in two wires and compressive strains of the specimen. Since, the
decreases it in the other two, thereby increase the materials and the wire sizes used for bonded wire
resistance of two wires which are in tension and strain gauges are the same as used for unbonded wire
decreasing the resistance of the remaining two wires. strain gauges, the gauge factors and resistances for
This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an both are comparable.
output voltage which is proportional to the input The size of the strain gauges varies with
displacement and hence to the applied pressure. application. They can be as small as 3 mm by 3 cm
Electric resistance of each arm is 120 Q to 1000 Q, square. Usually they are larger but seldom more than
the input voltage to the bridge is 5 to 10 V, and the full 25 mm long and 12.5 mm wide.
scale output of the bridge is typically about 20 mY to For excellent and reproducible results, it is
50 mV. desirable that the resistance wire strain gauges should
25.17.2 Bonded Wire Strain Gauges have the following characteristics :
The bonded metal-wire strain gauges are used for (z) The strain gauge should have a high value of
both stress analysis and for construction of transducers. gauge factor Gy. A high value of gauge factor indicates
a large change in resistance for a particular strain
A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of
resulting in high sensitivity.
fine resistance wire of about 0.025 mm in diameter or
less. The grid is cemented to carrier (base) which may (zz) The resistance of the strain gauge should be
be a thin sheet of paper, a thin sheet of bakelite or a as high as possible since this minimizes the effects of
sheet of teflon. The wire is covered on top with a thin undesirable variations of resistance in the measurement
Wire grid
Carrier (base)

Terminals

Wire grid
(a) Linear strain gauge.

(d) Helical gauge.

Fig. 25.57 Resistance wire strain gauge.
 780 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

circuit. Although undesirable, but necessary, are the Base (Carrier) Materials
resistance of connecting leads and terminals, etc. Several types of base or carrier materials are used
Typical resistances of strain gauges are 120 Q, 350 Q to support the wires. Impregnated paper is used for
and 1000 Q. Although a high resistance value of strain room temperature applications. The range of some of
gauges is desirable from the point of view of the other materials is :
swamping out the effects of variations of resistance in
Epoxy - 200°C to 150°C, Bakelite cellulose or fibre
other parts of the bridge circuit in which they are
invariably used but it results in lower sensitivity. glass materials - upto 200°C for continuous operation
and 300°C for limited operation.
Thus in order to get high sensitivity higher bridge
voltages have to be used. The bridge voltage is limited Adhesives
by the maximum current carrying capacity of the
The adhesives act as bonding materials. Like
wires which is typically 30 mA.
other bonding operations, successful strain gauge
(in) The strain gauges should have a low bonding depends upon careful surface preparation
resistance temperature co-efficient. This is essential to
and use of the correct bonding agent. In order that the
minimise errors on account of temperature variations
strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge,
which affect the accuracy of measurements.
the bond has to be formed between the surface to be
(iv) The strain gauge should not have any
strained and the plastic backing material on which the
hysteresis effects in its response.
gauge is mounted. It is important that the adhesive
(v) In order to maintain constancy of calibration should be suited to this backing ; numerous materials
over the entire range of the strain gauge, it should
are used for backings which require different adhesive
have linear characteristics i.e., the variations in
materials. It is usually desirable that the adhesive
resistance should be a linear function of the strain.
material should be of quick drying type and also be
(vi) The strain gauges are frequently used for insensitive to moisture in order to have good
dynamic measurements and hence their frequency
adherence.
response should be good. The linearity should be
maintained within accuracy limits over the entire Ethylcellucose cement, nitrocellucose cement,
frequency range. bakelite cement and epoxy cement are some of the
commonly used adhesive materials. The temperature
The desirable characteristics of resistance wire
strain gauges are listed above but no single material is range up to which they can be used is usually below
able to satisfy all the properties since they are, many a 175°C.
times, conflicting in nature. A number of metals and
Leads
their alloys have been used in making resistance wire
The leads should be of such materials which have
strain gauges. Some popular metals and alloys used
low and stable resistivity and also a low resistance
for construction of resistance wire strain gauges are
listed in Table 25.5 along with their properties. temperature co-efficient.

Table 25.5 Materials for Strain Gauges

Gauge Resistivity Resistance Temperature Upper Temperature
Material Composition Q m Co-efficient/°C
Factor °C

Nichrome Ni : 80% 2.5 100xl0~8 0.1 xlO'3 1200

Cr : 20%
Constantan Ni : 45% 2.1 48xl0"8 ± 0.02 x 10’3 400
Cu : 55%
Isoelastic Ni : 36% 3.6 105 xlO-8 0.175 xl0~3 1200
Cr : 8%
Mo : 0.5%

1 Nickel - -12 6.5 xlO-8 6.8 xlO’3 -

Platinum - 4.8 lOxlO’8 4.0 x!0~3 _________ -

Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 781

25.17 .3 Bonded Metal Foil Strain Gauges grid gauges are designed with fat end turns. This local
This class of strain gauges is only an extension of increase in area reduces the transverse sensitivity which is a
the bonded metal wire strain gauges. The bonded spurious input since the gauge is designed to measure the
metal wire strain gauges have been completely strain component along the length of grid elements.
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges. For foil type strain gauges, the manufacturing
Metal foil strain gauges use identical or similar process also easily provides convenient soldering tabs,
materials to wire strain gauges and are used today for which are integral to the sensing grid, on all four
most general-purpose stress analysis applications and gauges as shown in Fig. 25.59.
for many transducers. The metals and alloys used for Foil type of gauges are employed for both stress
foil type strain gauges are shown in Table 25.5. A analysis and as well as for construction of transducers.
typical bonded metal foil strain gauge is shown in Foil type of gauges are mounted on a flexible
Fig. 25.58. insulating carrier film about 0.025 mm thick which is
made of polymide, glass phenolic etc. Typical gauge
resistances are 120, 350 and 1000 Q with the allowable
gauge current of 5 to 40 mA which is determined by
the heat dissipation capabilities of the gauge. The
gauge factors typically range from 2 to 4.
Minimum practical gauge size is constrained by
the manufacturing limitations and handling
attachment problems. The smallest gauge sizes are
about 0.38 mm long. Foil type of gauges can be
applied to curved surfaces ; the minimum safe bend
radius can be as small as 1.5 mm in some strain
gauges.
The maximum measurable strain varies from 0.5
Fig. 25.58 Bonded metal foil gauge.
to 4 percent. However, special postyield gauge devices
Foil type gauges have a much greater heat allow measurement upto 0.1. Fatigue life of gauges
dissipation capacity as compared with wire wound varies with conditions. However, 10 million cycles at
strain gauges on account of their greater surface area ± 1500 microstrain can be applied to foil gauges
for the same volume. For this reason, they can be used without causing failure.
for higher operating temperature range. Also the large Many different adhesives have been developed for
surface area leads to better bonding. fastening strain gauges to specimens. Gauges and
The sensing elements of foil gauges are formed fastening methods are available to cover temperature
from sheets less than 0.005 mm thick by photo-etching ranges from - 269°C to 816°C.
processes, which allow greater flexibility with regard It is interesting to carry out simple calculations to
to shape. In Fig. 25.59, for example, the three linear find out what effect an applied stress has on a metal

Fig. 25.59 Metal foil strain gauges.

 782 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

strain gauge. Hooke's law gives a relationship

Deflection x =-----
between stress and strain for linear stress-strain curve 3 EI
(i.e., for elastic limits) in terms of modulus of elasticity
of the material under stress. Hooke's law may be
written as : _ 3 x 200 x 109 x 45 x 1Q~12 x 12.7 x 10~3
Strain e =s/ E ...(25.71) (0.25)3
where G, s and E are respectively the strain, stress and
= 22 N
modulus of elasticity. The units for stress and
modulus of elasticity are N/m . Bending moment at 0.15 m from free end
The change in the value of resistance is quite small M = Ex =22x0.15 =3.3 Nm
as is clear from the following example. Stress at 0.15 m from free end

Example 25.18 A resistance, wire strain gauge with a M t 3.3 0.003 2

s =—.-=---------- =x-------= 110 MN/m
gauge factor of 2 is bonded to a steel structural member I 2 45xl0-12 2
subjected to a stress of 100 MN/m . The modulus of c. . AL
Strain s=—
elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m . Calculate the percentage L
change in the value of the gauge resistance due to the applied = ± = noxio|=o55xio_3
stress. Comment upon the results. E 200 xlO9
Solution. :. Gauge factor
s _100xl06
Strain _ AR/R _0.152x120 _23
E -200xl09 " AL/ L~ 0.55xlO-3 ~
= 500 x 10 6 (500 microstrain) Example 25.20 A strain gauge is bonded to a beam
AR 0.1 m long and has a cross-sectional area 4 cm . Young's
We have, — = GfE = 2 x 500 x 10-6 =0.001 =0.1%
R J modulus for. steel is 207 GN/m . The strain gauge has an
:. The change in resistance is only 0.1%. unstrained resistance of 240 Q and a gauge factor of 2.2.
When a load is applied, the resistance of gauge changes by
Comments. The above example illustrates that a very 0.013 Q. Calculate the change in length of the steel beam
heavy stress of 100 MN/m2 results in resistance and the amount offorce applied to the beam.
change of only 0.1 per cent, which is by all means a Solution. We have gauge factor
very small change. This may present difficulties in
r _AR/R
measurement. Lower stresses produce still lower
f AE/L
changes in resistance which may not be perceptible at
all or the methods required to detect these changes and therefore change in length
may have to be highly accurate. To overcome this
difficulty we must use strain gauges which have a cf
high gauge factor which produce large changes in
(0.013/240) n in_6
resistance when strained. These changes are easy to = -------- ------ - x 0.1 = 2.46 x 10 b m
detect and measure with good degree of accuracy. 2.2
Stress s = Ee
Example 25.19 A single strain gauge having resistance = 207 xl09x 2.46 x!0~6
of 120 CL is mounted on a steel cantilever beam at a distance
0.1
of 0.15 mfrom the free end. An unknown force F applied at
= 5.092 xlO6 N/m2
the free end produces a deflection of 12.7 mm of the free end.
The change in gauge resistance is found to be 0.152 Q. The Force F = sA
beam is 0.25 m long with a width of 20 mm and a depth of = 5.092 x IO6 x 4x IO'4 = 2.037x IO3 N
3 mm. The Young's modulus for steel is 200 GN/m2.
Calculate the gauge factor. 25.17 .4 Evaporation Deposited Thin Metal
Strain Gauges
Solution. Moment of inertia of beam,
Evaporation deposited thin film metal strain
1 = 1/12 (bd3) = 1 /12 x 0.02 x (0.003)3
gauges are mostly used for the fabrication of
= 45xl0-12 m4 transducers. They are of sputter deposited variety. Both
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 783

processes begin with a suitable elastic metal element. Semi-conducting materials such as silicon and
The elastic metal element converts the physical germanium are used as resistive materials for
quantity into a strain. To cite an example of a pressure semi-conductor strain gauges. A typical strain gauge
transducer/ a thin, circular metal diaphragm is consists of a strain sensitive crystal material and leads
formed. Both the evaporation and sputtering that are sandwiched in a protective matrix. The
processes form all the strain gauge elements directly production of these gauges employs conventional
on the strain surface, they are not separately attached semi-conductor technology using semi-conducting
as in the case of bonded strain gauges. wafers or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05 mm
In the evaporation process, the diaphragm is and bonding them on a suitable insulating substrates,
placed in a vacuum chamber with some insulating such as teflon. Gold leads are generally employed for
material. Heat is applied until the insulating material making the contacts. Some of the typical semi­
vaporises and then condenses, forming a thin conductor strain gauges are shown in Fig. 25.60. These
dielectric film on the diaphragm. Suitably shaped strain gauges can be fabricated along with integrated
templates are placed over the diaphragm, and the circuit (IC) operational amplifiers which can act as
evaporation and condensation processes are repeated pressure sensitive transducers.
with the metallic gauge material, forming the desired
strain gauge pattern on top of the insulating substrate.
In the sputtering process, a thin dielectric layer is
deposited in vacuum over the entire diaphragm
surface. The detailed mechanism of deposition is,
however, entirely different from the evaporation
method. The complete layer of metallic gauge is
sputtered on the top of the dielectric material without
using any substrate. The diaphragms are now
removed from the vacuum chamber, and
microimaging techniques using photomasking
materials are used to form the gauge pattern. The
diaphragms are then returned to the vacuum
chamber. Sputter etching techniques are used to
remove all unmasked metal layer, leaving behind the
desired gauge pattern.
Resistance and gauge factors of film gauges are
identical to those of foil gauges. Since no organic
cementing materials are used, thin film gauges exhibit Fig. 25.60 Semi-conductor strain gauge.
a better time and temperature stability.
Advantages
25.17 .5 Semi-conductor Strain Gauges
It has been explained above in order to have a (?) Semi-conductor strain gauges have the
high sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is advantage that they have a high gauge
desirable. A high gauge factor means a relatively factor of about ± 130. This allows measure­
higher change in resistance which can be easily ment of very small strains of the order of
measured with a good degree of accuracy. 0.01 microstrain.

Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a (ii) Hysteresis characteristics of semi-conductor
very high gauge factor and a small envelope are strain gauges are excellent. Some units
required. The resistance of the semi-conductors maintain it to less than 0.05%.
changes with change in applied strain. Unlike in the (iii) Fatigue life is in excess of 10 x 106 operations
case of metallic gauges where the change in resistance and the frequency response is upto 1012 Hz.
is mainly due to change in dimensions when strained, (ir) Semi-conductor strain gauges can be very
the semi-conductor strain gauge depend for their small ranging in length from 0.7 to 7 mm.
action upon piezo-resistive effect i.e., the change in They are very useful for measurement of
the value of the resistance due to change in resistivity. local strains.
 784 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Disadvantages
(z) The major and serious disadvantage of
semi-conductor strain gauges is that they are
very sensitive to changes in temperature.

(zz) Linearity of the semi-conductor strain gauge

is poor. The equation for the fractional
change in resistance is :
AR/ R = As + Be^m

where A and B are constants.

This gauge is rather non-linear at
comparatively high strain levels. The gauge
factor varies with strain. For example, if the
gauge factor is 130 at 0.2 percent strain, then
it is 112 at 0.4 percent strain. The charac­
teristics can be made linear by proper doping.

(zzz) Semi-conductor strain gauges are more

expensive and difficult to attach to the object
under study.

25.17 .6 Diffused Strain Gauges

The diffused strain gauges are primarily used in 2-element rosette
transducers. The diffusion process used in IC 90° stacked
(Foil)
manufacture is employed. In pressure transducers, for
example, the diaphragm would be of silicon rather
than metal and the strain gauge effect would be
realized by depositing impurities in the diaphragm to
form an intrinsic strain gauge. This type of
construction may allow lower manufacturing costs in
some designs, as a large number of diaphragms can be
made on a single silicon wafer.

FAER-25RB-12SX
25.18 ROSETTES 3-element rosette
In addition to single element strain gauges, a 45° planar
combination of strain gauges called "Rosettes" are
available in many combinations for specific stress
analysis or transducer applications.
In practical problems^, an element may be
subjected to stresses in any direction and hence it is
not possible to locate the direction of principal stress.
Therefore, it is not possible to orient the strain,
gauges along the direction of principal stress. Hence
there is a necessity to evolve a strain gauge
measurement system which measures the values of FAED-25B-35SX
(Foil) 2-element rosette
principal strains and stresses without actually 90° shear planar
knowing their directions. The solution to the problem (Foil)
lies in using three strain gauges to form a unit called a
Rosette. Some forms of Rosettes are shown in
Fig. 25.61. Fig. 25.61 Some forms of Rosettes.
 1 058 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

9.6 GAUGE SENSITIVITY Now if Rgl. = R~ = R, = R, = R

Figure 29.2 shows a single strain gauge mounted The output voltage from the bridge is
on a cantilever beam. When a force is applied to the

Strain
gauge, Rs}
29.7 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
The resistive type strain gauges are sensitive to
temperature. Therefore, it becomes necessary to
Fig. 29.2 Force acting on a cantilever and measured account for variations in the strain gauge resistance
by using single strain gauge.
which occur on account of temperature changes. If
beam, the gauge is subjected to a tensile stress. There­ changes in resistance due to temperature variations
fore, the resistance of the strain gauge increases. This are not accounted for or not compensated, the results
increase in resistance is measured using a Wheatstone would be in error. This is because the resistance of the
bridge as shown in 29.3. strain gauge changes both with strain as well as with
temperature. Temperature changes act as spurious
inputs and cause change in the resistance in two
ways :
(i) the resistance of the wire grid of strain gauge
changes with change in temperature, and
(ii) a change in resistance occurs due to
differential expansion exsiting between the
gauge and the test surface to which the strain
gauge is bonded.
A strain may be caused because of the differential
Fig. 29.3 Strain gauge bridge for arrangement co-efficients of expansion of strain gauge and the
of Fig. 29.2.
surface to which it is bonded to even when there is no
The bridge is balanced under unstrained conditions, load on the test surface.
but becomes unbalanced when the gauge is strained. Temperature effects may be handled by :
The change in resistance of gauge (i) compensation or cancellation, and
ARg = AR2(R3/R4) (ii) evaluation as a part of the data reduction
problem.
where AR, = change in R^, to rebalance the bridge
The first method is extensively used for both
after the strain is applied
metallic as well as semi-conductor strain gauges while
Now Aj^ = (R4 / R3) Rgl the second method is used for semi-conductor gauges
only.
Output of bridge = KA/^
where K = scale factor of AR2 readout or indicator. 29.8 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION AND
Gauge sensitivity CANCELLATION TECHNIQUES
_ KAR^ _ KAR^ Compensation may be provided by :
...(29.7)
8= < Xa 1 (i) use of adjacent arm balancing or compen­
sating gauge,
Gf
K—AR (ii) self-compensation, and
*3
(iii) use of special external control circuitry.
= R G ...(29.8) 29.8.1 Adjacent Arm Compensating Gauge

1. Use of Dummy Gauge

When R4-R3 and =R
Gauge sensitivity One of the ways in which temperature error can
be eliminated by using adjacent arm compensating
sx- ...(29.9) gauge is to use a dummy gauge in the adjacent arm.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1059

This arrangement is shown in Fig. 29.4. Gauge 1 is The use of dummy gauge for temperature
installed on the lest specimen (called active gauge) compensation is simple and effective and should be
while gauge 3, called a dummy gauge is installed on a employed whenever possible.
like piece of material and is not subjected to any
2. Use of Two Active Gauges in Adjacent Arms
strain. The gauges installed on the test piece and the
dummy gauge are at the same temperature. A gauge is In certain applications, where equal and opposite
called dummy gauge in case it is not subjected to any strains are known to exist, it is possible to attach two
strain. Active gauge is one which is subjected to strain. similar gauges in such a way that one gauge
Initially when the bridge is balanced, experiences a positive strain and the other a negative
^1 _ ^2 strain. Thus instead of having an arrangement
wherein one gauge acts as the active gauge and the
other as the dummy gauge, we have now an
arrangement wherein both the gauges are active
gauges.
Figure 29.5 shows the two gauges mounted on a
cantilever. The gauge R^ is on top of the cantilever
and hence experiences tension or a positive strain. The
Rg3 is at the bottom surface of the cantilever and hence
experiences a compression or a negative strain.
F
Rgi (tension)

Rg3 (compression)
IMHSKK. 'HBSSBB
Fig. 29.5 Two gauges used for measurement of strain.

The bridge arrangement for the two gauges is

Fig. 29.4 Use of dummy for temperature compensation.
shown in Fig. 29.6. There are two active gauges in the 4
Supposing a change in temperature occurs, the arm bridge and hence it is called a Half Bridge.
resistances R2 and R3 change by an amount
ARj and AR3 respectively.
Hence for balance,
Rj + ARj R2
^3 + A^3 ^4

or A(J?i+ari) = (R3 + AR3)

or A + A aRj = R, + ARj

Fig. 29.6 Adjacent arm compensation using

But - R, = R, two active gauges.
r3 1
A AR, = AR, The temperature effects are cancelled out by
having R2 = R3 and using two identical gauges in the
opposite arms of the bridge.
Suppose R4 = R^ Suppose R?1 =Rg3 = R2 = R4 = R
This requires that AR} = kR^
When no strain is applied both points b and d are
It means that for the bridge to remain insensitive at the same potential, e,/2 and the value of output
to variations in temperature the gauges Rj and R3 voltage eQ - 0.
should have their resistances change by equal amount
When the arrangement shown in Fig. 29.5 is
when subjected to variation in temperature. Therefore
subjected to strain, the resistance of gauge 1 increases
the active gauge R] and the dummy gauge R3 should
and that of gauges R^,3 decreases.
be identical.
 I 060 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Resistance of gauge R^]z when strained is These gauges are connected in the arms of a
Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 29.8. Since the
R(1 + AR/ R)
bridge has 4 active gauges with one gauge in each of
Resistance of gauge R 3 when strained is the four arms, it is called a Full Bridge.
R(1-AR/R) When no strain is applied the potential of points b
Now R,L = R,4 = R and d are both equal to e/2 and hence the output
Potential of point d = e- /2 voltage Cq = 0.
When strained, the resistance of various gauges
Potential of point b
are :
R(1 + AR/R)
R(1 + AR/ R)+ R(1-AR/R)X For R, and R,: R(1 + AR/R)

and For R 9 and R , : R(1-AR/R)

1 + AR / R
------------ e.
Potential of b when strain is applied
Change in output voltage when strain applied is, = R(1 + AR/R) e
. 1+AR/R e. R(1 + AR/R)+R(1-AR/R) '
Ac. =------------ e- — —
2 '2 1 + AR / R
AR/R Gre = ~~2------e‘
=-------- e■ = ...(29.11)
Potential of d when strain is applied
Thus the output voltage from a half bridge is R(1-AR/R)
twice that from a quarter bridge and therefore the R(1-AR/R)+R(1 + AR/R) '
sensitivity is doubled. In addition, the temperature
1-AR/R
effects are cancelled. The gauge, sensitivity of a half = ——■——— £■
bridge is, 2 '

Sg=2RR?G; ...(29.12) Therefore change in output voltage

A 1+AR/R 1-AR/R
3. Use of Four Active Gauges o = ——----- e-i ----------------
Ac.. 2 e-1
Figure 29.7 shows a cantilever using 4 strain
gauges for the measurement of strain. All the four = (&R/ R)
gauges are similar and have equal resistance when = Gfe et ...(29.13)
strained i.e.,
Four active-active-arm bridges are extensively
R,I = «1(2 = \:3 = ^1 = * used when strain gauges are used as secondary
transducers to give maximum sensitivity combined
with full temperature compensation. The effect of
increasing the number of active gauges is the same if a
(Compression) low impedance detector is used.
The gauge sensitivity of a full bridge
Fig. 29.7 Use of four strain gauges for
Sy = 4KRyGf ...(29.14)

4. Poisson's Method
This method of temperature compensation
utilises two active gauges R^ and R^ which are
bonded at right angles to the structural member as
shown in Fig. 29.9(a).
Measuring gauge is in tension, but gauge R^
reduces in length depending upon the Poisson's ratio
of the material. Poisson's gauge is connected, in the
adjacent arm of the bridge as shown in Fig. 29.9(b).
Fig. 29.8 Bridge circuit for measurement of strain The advantage of Poisson's gauge is that in addition to
four using active gauges.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1061

temperature compensation, it acts as an active gauge. JI has two fixed resistors Rj and R2 o/120Q each. The
The bridge sensitivity is increased by a factor (1+v) gauge is represented by resistance R3. The variable resis­
accordingly. tance R4 is 120.00Q. at zero strain and has value of 120.63 Q
Change in output voltage when strain is applied zoith strain e. The gauge factor is 2.04. Determine the strain
in the beam at the point where the strain gauge is attached.
Ae0=(l+v)-^q. ...(29.15)
Solution. Change in value of resistance when
strain is applied :
Practical strain bridge. A strain gauge bridge AR4 = 120.63-120= 0.63 Q.
may be rigged up by the user or may be purchased as a
.’. Change in resistance of gauge when strained :
'package' which is built up as a unit and only requires
connections to the active strain gauge and to a source ^=(RJR2)(AR4)
of power supply. The 'package' consists of an ampli­ 120
= —-x 0.63= 0.63 O
fier and also other signal conditioning equipment for 120
amplification and monitoring of the output of the
strain gauge bridge.
NT
Now —- = r
Ge&
1

Strain e = —- x ~
R3 Gf

Example 29.5 A strain gauge bridge comprises of two

fixed resistors each of value 1200, one active gauge, and an
unstrained temperature compensation gauge. The two
gauges are of unstrained resistance 120 0 and gauge factor
2.2. Find the bridge output voltage (with output open
circuited) for a supply voltage of 3 V, when the active gauge
is subjected to 600 micro strain.
Solution. The bridge has equal arms when there
is no strain. It has only one active gauge. Therefore,
output voltage is :
t Gfe 2.2 x 600 x 10’6 x 3
0 2 1 4
= 0.99x1 O’3 V =0.99 mV
F.xamplc 29.6 A single strain gauge is mounted to
Fig. 29.9 Use of Poisson's gauge. measure the axial strain in a simple tensile member. If the.
recorded strain is 380 microstrain, what is the axial stress:
faxamp'ie 29.4 A strain gauge bridge is shown in
Fig. 29.10.— (i) If the member is of steel ?
(zz) If the member is of aluminium ?
The modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m2 and
that of aluminium is 70 GN/m2.
Solution. Stress s = e E
where e = strain and E = modulus of elasticity.
(z) Stress in steel
s=380x10~6x200x109

= 76xlO6N/m2 =76 MN/m2

(zz) Stress in aluminium
s=380xl0~6x70xl09
Fig. 29.10 Bridge of Example 29 4. = 26.6xlO6N/m2 =26.6 MN/m2
 1062 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Example 29.7 A single electrical resistance strain Example 29.8 Two electrical strain gauges are bonded
gauge of resistance 120 Q and having a gauge factor of 2 is to a Duralumin cantilever (Fig. 29.5) and connected into a
bonded to steel having an elastic limit stress of400 MN/m bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 29.6. Each gauge has a
and modulus of elasticity 200 GN/in~. Calculate the change resistance of 100 Q and a gauge factor of 2.1. The input
in resistance, voltage is 4 V. The stress is 200 M/N2, calculate
(a) due to a change in stress equal to 1/10 of the elastic (a) the change in the value of resistances R4 to restore
range; and balance,
(b) due to a change of temperature of 20°C, if the (b) the output voltage if the .letectOr has a resistance of
material is advance alloy. lOkCl,
The resistance temperature co-efficient of advance (c) the current through the detector if its resistance is
alloy is 20 x 10~6/°C. 400 Q,
(c) Calculate the strain due to differential expansion (d) current through the strain gauges. ■
of the gauge metal and steel if, co-efficient of linear The modulus or elasticityfor Duralumin is 70 GN/m .
expansion of steel is 12x 10~6/°C and that of
Solution, (a) One of the gauges is subjected to
advance alloy is 16* 10~6/°C.
tensile stress and the other to compressive stress. The
Calculate also the change in resistance. Comment upon change in the value of resistance R4 to restore balance
the results. is :
Solution, (a) Change of stress AR4 = Gy e R
s = 400xl(F6xl/10
= 2 x2.1x 200x10 x 100 =1.2 Q
= 40xl06N/m2 =40 MN/m2 70xl08
Change of strain (b) Open circuit voltage across the bridge for two
e = —- = 40xl06 =20Qx10-6 active strain gauges is :
E 200 xlO9 Gr&
enu = 2
.'. Change in resistance
AR = Gy e R _2.1x200xl06 _4
= 2 x 200 x 10-6 x 120 = 0.048 Q 70xl09 ~2

(b) Change in resistance due to change in tempe­ = 0.012 V = 12 mV

rature : Output voltage when the meter is connected
= aA OR =20x 10-6x (20)x 120 across the output terminals is :
= 0.048 Q 1
xe0
The strain due to differential expansion of the
gauge metal and steel is : 1
x 0.012 V
e = (12-16)x 10-6x20 1 + lOO/lOxlO3
= -80 x 10-6 = -80 microstrain = 11.9 mV
AR = Gy eR =2 x80x 10-6x 120
(c) When a meter of 400 Q is connected across the
= - 0.019 Q bridge output terminals, the output voltage is :
Comments, The change of resistance due to
en, =------- -------- x 0.112 V
change in temperature is of the same order as that due 0L 1 + 100/400
change in resistance caused by application of strain. If
= 9.6 mV
the temperature effects are not compensated for, they
will lead to extremely large errors in the measurement .'. Meter current
of strain. The measurement in fact does not have any j - e0L - 10
meaning in that case. m Rin 400
It is seen that change due to differential expansion = 24xlO~6A=24 pA
partly offsets the change due to co-efficient of
(d) Current through strain gauges
resistivity in the example. The effect may become
additive instead of subtractive in certain combinations e- 4
= -*- =--------- = 0.02 A = 20 mA
of gauge metal and the metal used for mounting. 2R 2x100
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1063

Example 2g.g In order to measure strain in a cantilever The strain gauge is bonded to structural member and is
beam, a single strain gauge of resistance 1 kQ, and gauge subjected to a sinusoidal time varying strain. As a result of
factor 2 and a temperature co-efficient 10xW6/°C is this strain, the resistance value of strain gauge between
mounted on the beam and connected in one arm of a bridge extremes of 999 Q and 1001 Q. The bridge output is
circuit. The other three arms of the bridge have a resistance connected to an amplifier. Determine the equivalent circuit.
of 100 Q each. The bridge detector resistance is 100 Q and its The supply voltages is 10 V.
sensitivity is 10 mm/pA Solution. Open circuit voltage of bridge under
(a) Calculate the detector deflection for 0.1 percent maximum tension :
strain. 1001 10,000 I
=---------------- 1-------------------- x 10 V
(b) Calculate the change in effective strain indicated 1001 + 1000 10,000+ 10,000
when the room temperature increases by 10°C.
= 2.5 mV
Solution, (a) Change in strain e = 0.1% = 0.001
Open circuit voltage under maximum com­
Change in resistance
pression :
AR = 0.001 x2x 1000 = 2Q
J 999 + 10/)00 1X1QV
.’. Resistance of gauge
999 + 1000 10,000 + 10X100 _
= 1000 + 2 =1002 Q
= - 2.5 mV
Open circuit voltage of Thevenin generator :
Therefore the output voltage alternates with an
1002 100 A
’o = ----------------- 100+ 100 J xlO V amplitude of 2.5 mV.
0 I WOO+ 1002
Thevenin source resistance is,
= 5 mV 1000x1000 10/100 x 10/100
Resistance of Thevenin generator " 2000 + 20/100
D 1002x1000 100x100
= 5500 fl.
2002 200
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 29.11.
= 550.5 Q
For More Solved and Unsolved Examples on
.'. Current through detector
Strain Gauges, see pages 777, 778, 782, 862.
; _ 5xl0"3
m 550.5 + 100 29.9 STRAIN GAUGE CALIBRATION
= 7.7 pA A theoretical objection to the use of strain gauges
and deflection of galvanometer = 7.7 x 10 = 77 mm is that, in most applications, it is impossible to check
the accuracy of the readings obtained from them. Once
(b) Change in resistance due to change in
the strain gauge is bonded in its measuring position, it
temperature AR = 10 x 10-6 x 1000 x 10 = 0.1 fl
cannot be removed or transferred and subjected to a
The equivalent strain known strain for calibration. Strain gauges are often
AR 0.1 used in applications where no other form of strain
s =------ =-----------
GfR 2x1000 measurement is possible. Since no check on perfor­
mance can be made, the value of the gauge factor as
= 50 x 10-6 = 50 microstrain.
specified by the manufacturer has to be relied upon.
Example 2g.io A strain gauge is used for However, this leads to errors because the value of
measurement of dynamic strain as shown in Fig. 29.10. The gauge factor is specified with certain tolerance limits
strain gauge has a resistance of 1 k£l when unstrained. A and hence each gauge should be individually
resistance oflkCl is connected in the arm adjacent to strain calibrated.
gauge. The resistances of other two arms are 10 kQ each. Simple strain gauge bridges usually employ
readout systems having scales marked in arbitrary
units. The basic motive of practical calibration of strain
gauges is to establish a relationship between arbitrary
units and the measured strain. In fact, calibration of
strain gauges involves making necessary adjustments
Fig.29.11 Figure of Example 29.10. to obtain correct scale reading.
 1 064 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

The technique employed is to produce a known Shunt resistance

change in the resistance of one of the bridge arms to Rg(l-GzEe)
Rsk =
simulate a particular value of strain. The value of the Gf£e
...(29.18)
change in resistance required for this purpose may be
calculated if the unstrained resistance of the gauge, In practice Gy &e «1, and therefore the term Gy e£
and the gauge factor, are known. in the numerator of Eqn. 29.18 can be neglected
The procedure for calibration of strain gauges, without introducing any significant error.
involves a known change in the value of the resistance
of the strain gauge by shunting it with a high value of ...(29.19)
resistance and then measuring the output corres­ Sh GfE
ponding to the known change of resistance. This is
The value of effective strain e may be deter­
shown in Fig. 29.12. A shunt resistance Rsh, is used, the
mined, exactly from Eqn. 29.17 or 29.18 or nearly
resistance of the gauge being R
o exactly from Eqn. 29.19. If a linear relationship
between the readout (output indicator system) and
strain is assumed, only one value of Rsh is required for
the calibration. This value of Rs/l should be so chosen
that the readout (output indicator) gives its full scale
deflection.
The calibration of bridges using more than one
active strain gauge may be done in the same manner.
Suppose there are n active strain gauge elements in the
bridge, then the strain represented by a given value of
Rsh is 1 / n (approximately) of the strain given by
Eqn. 29.17.

Fig. 29.12 Calibration of strain gauges. .’. Effective strain

Resistance of arm 1 of bridge before switch S is

closed - R$
Resistance of arm 1 of bridge after switch S is Example 2^.11 A strain gauge bridge comprises of two
closed fixed 120 Q resistors, and one is an active gauge and one
= Resistance of parallel combination unstrained temperature compensating gauge. The two
of R and Rsh. gauges have an unstrained resistance value of 120 Q each.
g
The gauge factor is 2.2. Find the strain which would be
represented by 100 AQ calibration resistance shunting one
arm of bridge.
Solution. From Eqn. 29.17, the effective strain
.. The change in resistance of arm 1 resulting from represented by the arrangement is :
introduction of shunt resistance Rsh is :
AK = R-----PjJE_
e
8 8 (*,+ **)
120
~ 2.2 (120 +100 xlO3)
...(29.16)
(VRSO
= 0.545 x 10-3 = 545 microstrain
Equivalent strain Example 2<).i2 Four strain gauges are mounted on a
1 AR , . simple flat tensile specimen arranged for complete
£ = —.-.1 1
Gf‘ R g temperature compensation and maximum sensitivity when
G/W^> connected in a four arm bridge circuit. An 800,000 Q
R calibration resistor is shunted across one of the strain
_____ g
...(29.17) gauges. Gauge resistances are each 118 Q and gauge factors
are 1.22.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 065

If the strain gauge readout is 150 divisions when the 29.10.1 Tensile-Compressive Cell
calibration switch is closed and 240 divisions when the load Figure 29.13 shows a tensile-compressive cell
is applied, what is the axial strain in the specimen ? which is a cylinder. This arrangement uses four strain
Solution. The bridge has four active elements. gauges each mounted at 90° to each other. The bridge
Effective strain circuit is also shown. Two of strain gauges experience
tensile stress while the other two are subjected to com­
__ L pressive stress.
n___ + The output of a bridge with equal arms and using
=------------- —-------------- = 48.1 x W6 two strain gauges mounted 90° to each other is :
4x1.22(188 + 800,000)
/R
When the calibration switch is closed, the readout Ae0 =(1 + v) ...(29.21)
4 + 2(AR1/R)
gives a reading of 150 divisions.
.’. 1 division In the present case, there are two sets of gauges
mounted 90°C to each other, with one set experiencing
= —xlO’6 = 0.321 x 10'6 tensile stress while the other a compressive stress.
150
/. Output voltage of Wheatstone bridge :
When the strain gauges' arrangement is loaded,
the strain is : ARj/R
Ae0=2(l + v) ...(29.22)
s = 0.321 x IO-6 x 240 = 77 x 10-6 = 77 microstrain 4 + 2(AR1 / R)

29.10 LOAD CELLS The above relationship is clear from the following
explanation :
Load cells utilise an elastic member as the primary
transducer and strain gauges as secondary trans­ In the case of a cylinder, an axial compressive load
ducers as explained in Art. 25.3.6, page 742. Strain causes a negative strain in the vertical gauges, and a
gauges may be attached to any elastic member (as positive strain in the circumferential gauges. The two
shown in Fig. 29.13) on which there exists a, suitable strains are not equal in this case. These two strains, are
plane area to accommodate them. This arrangement related to each other by a factor v, called the Poisson's
may then be used to measure loads applied to deform ratio. Since the value of the strain is of no interest, the
or deflect the member, provided that the resultant objective is to produce a force transducer. This force
strain is large enough to produce detectible outputs. transducer is calibrated empirically. In case all the
When the strain gauge-elastic member combination is gauges are similar, temperature compensation is
used for weighing it is called a load cell. obtained as all the gauges contribute equally to
unbalance the bridge.
Compression cells of this type have been used
with a capacity of 300 MN.
Unbonded strain gauge transducers are
frequently used for force measurement, particularly if
high sensitivity is required. Highest sensitivity is
obtained when the gauge itself performs the function
of elastic member, i.e., all the input force is used fort
producing strain in the gauge.
Example 29.13 A load cell consists of a solid cylinder of
steel 40 mm in diameter with four strain gauges bonded to
it and connected into the four arms of a voltage sensitive
bridge. The gauges are mounted to have Poisson's arrangement.
If the gauges are each of 100 Cl resistance and the gauge
factor, 2.1, the bridge excitation voltage 6 V, determine the
sensitivity of the cell in V/kN. Modulus of elasticity for steel
is 200 GN/m2 and the Poisson's ratio is 0.29.
Solution. Suppose a load of 1 kN is applied to the
Fig. 29.13 Tension compression resistance load cell.
strain gauge cell.
 1 066 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

IxlO3 longitudinal direction. Thus there are longitudinal

Stress stresses which produce stresses in the radial direction.
~ (tt/4)(40xlO’3)2
This is shown in Fig. 29.14.
= 0.796 xlO6N/m2
Let us consider a general element as shown in
Strain Fig. 29.14 that is subjected to bi-axial tresses. Suppose
the stresses sx and s are applied at the same time. This
= 0796xl°6-=3.98x10-^ is shown in Fig. 29.15.
200 x109
AR
— = £ G.-
R -f
= 3.98 xl0"6x 2.1 =8.36 xlO’6
From Eqn. 29.22, the voltage output of the bridge
is :
ARt/R
Ae0 =2 (1 + v)
4 + 2(AR1/R)

8.36 xlQ~6
= 2(1 + 0.29) x6
4 + 2x8.36xl0-6
= 0.324 x 10-6 V= 0.324 pV

Hence, the sensitivity is 0.324 pV / kN.

Fig. 29.15 An element subjected to bi-axial stresses.
29.11 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
In this section cases of uniaxial and biaxial strain Suppose a stress sx is applied in the longitudinal
measurements are analyzed. direction. This will produce a strain ex = sx I E in the
longitudinal or X-direction.
1. Simple Uni-axial stresses. This case arises
where a simple tensile or compressive loading is At the same time, because of the Poisson's ratio
applied to a member. The stress may be calculated effect, there will be a stress produced in the radial
from the observed strain using the modulus of direction or along Y-axis. This produces a strain equal to
elasticity, E, of the material used provided the -vsx I E.
operation is within the elastic limits. Now suppose that a stress s is applied in the
y
The axial stress is, s = £ E radial direction. This stress will produce a strain in the
2. Bi-axial stresses. Many a times strain gauges
Y (radial) direction. Its value is s I E. It will also
y
are used in applications wherein the test piece is produce a strain equal to -vs /E in the X or the
y
subjected to stress in more than one direction. If the longitudinal direction.
test piece is on a free surface, as is usually the case, the The net strains in the two directions are,
condition is called as bi-axial. A typical example of this
case exists on the outer surface or shell, of a cylindrical -(29.23)
vessel. The Hoop Stresses acting circumferentially (in
the radial direction) tend to open up to seam in the and =l(Sy-vst) ...(29.24)

(Radial Y .". We get expressions for the stresses as,

direction) i
I /— Hoop E(£x+V£ )
J ‘/ stress (sy) SX =-----------------
1-v2
•— X'
(Longitudinal E(£v +ve )
and s =----- y - --- ...(29.26)
^-Longitudinal direction) ■ 1-v
stress (s )
Y' Suppose it is required to determine the stresses in
given orthogonal (right angled) directions. Equations.
Fig. 29.14 A free surface subjected to bi-axial stresses. 29.25 and 29.26 show that in order to determine these
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1067

stresses, it is necessary to know the modulus of Transverse stress s = 0

elasticity E, Poisson's ratio v and also the strains Axial strain
&x and £y in the X and Y directions. Even if the stress is 1 / A 1
desired to be known in one direction it becomes
necessary to measure strains in both the directions.
or Modulus of elasticity
The problem becomes more complicated if a third
stress acts in the third orthogonal direction. Let the
stress in the Z direction be sz. The stress strain Ex
relationships are, 212 xlO6
" 1620 xlO-6
-<29-27)
£L J = 131x109=131 GN/m2
ty=^Vv++S<)i -(29.28) Equation 29.24 gives the value of strain, the
transverse direction
and e2 = | [s -v (s + s )] ...(29.29) S=|(sy-«x)
t J
Example 29.14 Two strain gauges attached to the = -v — as s„ = 0
E v
surface of a cylindrical pressure vessel, one in axial and one
in circumferential direction, gave the strain values of0.00018
and 0.00072 respectivehj. Calculate the hoop and the
longitudinal stress values if the cylinder is of steel having a, or Possion's ratio v = 0.281
modulus of elasticity of200 GN/m" and Poisson's ratio =0.29.
29.12 STRAIN GAUGE ROSETTES
Solution. Strain in the longitudinal direction
The installation of a strain gauge on a bar
sx = 0.00018
specimen shown in Fig. 29.16 is a useful application of
strain in the circumferential direction the gauge, but it is restricted. The strain that is
e = 0.00072 measured in such a situation is a principal strain since
y
we assumed that the bar is operating under only a
From Eqn. 29.26, the hoop stress is,
tensile load.
E(e +vex)
F(Force)
Syy =---- ’1----
-V
2-----

200 x 109 (0.00072 +0.29 x0.00018) KT . 2

=--------------------------- -----------------N/m
[1 —(0.29)2]
= 168.6 MN/m2

From Eqn. 29.25, the longitudinal stress is,

_ £(ex+vey)
Sx~ 1-v2

200 x 109 (0.00018 + 0.29 x 0.00072) x T, 2

[l-(0.29)2]
= 84.9 MN/m2
Example 29.15 A simple tension member having an F(Force)
area of 125 mm2 is subjected to a load of 2700 kg. Strains of Fig. 29.16 Simple bar under axial strain.
1620 and -455 microstrain are measured in the axial and
tranverse directions respectively. Determine the value of The axial strain is,
Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. F/ A s AL
£ = ------- = -+ =---
Solution. Axial stress a EEL
2700 x 9.81 212xl06N/m2 where and sfl are respectively the axial strain and
x 125 xlO-6 stress respectively.
 1 068 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

The strain that is measured in situations as shown This is the axis at which the maximum stress, siiiax
mnv,
in Fig. 29.16, is a principal strain since we have occurs.
assumed that the bar is operating under only a tensile A problem arises with the determination of the
load. Obviously, a more general measurement quadrant for 0 since there will be two values obtained
problem will involve strains in more than one from the solution of Eqn. 29.33. The angle will lie in
direction, and the orientation of the principal stress the first quadrant 0 < 0 < n/2, if,
axis will remain unknown. In a practical problem, an
£1 + e3
element may be subjected to stresses in any direction '2
...(29.34)
and hence it will not be possible to locate the direction
of principal stress. Therefore, as a consequence, it will Another type of strain-gauge rosette in common
not be possible to orient the strain gauge along the use is the Delta Rosette shown in Fig. 29.18. The
direction of principal stress. Hence, there is a necessity principal strains in this case are,
to evolve a strain gauge measurement system which _ gi + g2 + £3
^max' ^min 3
measures the values of principal strains and stresses,
without actually knowing their directions. The ±—[(g! ~e2) +<e2 ~e3) +<e3 "el) J
solution to the problem lies in using three strain
gauges oriented in different directions to form a unit is ...(29.35)
called a Rosette.
The principal stresses are,
Consider the rosette shown in Fig. 29.17. The £(8. + £_ + Eq)
three strain gauges forming a rosette are oriented as s s • —---------------- -
max' mm 3(l-p)
shown, and the three strains measured by these
gauges are elz £2 and e,. V2 £ [(gl
7 711-'2
£2) +(£2 -£3) +(£3 -Ej) J
3(W)
...(29.36)
The maximum shear stress is,
^2 Er 7
Tmax =o/i , u \ bSl -e2^ + (g2-£3^ +(£3-£l)j
0^1 -t- PJ

...(29.37)
The principal stress axis is located according to :
tan 2 0 = ^S3~e2) ...(29.38)
2 £T -£3 -£3
Fig. 29.17 Rectangular Strain Gauge Rosette. Angle 0 will be in the first quadrant when £3 > e2
The principal strains are : and in the second quadrant e2 > £3.
£1 +S3 It is worthwhile to mention that the resistance
p £ . = —------- -
max' min 2 strain gauges may be sensitive to transverse as well as
to axial strains. The resistance change produced by a
...(29.30)
transverse strain, however, is usually less than 2 to 3
The principal stresses are : percent of the change produced by axial strain. For
£(£^£3) £ this reason, it may be neglected in many applications.
c 5 =------ ±i ——----------
max' mm 2(l-p) x/2 (1 + p) If the transverse strain is to be considered, the above
r 7 rosette formulae may be modified accordingly.
±[(£1-£2) 2 + (£2-e3) 2] -(29.31)
Rosettes are of many types. Figure 25.57 on page 779
The maximum shear stress, shows different types of strain gauges and rosettes.
F r o 71^/2
Example A rectangular rosette as shown in
+(^>] -(29-32) Fig. 29.18 is maintained on a steel plate having a modulus
The principal stress axis is located with the angle 0 is of elasticity £ = 200 GN/nf and the Poisson's ratio is 0.3.
tan20 = 2£2~£1~^ ...(29.33) The three strains measured are :
E1-£3
Ej =+ 500 p strain, e2 =+ 400 p strain, e3 =-100 p strain
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 069

Calculate the principal strains and stresses and the Example The maximum and minimum strains
maximum shear stress. Locate the axis of principal stress. in a rectangular rosette are given by
Ei + Eo 1 r o o-j 1/2
emax' emin =-J-2 ± VjL £1 +(e2'£3> J

and then is located at an angle,

2e9 -e. -Eo
tan 20 = —2---- 1---- 3
el -e3

Show the e = e1 and Efnin = e3 when 0 = 0

Solution. When 0 = 0, tan 2 0 = 0

gauge 1
and hence,
Fig. 29.18 Delta Strain gauge rosette.
2 e2 -£i -e3 _ $
Solution. As an intermediate step, we calculate
ei -e3
the quantities
£. + £q
£□ + £. -100 + 500 k . or £2 =
A - ---- 1 =-------------- = 200 p strain
2 2
emax “
Ei + Eo
2 1 r, e2
.2 /
+ 82 83
\211/2
-I
B = [(£]-s2)2+(e2-£3)2]1'2
= [(500 - 400)2 + (400 +100)2],/2 x 10 *’ Eq + Eq
NOW £0 = —----- --
= 510 p strain 2 2

Then, Also 2e2 = e1-e3

R 510 or £i-£2 = e2 + £3
s max = A + -t= =200 + —/=- = 561 n strain
Therefore maximum strain
R 510
e . =A—7= =200—= -161 p strain
mm yj'2_
Maximum stress
EA EB
’max " l^T + V2 (1 + p)

200 x 109 x 200 x 10”6 200x109x 510x10 6

1-0.3 + 72(1 + 0.3)

= 57.1 x 106 + 55.4x 106 =112.5 MN/m2 The value of the minimum strain can be obtained
in the same way
Minimum stress
. = Eo-
e mm 3
s . = 57.1x 106-55.4x 106
min
= 1.7 MN/m2 29.13 STRAIN GAUGE CIRCUITRY
Maximum shear stress There are many strain gauge instrumentation
-— = 55.4 MN/m2 circuits available commercially. The type instrumen­
T max
V2 (1 + M) tation system depends upon the following consi­
derations :
Now, we have,
2 £o —£. -£o (i) whether static or dynamic strains have to be
tan 20 = —---- 1---- 3 measured,
el -£3
(ii) whether an analog or a digital readout is
2x400 -500 -(-100)
desired,
500 -(-100)
(iii) whether output is to be displayed on a
2 0 = 33.7° or 213.7° recorder for instantaneous reading or for
or 0 = 16.8° or 106.8° permanent record,
We choose the first quadrant angle 0 = 16.8° in (iv) whether a single channel is required or
accordance with Eqn. 29.34. multichannel measurement is necessary.
 1070 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Depending upon the requirement a suitable

instrumentation may be selected.
The most commonly used circuit for strain
measurements is a Wheatstone bridge with d.c.
excitation. The strain may be measured with the help
of a voltmeter connected across the output terminals.
The scale of the voltmeter may be calibrated in terms
of strain. The voltmeter may be called a "strain
indicator". The voltmeter may be a d.c. analog meter
and digital voltmeter. Since the output is low, it may
have to be amplified before being fed to the voltmeter.
This requires the use of a d.c. amplifier which has its
inherent problems.
10VDC

Fig. 29.20 Strain gauge measurement using different

types of readout devices.
Commercial strain gauge bridges normally use an
a.c. power supply and subsequently demodulate and
amplify the output so that greater sensitivity could be
achieved. The normal excitation frequency is 1000 Hz,
providing frequency response up to 100 Hz. Since the
normal frequency response is about 10% of the carrier
frequency, problems requiring better response will
necessitate higher carrier frequencies. Instruments
utilizing 20 kHz excitation frequency are commercially
available (Fig. 29.21). They usually have their own
Fig. 29.19 Strain gauge bridge circuit with IC recording oscillograph with provision for viewing the
operational amplifier. waveform on an external oscilloscope display.
It has been found that by using IC operational
amplifiers placed in the proximity of a strain gauge
bridge using two active gauges, inexpensive load cells
of various sensitivities may be constructed with
sufficient output to actuate galvanometric recorders
(ultraviolet recorders are normally used). This
arrangement is shown in Fig. 29.19. However, this
arrangement involves screening 'and earthing to
ensure the removal of power line (50 Hz) pickup.
Figure 29.20 shows a highly sophisticated system
which employs four active strain gauge connected in a
bridge circuit. The galvanometer of the usual bridge
circuit is replaced by a self-balancing potentiometer. A
low resistance slide wire is connected between and
R%4 to adjust the bridge so that the self-balancing Fig. 29.21 Strain gauge circuitry for dynamic
potentiometer reads zero when no strain is applied. measurement and recording.
The output device of a self-balancing potentio­ The output may be fed to a strip chart recorder to
meter could be an indicator, a digital voltmeter, a strip record the variations. A galvanometer type recorder
chart recorder for recording purposes. The output provided with mirror arrangement is used with
may also be indicated or recorded by numerous moving photographic paper or film for permanent
combinations of the above readout systems. and reproducible records.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1071

Multipoint Measurements 29.14 USES OF STRAIN GAUGES

In many applications of strain gauges, it is 1. Strain gauges are used extensively for
desirable to measure strain at more than one point. analysing the dynamic strains in complex
This necessitates the use of a number of strain gauges structures such as the stress and the strain in
which may be arranged so that either they have a bridges, automobiles, roads etc. where the
bridge circuit and an a display device each. Instead an output of the bridge can be recorded with an
arrangement where in only one bridge circuit and a oscillograph calibrated to read the instan­
single display device are used which are connected to taneous strain or stress.
each strain gauge circuit in turn through a switch. The 2. Resistance strain gauges are very useful for
latter method is very much less expensive. However, measurement of tension, torque, force,
this method has some disadvantages like introduction stresses in structures. They are particularly
of errors due to switch contact resistance, and useful where a minimum disturbance by the
different zero settings for each strain gauge circuit. presence of transducer is required as in wind
tunnel measurements.
The strain gauge circuits may use one, two or four
3. Strain gauges are used in load cells and
active strain gauges and suitable arrangements must
proving rings to measure force by the strain
be developed whereby each of these situations may be
produced. The proving ring is usually made
incorporated in a multipoint measuring system.
of steel. The strain produced in the load ring
Figure 29.22(a) shows a system where there is is measured with a strain gauge. The strain is
only one active strain gauge in each circuit while a measure of the force applied to the ring.
Fig. 29.22(b) shows an arrangement for four active
gauges in each circuit. 29.15 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
Pressure measurements are one of the most
important measurements made in industry. The
number of instruments used are by far greater in
number than the instruments used for any other type
of measurement.
The principles used in the measurement of
pressure are also, applied in the measurement of
temperature, flow, and liquid levels. Thus it is
essential to have complete knowledge of working
principles of these instruments.
Pressure is represented as force per unit area. As
such it may be considered as a type of stress since
stress is also defined as force per unit area. In this
section, the term 'pressure' refers to the force per unit
area exerted by a fluid on a containing wall. Therefore,
the discussion of pressure measurement is limited to
fluid systems. The forces that arise as a result of strains
in solids are designated as stresses and have been
discussed earlier.

29.16 TYPES OF PRESSURE

MEASUREMENT DEVICES
In industrial applications the pressure is usually
measured by means of indicating gauges or recorders.
These instruments may be mechanical, electro­
mechanical, electrical or electronic in operation.
(z) Mechanical Instruments. These instruments
Fig. 29.22 Multipoint arrangements.
(a) Single active gauge arrangement; may be classified into two groups. The first group
(b) four active gauge arrangement. includes those instruments in which the pressure
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 743

These elastic members are of many types and convert

the pressure into mechanical displacement which is
later converted into an electrical form using a
secondary transducer. These devices are many a time
known as force summing devices. Figure 25.7 shows
some of the commonly pressure sensitive primary devices.
The principle of working of these devices is
explained as : the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured is made to press the pressure sensitive
element and since the element is an elastic member, it
deflects causing a mechanical displacement. 'The
displacement is proportional to the pressure applied.
The displacement is then measured with the help of
electrical transducers. The output of the electrical
Fig. 25.6 Load cells. transducers is proportional to the displacement and
hence to the applied input pressure.
25.3.7 Spring Flexture Pivots
The commonly used pressure sensitive devices
Figure 25.1 shows two different types of arrange­
are described below :
ments for flexture pivots, one for the single spring
flexture pivot and the second for crossed spring flexture 25.4.1 Bourdon Tubes
pivot. The crossed-spring flexture pivot is widely used The Bourdon tubes are designed in various forms.
in measurement work for the following reasons : These are :
(i) it is practically frictionless (z) C type (zz) Spiral
(zz) the pivot sensitivity i.e., the angular deflec­ (zzz) Twisted tube and (zv) Helical.
tion per unit applied torque is virtually The Bourdon tubes are made out of an elliptically
constant for angular relations less than 15°. flattened tube bent in such a way as to produce the
shapes shown in Fig. 25.7. One end of the tube is
25.4 PRESSURE SENSITIVE PRIMARY DEVICES sealed or closed. The other end is open for the fluid to
Most pressure measuring devices use elastic enter. When the fluid whose pressure is to be
members for sensing pressure at the primary stage. measured enters the tube, the tube tends to straighten

Fig. 25.7 Pressure sensitive primary devices.

 744 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

out on account of the pressure applied. This causes a is oval in section is formed into an arc of 250° and
movement of the free end (closed end) and the hence the name C for the configuration which is
displacement of this end is amplified through shown in Fig. 25.8.
mechanical linkages. The amplified displacement of The displacement of tip is,
the free end may be used to move a pointer on a scale
3
calibrated in terms of pressure or may be applied to a x
electrical displacement transducer whose output may
be calibrated in terms of the pressure applied. 2
where E is the modulus of elasticity ; N/m , P, the
Bourdon tube elements have several distinct advan­ applied pressure, N/m and other terms are as
tages and these include low cost, simple construction, depicted in Fig. 25.9.
high pressure range, good accuracy except at low
pressures, and improved designs at the pressure for
maximum safety. Their greatest advantage is that they
are easily adapted for designs for obtaining electrical
outputs.
The disadvantages of Bourdon tubes are : their
low spring gradient which their use limits for pre­
cision measurements upto a pressure of 3 MN/m2, are
susceptible to shocks and vibrations and are subject to
hysteresis.
The Bourdon tube has the following forms :

1. C Type
The C type of Bourdon element is most commonly
used for local indication but it is also used for pressure Fig. 25.9 Geometry of C type Bourdon tube.
transmission and control applications. The tube which
Thus relationship between the displacement of tip
and the applied pressure is non-linear i.e., each
pressure increment does not produce a corresponding
tip movement. However, a linear relationship between
the deflection of the pointer and the applied pressure
is obtained using the geared sector and pinion
movement or other mechanical means. The accuracy
of C type Bourdon tubes varies from ±0.5 to ± 2% or
poorer. However, the normal accuracy is about ± 1%.

2. Spiral Type
It is clear from Eqn. 25.11, that the displacement of
tip varies inversely as the wall thickness and depends
upon the cross-sectional form of the tube. It also varies
directly as the length of arc 'a' which in turn depends
upon the angle subtended by the arc through which it
is bent. Thus in a tube having an arc of 180°, the
displacement of the tube will be twice that of a similar
tube having an arc of 90°. Therefore, the displacement
of the free end (tip) may be increased by increasing the
length of the arc of the tube without changing the wall
thickness.
When the angle through which the arc is bent
reaches 360°, its length can be increased further in two
ways : the tube can be made in the form of a spiral, or it
can be made in the form of a helix. An increased
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 745

displacement of the free end can be obtained by

increasing the number of turns in the spiral or helix
thereby avoiding the need for further magnification. It
has been mentioned earlier that magnification is
obtained through the use of geared sector and pinion
is used in C type Bourdon tube. But while using spiral
or helix type Bourdon tubes there is no need for
further amplification and hence the geared sector and
pinion arrangement is not used in their case. The
absence of geared sector and pinion arrangement
eliminates the backlash which tends to occur when
they (geared sector and pinion) become worn owing
to continued use.
A spiral type Bpurdon tube is shown in Fig. 25.10.
Spiral tubes are made by winding several turns of the
tube with its flattened cross-section in the form of a
spiral. Fig. 25.11 Helical type Bourdon tube.

The advantages of helix elements include the high

over-range capabilities which may be in the ratio as
high as 10 :1, its stability in fluctuating pressure appli­
cations, and its adaptability for high pressure service.
The number of coils employed in helix elements
depends upon the pressure to be measured. Helix type
of pressure elements use as few as three coils while
elements used for measurement for high pressures
may have as many as 16 coils or even more. The
accuracies obtainable from helical elements may vary
from ± 0.5% to ± 1% of span.
Bourdon tubes are made of different materials
which include brass, alloy steel, stainless steel, bronze,
Fig. 25.10 Spiral type Bourdon tube. phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, K Monel, Monel
and Ni-span C. The choice of type of material to be
When the pressure to be measured is applied to used depends upon its elastic characteristics suitable
the spiral, it tends to uncoil producing a relatively for the pressure range, process medium, temperature
long movement of the tip whose displacement can be and corrosive resistance to the media to be used.
used for indication or transmission. Phosphor bronze is used in low pressure applica­
The accuracy of spiral tube elements is higher tions where the atmosphere is non-corrosive while in
than that of C type elements on account of absence of applications where corrosion and/or high pressure is a
magnifying elements and is typically about ± 0.5%. problem, stainless steel or Monel are used.
Pressure gauges using bourdon tube elements are
3. Helical Type made with ranges from 760 mm of mercury to
A helical type Bourdon tube is shown in Fig. 25.11. 700 MPa or higher for special applications with the
As explained earlier, a helical bourdon element is minimum span being about 70 kPa. In fact, there is
similar to the spiral element, except it is wound in the quite an overlap of ranges at which the various
form of a helix. The displacement of the tip of a helical bourdon tube elements are designed to operate and
element is larger than that of spiral element. Usually a these ranges differ from one manufacturers, to
central shaft is installed within a helical element and another. One manufacturer, for example, lists spiral
the pointer is driven from this shaft by connecting bourdon tube elements from 0-75 to 0-1500 kPa
links. This system transmits only the circular motion when bronze, beryllium copper and Ni-span C are
of the tip to the pointer which is directly proportional used as the materials for the element. The same
to the changes in pressure. manufacturer uses the aforesaid materials for pressure
 746 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

ranges 1.5-550 MPa while using helical elements. For The displacement of bellows element is given by,
bronze, the upper span limit is 0-30 MPa ; for
, 0.453 Pbn D271-v2
beryllium copper and Ni-span C, 0-40 MPa and for «= ---------------5---------- ...(25.12)
stainless steel 0 -600 MPa. £t3
Another manufacturer uses C type bourdon tube
where P = pressure, N/m2 ;
elements using bronze upto a pressure of 7 MPa and
b = radius of each corrugation, m ;
steel and stainless steel to 150 MPa and still another
which uses these elements upto a pressure of 700 MPa. n = number of semi-circular corrugations ;
It may therefore be concluded that C-type bourdon t = thickness of wall, m ;
tube elements may be used for measurement of D = mean diameter, m ;
pressures ranging from vacuum to about 700 MPa and E = modulus of elasticity, N/m2 ;
even higher, spiral elements from vacuum to 30 MPa and v = Poisson's ratio.
and helical elements from 1.5 MPa to 550 MPa.
Normally a Bellows has the ability to move over a
25.4.2 Bellows greater distance than required in a pressure application
A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts, and, therefore, to give it maximum life and to have
resembling the folds in an accordian as shown in better accuracy, its movement is generally opposed by
Fig. 25.12. These parts are formed or joined in such a a calibrated spring so that only a part of the maximum
manner that they are expanded or contracted axially stroke is used. This system is shown in Fig. 25.13 and
by changes in pressure. The metals used in the is called spring loaded bellows.
construction of bellows, must be thin enough to be
flexible, ductile enough for reasonably easy
fabrication, and have a high resistance to fatigue
failure. Materials commonly used are brass, bronze,
beryllium copper, alloys of nickel and copper, steel
and Monel. Most of the bellows used in pressure
gauges are seamless and are made from drawn tubing
by hydraulic or other methods of rapid forming. These
methods produce uniform walls that give a higher life
expectancy. Other methods such as soldering and
welding of annular sections, rolling, spinning and
turning from solid stock may also be used for
manufacture of bellows.

Deflection of bellows when opposed by a spring is,

d=P—...(25.13)
2
where = effective area of bellows, m ;
K,,
b'sK = stiffness constants of bellows
2 and
spring respectively, N/m ,

.. p
Pressure Pp - d/— P +K^
K-------- ...(25.14)
4
If the bellows assembly operates an electric switch
or some other mechanism, we have,
p = F + ds(Kb + Ks)
...(25.15)
4
where F = force required to operate switch or
mechanism, N ;
d = deflection required to operate switch
or mechanism, m
Fig. 25.12 Bollows element.
416 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
externally applied field has been removed, is initially oriented in the tangential direction, and
the magnetic field created by the shaft is zero. When torque is applied to the shaft, the remanent
magnetization reorients and becomes increasingly helical as the torque value increases. This
reorientation produces a magnetic field, proportional to the torque, to be detected by a nearby
magnetic-field sensing device. The output signal from this device is conditioned in associated
electronic circuitry to provide a signal that can be used in a control unit. The drawback is that the
generated magnetic fields are weak and the orientation of the magnetization in the coating can be
affected by an external axial magnetic field-Earth’s, for instance.
15.29 Measurement of Vibration and Acceleration
Vibration is oscillating motion of a particle or body about a fixed reference point. Such motion
may be simple harmonic (sinusoidal) or complex (non-sinusoidal). It can also occur in various
modes - such as bending or translational modes - and, since the vibration can occur in more than
one mode simultaneously
The quantities which are required to be measurement of vibration are displacement, velocity
and acceleration. Displacement, velocity and acceleration are related to each other and if any
one of three variable concerned is measured the other two can be determined by integration or
differentiation employing electronics device.
Acceleration, a vector quantity, is the time rate of change of velocity with respect to a reference
system. When the term acceleration is used alone, it usually refers to linear acceleration a, which is
then related to linear velocity u, and time t by a = du/dt. Angular acceleration is related to angular
velocity w and time t by a = dw/dt. Mechanical vibration is an oscillation wherein the quantity,
varying in magnitude with time so that this variation is characterized by a number of reversals of
direction, is mechanical in nature.
This quantity can be stress, force, displacement, or acceleration; however, in measurement
technology the term vibration is usually applied to vibratory acceleration and sometimes to vibratory
velocity. Mechanical shock is a sudden nonperiodic or transient excitation of a mechanical system.
Seismic Transducers
Fig. 15.46 shows a seismic mass it consists of a mass m suspended from the transducer case a by
a spring of stiffness k. The motion of the mass within the case may be damped by a viscous fluid
or electric current with damping coefficient c. It is desired to measure the motion of the moving
part whose displacement with respect to fixed space is indicated by u. When the transducer case
is attached to the moving part, the transducer may be used to measure displacement, velocity, or
acceleration, depending on the portion of the frequency range which is utilized and whether the
relative displacement or relative velocity dd/dt is sensed by the transducing element. The typical
response of the mass-spring system is analyzed and applied to the interpretation of transducer
output. o
Consider a transducer whose case experiences
a displacement motion u, and let the relative k
displacement between the mass and the case be
d. Then the motion of the mass with respect to 
–
a reference fixed in space is d + u, and the force m
causing its acceleration, +

d 2u d 2 (δ + u ) +
= – m 2
= −m 2
c u
dt d t
–
The force applied by the spring is –kd and the Moving Part
force applied by the damper is –c(dd/dt), where c is
the damping coefficient. Adding all force terms and Fig. 15.46.
 Transducer for Measurement Non-Electrical Quantities 417
equating the sum to zero we get,
d 2 (δ + u )  dδ 
= –m − c   − kδ = 0
d 2t  dt 
d 2δ  dδ  d 2u
m + c   + k δ = − m
d 2t  dt  d 2t
Assume that the motion u is sinusoidal u = uo cos wt, where w = 2p f is the angular frequency
in rasdians per second and f is expressed in cycles per second. Neglecting transient terms, the
response is define by d = do cos (wt – q), then
δo ω2
=
uo 2 2
k 2  c
 − ω  + ω 
m   m

 c 
 ωm
−1

q = tan  
 k − ω2 
m 
The undamped natural frequency fn of the instrument is the frequency at which,
δo
=
uo
When the damping is zero (c = 0) of the frequency at which q = 90°, then
k
wn = 2πf n =
m
Thus, a stiff spring or a light mass produces an instrument with a high natural frequency. A
heavy mass or compliant spring produces an instrument with a low natural frequency. The damping
in a transducer is specified as a fraction of critical damping. Critical damping c is the minimum
level of damping that prevents a mass-spring transducer from oscillating when excited by a step
function or other transient. It is defined by,
Cc = 2 km
Thus, the fraction of critical damping z,
c c
z= =
Cc 2 km
The maximum acceleration is given by, w2 × maximum displacement of mass
Acceleration transducers (accelerometers) are used to measure acceleration as well as shock
and vibration. Their sensing element is the seismic mass, restrained by a spring. The motion of the
seismic mass in this acceleration-sensing arrangement is usually damped. Acceleration transducers
(accelerometers) are used to measure acceleration as well as shock and vibration. Their sensing
element is the seismic mass, restrained by a spring. The acceleration is applied to the transducer
case causes motion of the mass relative to the case. When the acceleration stops, the mass is returned
to its original position by the spring. This displacement of the mass is then converted into an
electrical output by various types of transduction elements in steady-state acceleration transducers
whose frequency response extends down to essentially 0 Hz. In piezoelectric accelerometers the
mass is restrained from motion by the crystal transduction element, which is thereby mechanically
418 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
stressed when acceleration is applied to the transducer. Such dynamic acceleration transducers do
not respond appreciably to acceleration fluctuating at a rate of less than 5 Hz. They are normally
used for vibration and shock measurements.
15.30 Potentiometric Accelerometer
Fig. 15.47 shows the potemtiometric accelerometer. This is used for slowly varying acceleration
and vibration. The seismic mass is connected between the spring and dashpot. The wiper of the
potentiometer is connected to the seismic mass. The motion of the seimic mass relative to the
support of the transducer is sensed by the potentiometer and a proportional voltage output is
obtained. In the presence of vibration or acceleration, vibration displacement of seismic mass
takes place with respect to the housing of the device. The displacement of mass is transferred to
the potentiometers through the wiper. Therefore the resistance of the potentiometer changes. This
change in resistance gives the value of displacement and hence the acceleration.
Spring
(with spring constant K)
Accelerometer
K case
Resistance m Seismic mass
output
Wiper
B
Damper (Dashpot)

Fig. 15.47.
The main advantage of this system is that is the simplicity in construction. The main
disadvantage of this system is very low natural frequency.
15.31 LVDT Accelerometer
A second type of accelerometer takes advantage of the natural linear displacement measurement of
the LVDT to measure mass displacement. In these instruments the LVDT core itself is the seismic
mass. Displacements of the core are converted directly into a linearly proportional ac voltage.
Fig. 15.48 shows the LVDT accele-
rometer, the core is attached to two spring Spring steel
Accelerometer case
steel one at top and other at bottom with
Rod
the help of rod. When the instrument
is subjected to vibrations the sensor
S1 Output
core moves up and down the LVDT
Core

A.C. voltage
secondaries give and ac output voltages mains P
first of one phase and then, alternately S2
of the opposite phase. The magnitude Motion
of this output voltage depends upon the Rod
amplitude of the variations. Peak-to-
Spring steel
peak magnitude of this output voltage is
measured by peak measuring voltmeter. Base

This instrument has a high natural Fig. 15.48.

frequency because of smaller mass of the
core and therefore they can be used for measurement of vibration of high frequencies. They offer
low resistance to motion than the potentiometers and are capable of much better performance.
 Transducer for Measurement Non-Electrical Quantities 419
15.32 Piezoelectric Accelerometer
The active element of a piezoelectric accelerometer is a piezoelectric material. It based on a property
of certain crystal that when it is subjected to stress, a voltage is generated across the crystal. The
sensing element of a piezoelectric accelerometer consists of two major parts piezoelectric crystal
and seismic mass. With acceleration acting perpendicular to the base, an output is generated by
the crystal due to compression force.
Fig. 15.49 shows the piezolelectric accelerometer, the piezoelectric crystal is spring loaded
with seismic mass M in contact with the crystal. When the mass crystal is subject to an acceleration
the crystal is stressed and force experienced F = M.a. It generates an output voltage across the
crystal proportional to the acceleration. With acceleration acting perpendicular to the base, an
output is generated by the crystal due to compression. Crystal materials include quartz and several
ceramic mixtures such as titanates, niobates, and zirconates.

Accelerometer Clip type spring

case
m Seismic mass

Output Crystal
Direction of
motion

Fig. 15.49.
The main advantage of the piezoelectric accelerometer is that the crystal acts as a spring and
damper in the instrument. The natural frequency of the crystal is very high, hence it can be used
for very high frequency vibration measurements.
The disadvantage of such accelerometer is that the output voltage must be measured with a
instrument having very high impedance to avoid loading effects as the electrical impedance of
the piezoelectric crystal is very high.
It does not give an oputput voltage for constant acceleration. It based on the characteristics
of piezoelectric motion transducers. It widely used for shock and vibration measurement.
15.33 Strain Guage Accelerometer
Strain gauges
Strain-guage accelerometers are very popular
and exist in several design versions. Some use
Accelerometer
unbonded metal wire stretched between the case
seismic mass and a stationary frame or between
posts on a cross-shaped spring to whose center 1
the seismic mass is attached and whose four Seismic mass
tips are attached to a stationary frame. Other 2
Motion
designs use bonded-metal wire, metal foil, or Beam
semiconductor guages bonded to one or two
elastic members deflected by the displacement
of the seismic mass. The recently developed Fig. 15.50.
micromachined accelerometers also employ strain-guage transductions.
Fig. 15.50 shows the strain guage type accelerometer. The seismic mass is attached to the
accelerometer frame through a low-deflection elastic beam. The strain guages are mounted on this
beam. The seismic mass is constrained in the up and down and in and out directions by guides.
But the guides permit free movement only in left and right direction.
420 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
Application of Accelerometer
Some of the main application accelerometer are given below:
1. Accelerometers can be used to measure vehicle acceleration. They allow for performance
evaluation of both the engine/drive train and the breaking systems
2. Accelerometers can be used to measure vibration on cars, machines, buildings, process
control systems and safety installations.
3. Modern electronic accelerometers are used in remote sensing devices intended for the
monitoring of active volcanos to detect the motion of magma.
4. The PlayStation uses the Dual Shock 3 remote which uses a three axis accelerometer that
can be used to make steering more realistic in racing games, such as Motorstorm and
Burnout Paradise.
5. Camcorders use accelerometers for image stabilization.
15.34 Calibration of Accelerometers
Accelerometers for the measurement of steady or slowly varying accelerations may be calibrated
up to an acceleration of +1g (the standard value of g is 9.80665 m/s2) by using the earth’s
gravitational attraction. The accelerometer is mounted on a tilting table from which the angle q
between the sensing axis and the vertical can be measured. At q = 0 the force of gravity on the
seismic mass is the same as the inertia force due to an acceleration of 9.8 cos q m/s2. At any
other angle of q the corresponding acceleration is 9.8 cos q m/s2. For accurate calibration the
true value of g at the location where the calibration is taking place should be used. The standard
value, given above, is approximately correct for temperature latitudes, but g varies from 9.832
m/s2 at the poles to 9.780 m/s2 at the equator.
Some steady-state accelerometers have provision for applying known forces to the seismic
mass along the sensing axis, by means of weights, so that if the value of the seismic mass is known,
the accelerometer can be calibrated for accelerations greater than g by applying the equivalent of
the inertia force. If the construction of the accelerometer does not permit this it may be mounted
on a turntable so that its sensing axis is radial; the turntable is then run at known angular velocities
of w rad/s, so that known centripetal accelerations of w2 r m/s2 are applied, where r is the radius
is meters to the center of the seismic mass.
Piezoelectric accelerometers cannot usually be calibrated by means of static loadings because
their charge leaks away, although if the piezoelectric material is quartz the time constant of the
leakage may be several days due to its high electrical insulation. It is usual, however, to calibrate
piezoelectric accelerometers by shaking them with simple harmonic motion along the sensing axis,
by means of an electro-mechanical exciter. For a primary calibration the amplitude of the motion
is measured by means of an interferometer, using a laser as the light source and a phototransistor
to convert the interference fringes into electrical pulses. By this means both the amplitude, x,
and the angular frequency, w, of the motion may be accurately measured; the amplitude of the
acceleration is then w2 x.
For a secondary calibration, the accelerometer to be calibrated is mounted ‘back-to-back’
with one which has already been calibrated to act as a transfer standard, and the same simple
harmonic motion is applied by the exciter to both. The acceleration applied to the accelerometer
to be calibrated is then read from the one which has been previously calibrated.
Example 15.3. An accelerometer has a seismic mass of 0.06 kg and a spring constant of 4500
N/m maximum mass displacement is  0.025 m. Determine maximum measurable acceleration
and natural frequency.
Solution: Given: m = 0.06 kg; k = 4500 N/m and d =  0.05 m
We know that the natural frequency,
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1083

coil. (Note that in this transducer, the functions of frequency of the transducer, the magnet appears to be
permanent magnet and the coil are reversed from their stationary in space. The case and coil oscillate around
functions as used in transducer of Fig. 29.47.) the magnet resulting in an output voltage which is
The advantages of this transducer are : proportional to the amplitude of the vibration. The
frequency of output is equal to the frequency of the
(i) This is a more satisfactory arrangement as the
vibration.
system now forms a closed magnetic circuit
with a constant air gap. Both moving coil and seismic transducers have
(zi) The whole device is contained in an the disadvantage that the connections must be made
antimagnetic case which reduces the effects to the moving member.
of stray magnetic fields.
29.2 1 MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR VELOCITY
Another type of velocity transducers uses a In many cases the only way to measure linear
pivoted arm on which a coil is mounted. There is a velocity is to convert it into angular velocity. For
mass attached at the end of the arm. The velocity to be
example, a speedometer uses the wheel rotational
measured is applied to the arm and therefore the coil
speed as a measure of the linear road speed. The
moves in the field of a permanent magnet.
disadvantage with measurement of linear velocity
A voltage is generated on account of motion of the arises because a fixed reference must be used and if
coil in the magnetic field. The output voltage is the moving object has to travel large distances, the
proportional to the velocity. This type of transducer is detection becomes impossible. Hence angular velocity
generally used for measurement of velocities
transducers are used.
developed in a linear sinusoidal or random manner.
Damping is obtained electrically, thus assuring high The measurement of angular speed may be made
stability under varying tempemture conditions. with tachometers which may be either mechanical or
electrical type.
29.20 .3 Seismic Tape Velocity Transducer
In this type of construction a permanent magnet is 29.2 2 ELECTRICAL TACHOMETERS
supported between two springs and fitted with low The electrical tachometers are preferred over
friction bearing rings as shown in Fig. 29.42. If this mechanical tachometers for all applications because
transducer is attache^ to an object which is vibrating these tachometers offer all the advantages associated
at a frequency that is\greater than the low natural with electrical transducers. The various types of
electrical tachometers are discussed below :

29.22.1 Electromagnetic Tachometer

Generators
There are two types of electromagnetic tachometer
generators called tachogenerators.
These are :
A D.C. tachometer generators, and
A A.C. tachometer generators.
1. D.C. Tachometer Generators
D.C. tachometer generators consist of a small
armature which is coupled to the machine whose
speed is to be measured. This armature revolves in the
field of a permanent magnet. The emf generated is
proportional to the product of flux and speed. Since
the flux of the permanent magnet is constant, the
voltage generated is proportional to speed. The
polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of
rotation. This emf is measured with the help of a
moving coil voltmeter having a uniform scale and
Fig. 29.42 Seismic type velocity transducer. calibrated directly in terms of speed.
 1084 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Figure 29.43 shows a d.c. tachometer generator. A When amplitude of induced voltage is used as a
series resistance is used in the circuit for the purpose measure of speed, the circuit of Fig. 29.44 is used. The
of limiting the current from the generator in the event output voltage of a.c. tachometer generator is rectified
of a short circuit on the output side. and is measured with a permanent magnet moving
coil instrument.

magnet

Fig. 29.43 D.C. Tachometer Generator.

Advantages : Fig. 29.44 A.C. Tachometer Generator.

The chief advantages of this tachometer are :
Limitations :
(z) The direction of rotation is directly indicated
(z) The difficulty with this system is that at low
by the polarity of the output voltage.
speed the frequency of output voltage is low and
(zz) The output voltage is typically 10 mV/rpm hence it is very difficult to smooth out the ripples in
and can be measured with conventional type the output voltage wave shape and hence a.c.
d.c. voltmeters.
tachometer generators are designed to have a large
Disadvantages: number of poles so that the frequency of output
The disadvantages are : voltage is high even at low speeds.
(z) Brushes on small tachometer generators often (zz) High speeds also present a problem. At high
produce maintenance problems, as their Reference speeds, the frequency increases and
contact resistance may vary and produce therefore, the impedance of the coils of tacho­
appreciable error. Thus the commutator and generator increases. If good linearity is to be
the brushes require periodic maintenance. maintained the input impedance of the display device
(zz) The input resistance of meter should be very must be considerably larger than the impedance of the
high as compared with output resistance of coils.
generator. This is required to limit the current However, modem electrical instruments such as
to small value. If the armature current is counters, make it desirable to use frequency of output
large, the field of the permanent magnet is voltage as a measure of speed. This is because the
distorted giving rise to non-linearity. frequency is not affected by temperature, impedance
2. A.C. Tachometer Generators of meters, and other systematic errors that can affect
the rotor voltage readings. Thus the frequency as
In order to overcome some of the difficulties
measured by electronic counters is a measure of
mentioned above, a.c. tachometer generators are used.
speed.
The tachometer generator has rotating magnet which
may be either a permanent magnet or an electro­ 3. Drag Cup Rotor A.C. Tahogenerator
magnet. The coil is wound on the stator and therefore The principle of operation of an a.c. tachometer or
the problems associated with commutator (as in d.c. drag cup generator can be easily understood by
tachometers) are absent. referring to Fig. 29.45. In this case two stator field
The rotation of the magnet causes an emf to be windings are mounted at right angles to each other i.e.,
induced in the stator coil. The amplitude and they are in space quadrature with each other. The two
frequency of this emf are both proportional to the windings are called (z) reference winding and
speed of rotation. Thus either amplitude or frequency (zz) quadrature winding. The tachometer rotor is a thin
of induced voltage may be used as a measure of aluminium cup (to have low inertia) called drag cup
rotational speed. that rotates in the air gap of field structure shown in
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 085

Fig. 29.52. This cup, which has a very low inertia and eq = Kt 0'(f)cos coct =vf(t) coscocf
made of a high conductive material (aluminium)
or vf(t) = Kt 0'(t)
proves to be a uniformly short circuited conductor.
The emf induced in the quadrature coil is thus
proportional to rotor speed and is phase with the
voltage applied to rotor speed and is phase with the
voltage applied to the reference coil. The modulating
signal (emf) available at the terminals of the reference
coil can be expressed as
vf(f)= 0'(f)=Kf co(f) ...(29.45)
where Kt = tachometer constant.
Hence, the voltage output available at the terminals
of quadrature coil is a function of the speed.
The rotation of the rotor causes an induced voltage
in the sensing winding and this voltage is propor­
tional to the instantaneous value of speed if the excita­
tion frequency is very large as compared with speed.
Fig. 29.45 A.C. Tachometer Generator.
Advantages:
An alternating current voltage is applied to the (i) The drag cup type of a.c. tachogenerator
reference winding and the output winding is taken described above is in fact a two phase squirrel cage
from the quadrature winding. induction motor. One of the windings is excited by
Let the voltage applied to reference coil carrier and the other winding develops an output
= Vr cos coc t voltage proportional to the speed. With the rotor
stationary, the output voltage is zero. The rotation of
where cof =carrier frequency, rad/s
rotor in one direction produces an output voltage at
This produces a reference flux <I>r sin co. t lagging the terminals of the sensing winding. The frequency of
the reference voltage by an angle 90° if the resistance the a.c. output voltage is the same as that of the
and reactance coil is considered to be negligible. excitation frequency with its amplitude proportional
Let the rotor speed be to the speed. The output voltage is in phase with the
co(f) 0°(f) = 0m COSflCOct input excitation voltage. Reversal of the rotation
produces an output voltage which is proportional to
The rotor is replaced by two imaginary coils 1,
the speed but is 180° out of phase with the input
T and2,2'
voltage. This can be detected with a phase sensitive
Speed (motional) emf in coil 1, T demodulator. Thus the arrangement affords a
= (<|)r sin coc t) (0'„ cos a wc f) discrimination in the direction of the applied speed.
Assuming the rotor reactance to be negligible, the (ii) A linear relationship between the output
current in coil 1, T will be proportional to the induced voltage and speed is obtained if the carrier frequency
emf. This will cause a quadrature flux whose is 5 to 10 times larger than the frequency of the speed
magnitude is, signal. For this purpose the excitation winding is
&m cos a cd, t sin cof t supplied with a frequency of 400 Hz.
Because of the quadrature flux, a transformer emf (iii) The drag cup type tachometers are rugged and
will be induced in the quadrature coil. This emf is are in-expensive. Also, they require little maintenance.
= ^3 e'w 4 [cos « sin M
(iu) In some situations these tachometers are very
dt useful since they give a ripple free output.
= fC [-a cof sin a cd. t sin cof t + wc cos a t cos co. t] Disadvantages :
If the carrier frequency is very large a «1, the
(i) The output voltage is proportional to the
sinusoidally varying speed 0(f)is very much less than
product of speed and input voltage. Thus, in order
the carrier frequency o>f,
that the calibration of the tachometer holds good, the
- Kt &m cos a a>c t cos w. t input voltage should be maintained absolutely constant.
 1 086 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(ii) These tachometers are hard to calibrate. the pulse rate is a function of speed of rotation. The
(in) At high speed there exists a non-linear pulse rate can be measured by an electronic counter
relationship between output voltage and the input which can be directly calibrated in terms of speed in
speed. Hence corrections should be applied or rpm.
otherwise higher carrier frequencies should be used. It Advantages:
is no doubt possible to excite the tachometer excitation This system has two distinct advantages :
winding with frequencies higher than 400 Hz if (?) The output format is digital and this means
necessary, but some performance characteristics will that if the tachometer is a part of a digital
change their value in the process. instrumentation system, no analog to digital
conversion is necessary.
29.23 DIGITAL METHODS
(ii) The pulse amplitudes are constant. This
The electromechanical methods for measurement
simplifies the electronic circuitry.
of angular velocity are satisfactory up to about a speed
of 10,000 rpm. Higher speed measurements are possible Disadvantages:
with digital pickups which work in conjunction with (i) A disadvantage is that the light source must
digital-frequency meters. be replaced from time to time. A typical life
The biggest advantage of digital methods is that time for light source is 50,000 hours.
no direct physical contact is required with the shaft (ii) The accuracy of this method depends
whose speed is to be measured. Therefore, no load is principally on the error represented by one
imposed upon the shaft by measuring device. pulse. The digital meters measure frequency
The digital pickups are of two types : by counting the number of input pulses which
occur in short period of time called gating
A photo-electric type, and
period. If this period is too small serious
A inductive type. errors maybe caused. The gating period
29.23.1 Photoelectric Tachometer should therefore, be chosen to give a suffi­
ciently large count. In general, all the digits
This method of measuring speed of rotation
on the digital display should be utilized.
consists of mounting an opaque disc on the rotating
shaft as is shown in Fig. 29.46. The factors which the user can control to minimise
the errors are :
(i) gating period, and
(ii) number of pulses generated per revolution.

29.23.2 Toothed Rotor Variable Reluctance

Tachometer
This tachometer generator consists of a metallic
toothed rotor mounted on the shaft whose speed is to
Fig. 29.46 Photoelectric tachometer. be measured. This is shown in Fig. 29.47. A magnetic
pickup is placed near the toothed rotor.
The disc has a number of equidistant holes on its
periphery. At one side of the disc a light source is fixed
and at the other side of the disc, and on line with the
light source, a light sensor such as a photo tube or
some photosensitive semi-conducting device is
placed. When the opaque portion of the disc is
between the light source and the light sensor, the latter
is unilluminated and produces no output. But when a
hole appears between the two, the light falling upon
the sensor produces an output pulse.
The frequency at which these pulses are produced
depends upon the number of holes in the disc and its
speed of rotation. Since the number of holes is fixed, Fig. 29.47 Toothed rotor tachometer generator.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 087

The magnetic pick up consists of a housing Example 2g.22 An inductive pickoff operating from a
containing a small permanent magnet with a coil 120 tooth wheel is used with a digital frequency meter to
wound round it. When the rotor rotates, the reluctance measure the speed of rotation of the shaft on which the wheel
of the air gap between pickup and the toothed rotor is mounted. The gating period is set to 104 ps, and a reading
changes giving rise to an induced e.m.f. in the pickup of 0030 is obtained on the four digit display. What shaft
coil. This output is in the form of pulses, with a variety speed does this represent in r.p.s. ? If the available gating
of wave shapes. periods are 102, 103, 104,IO5, 106,107 ps respectively, what
The frequency of the pulses of induced voltage would be the optimum setting of gating period for making
this measurement ?
will depend upon the number of teeth of the rotor and
its speed of rotation. Since the number of teeth is Solution. .-. Number of pulses per second
known, the speed of rotation can be determined by _ reading of digital meter
measuring the frequency of pulses with an electronic gating period
counter. Suppose the rotor has T teeth, the speed of
rotation is n rps and number of pulses per second is P. 0030
= 3000
104xl0-6
Number of pulses per revolution = T
Hence speed Speed - num^er Pu^ses Per second
pulses per second P number of teeth
n = —-------------------- = — rps
number of teeth T 3000
P = 25 rps.
= — x 60 rpm ...(29.46) 120
The setting of the gating period for this measure­
A typical rotor has 60 teeth. Thus if the countre ment is 104 ps and this gives a reading of 0030 on a
counts the pulses in one second, the counter will
four digit display. It is seen that out of four digit place
directly display the speed in rpm.
only two are utilised. For optimum setting of gating
We have mentioned above that the pulses have a period, all the four digits places should be utilized.
variety of wave shapes. This is immaterial, as this This required that the gating time be increased by a
tachometer is always connected to an electronic factor 102.
counter, whose requirement is merely that the
Optimum gating time setting
amplitude be great enough to trigger a count.
= 104xl02 =106 ps
Variable reluctance tachometer probably is the
most common type of tachometer in use today. 29.24 STROBOSCOPE AND STROBOSCOPIC
Advantages : METHODS
The advantages of this tachometer are : The stroboscope is a simple, portable manually
(z) It is simple and rugged in construction. operated device which may be used for measurement
(z'z) It is maintenance free. of periodic or rotary motions. Basically, the
(zzz) It is easy to calibrate. This has been illustrated instrument is a source of variable frequency flashing
earlier, if the rotor has 60 teeth and the pulses brilliant light, the flashing frequency being set by the
are counted by counter in one second, the operator. The circuit used is based upon variable
count displayed by the counter gives the frequency oscillator which controls the flashing
speed directly in r.p.m. frequency. The speed is measured by adjusting the
(z'v) The information from this device can be frequency so that the moving objects are visible only at
easily transmitted. specific intervals of time.
Example 2g.21 A variable reluctance type tachometer The method of use of the stroboscope depends
has 60 rotor teeth. The counter records 3600 counts per upon imperfect dynamic response of the human eye. If
second. Determine the speed in rpm. a strong light is caused to flash on a moving object
Solution. which, at the time each flash occurs, occupies a given
Speed - Per secon^ position, the object will appear to be stationary.
number of teeth Therefore the method is useful for only those types of
3600 motions which occur regularly after a fixed interval of
= rPs =3600 rpm.
time, such as oscillation or rotation.
 Transducers 413

Example 13.2 A resistive transducer with a resistance of 5 kW and a shaft

stroke of 3.0 in. is used in the arrangement in Fig. Ex. 13.1. Potentiometer
R3–R4 is also 5 k and Vt is 5.0 V. The initial position to be used as a reference
point is such that R1 = R2 (i.e. the shaft is at the centre). At the start of the test,
potentiometer R3 –R4 is adjusted so that the bridge is balanced (Ve = 0).
Assuming that the object being monitored moves a maximum resistance of 0.5
in. towards A, what will be the new value of Vc? (Shaft distance is 5 in.)

Solution If the wiper moves 0.5 in. towards A from the centre, it will have
moved 3 in. from B.
3.0
R2 = ¥ 5 k = 3 kW
5.0
Ê R2 ˆ Ê R4 ˆ
Ve = VR2 – VR4 = Á ˜ ¥ Vt – Á ¥ Vt
Ë R1 + R2 ¯ Ë R3 + R4 ˜¯
Ê 3 kˆ Ê 2.5 k ˆ
= Á ˜ ¥5V– Á ¥5V
Ë 5 k¯ Ë 5 k ˜¯
= 3 V – 2.5 V = 0.5 V

STRAIN GAUGES 13.6

The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation
in electrical resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the
wires.
It is well known that stress (force/unit area) and strain (elongation or
compression/unit length) in a member or portion of any object under pressure is
directly related to the modulus of elasticity.
Since strain can be measured more easily by using variable resistance
transducers, it is a common practice to measure strain instead of stress, to serve
as an index of pressure. Such transducers are popularly known as strain gauges.
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on
account of the fact that both the length and diameter of the conductor changes.
Also, there is a change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor when
subjected to strain, a property called the piezo-resistive effect. Therefore,
resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges.
Many detectors and transducers, e.g. load cells, torque meters, pressure gauges,
temperature sensors, etc. employ strain gauges as secondary transducers.
When a gauge is subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its
area of cross-section decreases. Since the resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area of cross-section,
the resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain. The change in resistance
value of a conductor under strain is more than for an increase in resistance due to
448 Electronic Instrumentation

Enclosed in an airtight container is a metallic diaphragm which moves to the

left when pressure is applied to the chamber and to the right when vacuum is
applied. This diaphragm is used as one plate of a variable capacitor. Its distance
from the stationary plate to its left, as determined by the pressure applied to the
unit, determines the capacitance between the two plates. The monitor indicates
the pressure equivalent of the unit’s capacitance by measuring the capacitor’s
reactance to the ac source voltage.
(The portion of the chamber to the left of the moving plate is isolated from the
side into which the pressurised gas or vapour is introduced. Hence, the dielectric
constant of the unit does not change for different types of pressurised gas or
vapour. The capacity is purely a function of the diaphragm position.) This device
is not linear.
Changes in pressure may be easily detected by the variation of capacity
between a fixed plate and another plate free to move as the pressure changes.
The resulting variation follows the basic capacity formula.
K (n - 1) A
C = 0.885 pf (13.15)
t
where A = area of one side of one plate in cm2
n = number of plates
t = thickness of dielectric in cm
K = dielectric constant
The capacitive transducer, as in the capacitive microphone, is simple to
construct and inexpensive to produce. It is particularly effective for HF
variations.
However, when the varying capacitance is made part of an ac bridge to
produce an ac output signal, the conditions for resistive and reactive balance
generally require much care to be taken against unwanted signal pickup in the
high impedance circuit, and also compensation for temperature changes. As a
result, the receiving instrument for the capacitive sensor usually calls for more
advanced and complex design than is needed for other transducers.

LOAD CELL (PRESSURE CELL) 13.14

The load cell is used to weigh extremely heavy loads. A length of bar, usually
steel, is used as the active element. The weight of the load applies a particular
stress to the bar. The amount of strain which results in the bar for different values
of applied stress is determined, so that the strain may be used as a direct measure
of the stress causing it.
The load cell shown in Fig. 13.31 is a good example of the use of strain
gauges in weighing operations.
As the stress is applied along the direction of S (shown by the arrow in
Fig. 13.31), the steel bar experiences a compression along that axis and an
expansion along the X and Y axes. As a result, gauge A experiences a decrease
in resistance, while gauge B undergoes an increase in resistance. When these
 Transducers 449

two gauges and the gauges on the two remaining sides of the steel are connected
to form a bridge circuit, four times the sensitivity of a simple gauge bridge is
obtained. This makes the load cell sensitive to very small values of applied stress,
as well as to extremely heavy loads.

Fig. 13.31 Strain gauge load cell

PIEZO ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCER 13.15

A symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle salt and Barium
titanate produce an emf when they are placed under stress. This property is used
in piezo electric transducers, where a crystal is placed between a solid base and
the force-summing member, as shown in Fig. 13.32.

Fig. 13.32 Piezo electric transducer

Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 065

If the strain gauge readout is 150 divisions when the 29.10.1 Tensile-Compressive Cell
calibration switch is closed and 240 divisions when the load Figure 29.13 shows a tensile-compressive cell
is applied, what is the axial strain in the specimen ? which is a cylinder. This arrangement uses four strain
Solution. The bridge has four active elements. gauges each mounted at 90° to each other. The bridge
Effective strain circuit is also shown. Two of strain gauges experience
tensile stress while the other two are subjected to com­
__ L pressive stress.
n___ + The output of a bridge with equal arms and using
=------------- —-------------- = 48.1 x W6 two strain gauges mounted 90° to each other is :
4x1.22(188 + 800,000)
/R
When the calibration switch is closed, the readout Ae0 =(1 + v) ...(29.21)
4 + 2(AR1/R)
gives a reading of 150 divisions.
.’. 1 division In the present case, there are two sets of gauges
mounted 90°C to each other, with one set experiencing
= —xlO’6 = 0.321 x 10'6 tensile stress while the other a compressive stress.
150
/. Output voltage of Wheatstone bridge :
When the strain gauges' arrangement is loaded,
the strain is : ARj/R
Ae0=2(l + v) ...(29.22)
s = 0.321 x IO-6 x 240 = 77 x 10-6 = 77 microstrain 4 + 2(AR1 / R)

29.10 LOAD CELLS The above relationship is clear from the following
explanation :
Load cells utilise an elastic member as the primary
transducer and strain gauges as secondary trans­ In the case of a cylinder, an axial compressive load
ducers as explained in Art. 25.3.6, page 742. Strain causes a negative strain in the vertical gauges, and a
gauges may be attached to any elastic member (as positive strain in the circumferential gauges. The two
shown in Fig. 29.13) on which there exists a, suitable strains are not equal in this case. These two strains, are
plane area to accommodate them. This arrangement related to each other by a factor v, called the Poisson's
may then be used to measure loads applied to deform ratio. Since the value of the strain is of no interest, the
or deflect the member, provided that the resultant objective is to produce a force transducer. This force
strain is large enough to produce detectible outputs. transducer is calibrated empirically. In case all the
When the strain gauge-elastic member combination is gauges are similar, temperature compensation is
used for weighing it is called a load cell. obtained as all the gauges contribute equally to
unbalance the bridge.
Compression cells of this type have been used
with a capacity of 300 MN.
Unbonded strain gauge transducers are
frequently used for force measurement, particularly if
high sensitivity is required. Highest sensitivity is
obtained when the gauge itself performs the function
of elastic member, i.e., all the input force is used fort
producing strain in the gauge.
Example 29.13 A load cell consists of a solid cylinder of
steel 40 mm in diameter with four strain gauges bonded to
it and connected into the four arms of a voltage sensitive
bridge. The gauges are mounted to have Poisson's arrangement.
If the gauges are each of 100 Cl resistance and the gauge
factor, 2.1, the bridge excitation voltage 6 V, determine the
sensitivity of the cell in V/kN. Modulus of elasticity for steel
is 200 GN/m2 and the Poisson's ratio is 0.29.
Solution. Suppose a load of 1 kN is applied to the
Fig. 29.13 Tension compression resistance load cell.
strain gauge cell.
 826 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

e0(//2-x)u7 location of the electrodes. A piezo-electric element

1 2d + l used for converting mechanical motion to electrical
signals may be thought as charge generator and a
. r _ £Q(l/2+x)w
3nd C>2 — capacitor. Mechanical deformation generates a charge
and this charge appears as a voltage across the
Capacitance between plates A and C is, electrodes. The voltage is E = QI C.
cAC =0^02 The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A
tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a
2 Id + It/2 + tx
= enzr -------------------- compressive force produces a voltage of opposite
0 2d(2d + t)
polarity.
Similarly, capacitance between plates A and D, A piezo-electric crystal is shown in Fig. 25.121.
2 Id + It / 2 - tx
C
^AD
2d(2d + t)

25.29 PIEZO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

A piezo-electric material is one in which an
electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a
crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by
the application of a mechanical force. This potential
is produced by the displacement of charges. The effect
is reversible, i.e., conversely, if a varying potential is
applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change
the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.
This effect is known as piezo-electric effect. Elements
exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are called as electro-
resistive elements.
Common piezo-electric materials include Rochelle
salts, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, lithium
sulphate, dipotassium tartrate, potassium dihydrogen
phosphate, quartz and ceramics A and B. Except for
quartz and ceramics A and B, the rest are man-made
crystals grown from aqueous solutions under carefully Fig. 25.121 (a) Piezo-electric crystal used for
controlled conditions. The ceramic materials are poly­ measurement offeree, (b) Axis numbering system for
the crystal.
crystalline in nature. They are, basically, made of
barium titanate. They do not have piezo-electric The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface
properties in their original state but these properties charges are proportional to the magnitude and direction
are produced by special polarizing treatment. of the applied force F. The polarity of induced charges
The materials that exhibit a significant and useful depends upon the direction of applied force.
piezoelectric effect are divided into two categories : Charge Q = dxF coulomb ...(25.130)
A Natural group and where d = charge sensitivity of the crystal;
A Synthetic group. C/N : (it is constant for a given crystal)
Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to natural group and F = applied force, N
while materials like lithium sulphate, ethylene
The force F causes a change in thickness of the
diamine tartrate belong to the synthetic group.
crystal.
The piezo-electric effect can be made to respond ' AE
to (or cause) mechanical deformations of the material F = —— At newton ...(25.131)
in many different modes. The modes can be : thickness n
where A = area of crystal; m
expansion, transverse expansion, thickness shear and
face shear. The mode of motion affected depends on t = thickness of crystal; m, and
the shape of the body relative to the crystal axis and E = Young's modulus N/m2
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 327

Young's modulus The values of crystal voltage sensitivity,

stress permittivity and charge sensitivity for barium titatate
strain At 11 and quartz are shown in Table 25.8.
= — N/m2 ...(25.132)
AAt Table 25.9 Properties of Barium Titanate
and Quartz
Area A = zul
where w = width of crystal : m, and Voltage Charge
Permittivity,
Material Sensitivity Sensitivity, d
I = length of crystal; in e F/ m
g Vm/N pC/N
.■. From Eqns. 25.130 and 25.131, we have, charge: Barium 12 xlO’3 12.5 x 10'9 150
titanate
Q = dA£(At/f) ...(25.133)
Quartz 50 x 10~3 40.6 x 10-12 2
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to an
output voltage EQ
Sometimes it is desired to express the output
Voltage E0 = Q/Cp ...(25.134) voltage or charge in terms of deflection rather than in
where Cp = capacitance between electrodes ; F terms of either stress or force. This is because it is
really the deformation that causes the charge
Capacitance between electrodes generation. Thus we must know the modulus of
Cp = £r&QA/t ...(25.135) elasticity of the material for this purpose. The values
From Eqns. 25.130, 25.134, 25.135, of modulus of elasticity are :
Barium titanate : 12 xlOloN/ m,
Quartz : 8.6 x 106 N / m2

But FI A = P = pressure or stress in N/M2 It has been stated earlier that the piezo-electric
d effect is direction sensitive. The main characteristics of
Eo=----- tP ...(25.137)
Sr£0
piezo-electric motion to voltage transducers can be
illustrated by considering only one common mode of
= gtP ...(25.138) deformation i.e., thickness expansion. For this mode
where g = d / £rEQ ...(25.139) the physical arrangement is shown in Fig. 25.121(a).
'g' is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal. This is Various double-subscripted physical constants are
constant for a given crystal cut. Its units are Vm/N. used to describe numerically the phenomena
En £„ 11 occurring. The convention is that first subscript refers
Now g= ...(25.140) to the direction of the electrical effect and the second
to that of the mechanical effect. The axis numbering
But Eq/ t = electric field strength, V/m
system is given in Fig. 25.121(F).
Let e = Eq / t = electric field The two main families of constants i.e., the ‘d’
electric field £ constants and 'g' constants are considered. For
g = — ---------- =- ...(25.141) barium titanate the commonly used constants are d^
stress P
and g33
Now EQ/t is the electric field intensity in the
crystal and P is the pressure or the applied stress to the field produced in direction 3
g,3 =------ £----------------------------
crystal. Therefore, crystal voltage sensitivity, g, can be stress applied in direction 3
defined as the ratio of electric field intensity to
pressure (or stress). Now EQ/t = e is the electric field = ...(25.143)
intensity in the crystal and P is the pressure or the
stress applied to the crystal. Therefore, crystal voltage Voltage output
sensitivity, g, can be defined as the ratio of the electric F
field intensity to pressure (or stress). The units of g are ~ &33x"7 x =&33 ...(25.144)
/l
Vm/N.
Thus if g is known for a particular material, the
From Eqn. 25.139, voltage output per unit stress can be calculated by
charge sensitivity d = er&0 g C/N ...(25.142) knowing the value of t.
 828 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

In order to relate the applied force to the By cementing two crystals together so that their
generated charge, the d constants are used. One of the electrical axes are perpendicular, 'benders' or twisters
d constants can be defined as : can be produced (See Fig. 25.123). This means that a
d charge generated in direction 3 bending motion applied to a bender produces an
output voltage. Similarly, a twisting motion applied to
33 force applied in direction 3
a twister produces an output.
= ...(25.145)

Actually d33 can be calculated from g33 if the

relative permittivity of the material is known. From
Eqn. 25.139, we get
(<?) Crystal twister "bimorph"
^33 = er€0 $33 ...(25.146)
When dealing with quartz, subscripts 11 are used
because in quartz the thickness - expansion mode is
along the crystallographic axis conventionally called
axis 1. (b) Ceramic bender "bimorph" or "multimorph".
The piezo-electric transducer is cut from a larger
crystal in the direction of any of the electrical or
mechanical axes perpendicular to the optical or crystal
axis. The values of d and g are not necessarily the same
but are dependent upon the axis of cut.
(c) Crystal bender "bimorph".
25.29.1 Modes of Operation of Piezo-electric
Crystals Fig. 25.123 Curvature of "twister" and "bender"
piezo-electric transducers when voltage is applied.
The piezo-electric crystals are used in many
modes. These modes are : Piezo-electric crystals can be used in another
(?) Thickness shear, (zz) Face shear, mode for force measurement. A crystal controlled
electronic oscillator uses a thin plate of quartz. The
(zzz) Thickness expansion and
natural frequency of mechanical oscillation of the
(m) Transverse expansion. plate determines the frequency of electrical oscillation.
These modes are shown in Fig. 25.122.
25.29.2 Properties of Piezo-electric Crystals
The desirable properties of piezo-electric materials
are stability, high output insensitivity to temperature
and humidity and the ability to be formed into most
desirable shape.
Quartz is the most stable piezo-electric material.
However, its output is quite small. On the other hand,
Rochelle salt provides the highest output but it can be
worked over a limited humidity range and has to be
protected against moisture. The highest temperature
is limited to 45°C.
Barium titanate has the advantage that it can be
formed into a variety of shapes and sizes since it is
polycrystalline. It has also a higher dielectric constant.
Natural crystals possess the advantages that they have
higher mechanical and thermal stability, can
withstand higher stresses, have low leakage (their
volume resistivity is about 1016Q - m) and have a good
(c) Thickness expansion
frequency response. The synthetic materials, in
pig. 25.122 Modes of operation of piezo-electric crystals. general, have a higher voltage sensitivity.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 829

Example 25.47 A quartz piezo-electric crystal having a Charge Q = dF

thickness of 2 mm and voltage sensitivity of0.055 V - m/ N = 150 x 10-12x 5 C = 750 pC
is subjected to a pressure of 1.5 MN/in. Calculate the
voltage output. If the permittivity of quartz is Capacitance
40.6 x 10 F / m, calculate its charge sensitivity. n Q 750 x IO"12 _ ___ c
C,, = f- =------—— F =250 pF
Solution. From Eqn. 25.138, voltage output
£o =8
* =0.055 x2x 10‘3x 106xl.5x 106
25.29.3 Equivalent Circuit of Piezo-electric
= 165 V Transducers
Charge sensitivity The basic equivalent circuit of a piezo-electric
d = e0 £r g (See Eqn. 25.139) transducer is shown in Fig. 25.124(a).
= 40.6 x 10“12 x 0.055 The source is a charge generator. The value of the
= 2.23 x 1CF12 C / N = 2.23 pC / N charge is Q = dF.
Example 25.48 A piezo-electric crystal having The charge generated is across the capacitance,
dimensions of 5mmx5mmxl.5mm and a voltage of the crystal and its leakage resistance Rp.
sensitivity of 0.055 V -m/ N is used for force measurement. The charge generator can be replaced by an
Calculate the force if the voltage developed is 100 V. equivalent voltage source having a voltage of
Solution. From Eqn. 25.138, the applied pressure is
E0 = “-=^ -(25.147)
P = A =______100_____ .N/m2
g t 0.055 x 1.5 x 10~3 p p

= 1.2 MN/m2 in series with a capacitance, Cp, and resistance, R?, as

shown in Fig. 25.124(b).
Force F = PA
= 12 x 106x 5x5x 10'6 =30N
Example 25.4g A barium titanate pickup has the
dimensions of 5 mm x 5 mm x 1.25 mm The force 5
acting on it is 5 N. The charge sensitivity of barium titanate S-
5
is 150 pC/N and its permittivity is 12.5 x 10~9 F / m. If O
the Modulus of elasticity of barium titanate is
12 x 106 N / m2, calculate the strain. Also calculate the
charge and the capacitance.
Solution. Area of plates Fig. 25.124 Equivalent circuits of
A = 5 x5 xlO-6 =25 x 10-6 m2 piezo-electric transducers.
Pressure P = 5/(25 x 10 6) N/m2
= 0.2 MN/m2 25.29.4 Loading Effects and Frequency
Response
Voltage sensitivity
Let the transducer be loaded by a capacitance CL
d 150 x 10~12
and a resistance RL. The capacitance CL is the
£0Er ~ 12.5 xlO"9
combination of the capacitance of the load, the capa­
= 12 x 10’3 Vm/N citance of the cable and the stray capacitance. The
diagram showing the load connected to a piezo­
Voltage generated
electric transducer is given in Fig. 25.125(a).
Eo=ZtP
The value of leakage resistance, R , of the crystal
= 12xl0'3 x 1.25 x 10~3 x0.2 xlO6 =3 V
is very large. It is of the order of 0.1 x 10 “ Q. The
Strain £ = At value of load resistance, RL, is considerably smaller
stress than RfJ, and hence the equivalent circuit of the
Young's modulus Piezo-electric crystal under load conditions is as
0.2 x 106 shown in Fig. 25.125(b) in which the leakage
= 0.0167.
12 xlO6 resistance, Rp, of the crystal has been dropped.
 830 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

At medium and high frequencies :

o>2(Cp + RL)2RL2» 1

E C
-(25150)

Thus at medium and high frequencies, the

response is independent of frequency, but is
dependent upon CL i.e., the capacitance of load circuit.
In practice this transducer is nearly always coupled to
virtual Earth point of an amplifier which has a
feedback capacitor, this arrangement being known as
charge amplifier.
From Eqn. 25.148, it is clear that under steady
Fig. 25.125 Circuit of a Piezo-electric crystal under state conditions i.e., when co = 0, the transducer does
conditions of load, not provide any output. As far as the maximum
frequency limit is concerned, it is imposed by the
The voltage output of the transducer under no
mechanical resonance of the piezo-electric crystal and
load conditions, is therefore Eq. Under conditions of
load, impedance of load its associated mountings.
The piezo-electric transducers are mainly used for
Z = measurement of displacement. They can be used for
L 1+
measurement of force, pressure or acceleration. These
Total impedance of circuit quantities when measured with piezo-electric trans­
Z =__ 1__ + rl
ducers are first converted into displacement and the
f j© Cp 1 + yco CL Rl displacement is subsequently applied to these trans­
ducers to produce an output voltage. Hence the
_ 1 + ^RL(Cp + Cl) conversion of displacement into voltage by piezo­
(A^y(l + 7kDCpRL) electric crystals is considered here.
For the purpose of analysis it is necessary to
Hence, the voltage across the load,
consider the transducer, the connecting cable and the
Zr
E,L = -ix
y EL amplifier as a unit. The impedance of the transducer is
very high and hence an amplifier with a high input
RL U(aCp)(1 + j(iiCpRL)

— ------------------------ —------------------- x ____________ —__________________ —_______ E

impedance has to be used in order to avoid loading
+ l + jwRL(Cp + CL) 0 errors.
Figure 25.126(a) shows the complete set-up for
1E measurement of displacement.
l + 7<o(Cf,+ CL)RLJ 0 Charge produced
*/ = Rq xi coulomb ...(25.151)
The magnitude of voltage across the load is :
where = sensitivity ; C/m,
______ 03 CP RL______ and Xj = displacement; m
...(25.148)
7l + <o2(C, + Ct)2RL2
Figure 25.126(b) shows the equivalent circuit of
the measurement set up.
rfE wC dF Rp = leakage resistance of transducer ; Q,
— i------ =— r = as En = —
Cp [^/(Cp + CJ2^2 c,
Cp = capacitance of transducer ; F
Cc = capacitance of cable ; F,
0) Rl
...(25.149) CA = capacitance of amplifier ; F
^iT72(c;, + c,)2r7
Ra = resistance of amplifier ; Q
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 831

d (e,) d(x )
RC—El + e, = K R—-^
dt L q dt ...(25.155)

d(<q)^ F d(Xi)
dt L dt ...(25.156)
where K = sensitivity = Kcf / C V / m ...(25.157)
Taking Laplace transform, we get ;
(ts + 1) £l(s) = Kxs X((s)
Transfer function
Charge I k £l(s) Kxs
generator Qj Cp, — i—
CA=^ ra eL
X.(s) ~ 1+TS ...(25.158)
<?=V' । ”
£
Sinusoidal transfer function —(/co) = J® Rx
%i 1 + /cot
The amplitude ratio is :
Current
generator E.
'cr ——(»
KX. J

1
...(25.159)
x/'1 + (1/cdt)2
Fig. 25.126 Set-up of a piezo-electric transducer
and its equivalent circuit. The phase shift <j) = 7t/2 - tan"1 cot rad ...(25.160)
The charge generator is converted into a constant At high frequencies co »1 .'. A4 = land(f) = 0
current generator as shown in Fig. 25.126(c). The Hence high frequency sensitivity is :
capacitance connected across the current generator is
X = eL/xi ...(25.161)
C, where :
Thus the frequency response of piezo-electric
C = Cp + Cc + CA ...(25.152) transducers is the same as that of capacitive
RaRp transducers. This is shown in Fig. 25.125.
Resistance ...(25.153)
From Eqn. 25.159, we see that steady state
Ra + Rp
response piezo-electric transducers to a constant
Since the leakage resistance of transducer is very displacement x- is zero. Therefore, piezo-electric
large (of the order of 0.1 x 1012 Q) and therefore, transducer cannot be used for measurement of static
R~Ra displacements.
Converting the charge generator into a current
25.29.5 Impulse Response of Piezo-electric
generator
Crystals
dq ( d x\
i = -L = K\---- U ...(25.154) Let a displacement x- be applied to the transducer;
CR dt dt J
where x■ = A, 0<t<T
where iCR is the current of the constant current
generator. and xi = 0, T < t < oo

Now iCR = ic+iR The function is shown in Fig. 25.127(a).

Output voltage at load Therefore the charge is suddenly increased to K^ A
and the crystal voltage rises to eL AJC. Thus the initial
condition is e,E = Kq A / C at t =0+.
or ~7T=ACR~'^ From Eqns. 25.156 and 25.157, we have :
d(eL) jz
or Cd^ = 1CR~1R
t—— + e, = Kx d——
dt L dt

= K d{X‘} eL d^x^ ...(25.162)

11 dt R dt
 832 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

25.29.6. Uses of Piezo-electric Materials

and Transducers
The uses of piezo-electric materials and
transducers are described below :
(i) The desirable properties expected out of a
piezo-electric material are, stability, high output,
insensitivity to temperature variations, insensitivity to
variations in humidity and also the ability to be
formed into a usable component. Undoubtedly the
most stable material is quartz. However, its output is
low. Rochelle salt, on the other hand provides, the
Fig. 25.127 Pulse response of piezo-electric highest output out of any of the piezo-electric
transducers. materials. But it requires protection from moisture and
hence cannot be used above a temperature of 45°C.
Solving the differential equation with initial
Because of its stability, quartz is commonly used
condition, we get,
for stabilizing electronic oscillators. The crystal is
eL = (Kq A/C)-[exp(-t/r)] ...(25.163) ground to proper shape and is connected in an
appropriate electronic circuit whose frequency is
For T < t < oo, the value of x. = 0 and hence the
differential equation is : controlled by it.
(ii) The use of piezo-electric transducer elements
T-^ + fL=O ...(25.164) is confined primarily to dynamic measurements. The
voltage developed by application of strain is not held
At t = T , Eqn. 25.163 still holds good and there­ under static conditions. Hence, the elements are
fore eL = (Kq A/ C) [exp (- 11 t)] primarily used in the measurement of such quantities
Value of eL at t = T is : as surface roughness and in accelerometers and
vibration pickups.
eL = (Kq A/C) exp (-T/t) ...(25.165) (iii) Ultrasonic generator elements also use barium
However, at t =T, x;- suddenly decreases by a titanate, a piezo-electric material. Such elements are
value A. This causes a sudden decrease in charge by an used in industrial cleansing apparatus and also in
amount Kq A resulting in a sudden change of eL by an underwater detection system known as sonar.
amount Kq A/C from its value at t = T~.
Example 25.30 A piezo-electric quartz crystal has an
Hence at t = T+, the value of eL is : area of 100 mm2 and is 1 mm thick. It is held between two
metal electrodes and is used for measurement of changes in
eL=(Kq A/C)[exp(-T/x)]-Kq A/C
force across the crystal. Young's modulus for the material is
= K A/C [exp (- T / t) -1] ...(25.166) 90 GN/m , the charge sensitivity is 2 pC/N, the relative
permittivity is 5.
This becomes the initial condition for Eqn. 25.163. p
The resistivity is 10 Cl m A 20 pF capacitance and a
The solution is :
resistance of 100 MCI are connected in parallel across the
K A electrodes. If a force Ft=0.01 sin 1000 t newton is applied,
eL =-^[exp(-T/T-l)]exp[-(f-T)/T] find
C
...(25.167) (a) peak to peak voltage swing across the electrodes
For T < t < oo under open circuit arid under load conditions and
(b) the maximum change in crystal thickness. [Fj is
Figure 25.127(b) shows the impulse response with the instantaneous value of force F]. The
three different time constants. In order to have faithful permittivity offree space is 8.85 pF/m.
reproduction of input displacement x-, the value of Solution. The rms value of voltage under open
time constant r should be large. If the decay and the circuit
under shoot is to be kept within say, 5 per cent of true r. dt F
£0 =------- x —
value, r should be at least 20 T.
ereo A (See Eqn. 25.136)
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 833

Maximum value of voltage under open circuit F t

At = rnax
AF
E = V2 x—
Oma* srE0 A 0.01 x 1 x 10-3
100 x 10-6x 90x 109
_ dt * ^max
= 1.1 x 10-12 m
ErE0 A
as maximum value of force Fmax = ^2F.
A,(peaktopeak) = 2 * 1-1 * 10~12 = 2.2 X 10-12 m
Example 25.51 In a piezo-electric transducer a flat
Hence, peak to peak value of voltage under open
frequency response within 5% is required. Find the value of
circuit:
minimum frequency in terms of time constant for which it
F —7 F -7 ^rnax
c0 (peak to peak) c0 max Z a can be used. If the time constant of the transducer is 1.5 ms,
erE0 n find the value of minimum frequency. Find the phase shift at
n 2 X 10-12 X 1X io-3 0.01 this frequency.
5 x 8.85 x IO-12 100 x 10-6 Solution. In order to obtain a flat response within
5%, the amplitude ratio should be :
= 9.03 xlO-3 V = 9.3 mV
M = 1-0.05 = 0.95
Leakage resistance of crystal
Now M= . = or 0.95
R= — = 1012x 1x10 \ = 10 x 1012 Q 71+(V COT)2
p A 100 xlO-6
= - —------- or cof = 3.04
Load resistance RL =100 MQ =100 x 106 Q 71 + (1/®t)2
Hence the resistance of the crystal is very large as .■. Minimum value of frequency
compared with resistance of load i.e., Rp » RL and
therefore we can neglect R . 3.04 3.04
(0=----- =------------- z-
t 1.5 xlO-3
Capacitance of crystal
= 2.02 x 103 rad/s.
£rE0A
P d Phase shift §=h/2 -tan-1 cot rad.
= 90° - tan-13.04 =90°-71.8° =18.2°
_ 5x8.85 xl0~12x 100 x!0~6
1X 10"3 Example 25.52 A piezo-electric transducer has a capaci­
tance of1000 pF and a charge sensitivity of 40 x 10~3 CI m
= 4.43 x 10-12 F The connecting cable has a capacitance of 300 pF while the
The peak to peak output voltage under load oscilloscope used for readout has a readout input resistance
conditions is : ofl MFI with a parallel capacitance of 50 pF.
(a) What is the sensitivity (V/m) of the transducer
alone ?
Hl + o^Cp + Q)2^2 (b) What is the high frequency sensitivity (V/m) of
the entire measuring system ?
2 x2x 10-12x0.01 (c) What is the lowest frequency that can be
p —_________________________
0 (peaktopeak) 5 x g.85 x 10-12 X 100 X 10"6 measured with 5 per cent amplitude error by the
entire system ?
1000 X 4.43 X 1O~12X 100 X IQ6 (d) What is the value of an external shunt capaci­
tance that can be connected in order to extend the
^1 +(1000)2 X (4.43 + 20)2 X (io-12) X (100 x 106)2
range of 5 pet cent error down to 10 Hz ?
= 1.58 mV (e) With external capacitance calculated in
This means that the output signal is attenuated to (d) connected in the circuit, what is the system
high frequency sensitivity ?
a great extent due to loading.
Solution, (a) Charge sensitivity of transducer
From Eqn. 25.132, the maximum value of change
in thickness is : =40xl0-3 C/m
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1075

Advantages : The output of oscillator is a modulated output

(i) It has a high efficiency. and can be demodulated and calibrated in terms of
pressure or force applied.
(zz) It can be used for both static and dynamic
conditions but it does not respond to high Advantages:
frequency light variations. (z) This transducer measures both dynamic and
Disadvantages: static phenomena.
(z) It has a poor long term stability. (zz) This transducer is very useful for telemetry
applications.
(zz) It requires a large displacement of the force
summing member in order to produce a Disadvantages:
detectable output. (z) This transducer has a very hunted
6. Piezoelectric Transducers temperature range.
Piezoelectric crystals produce an emf when they (zz) It has poor thermal stability.
are deformed. The force or displacement or pressure (zzz) It has a low accuracy and therefore is used
to be measured is applied to the crystal. The pressure only in low accuracy applications.
is applied to the crystal through a force summing
Example 29.18 A piezoelectric pressure transducer
member. This causes a deformation which produces
gives an output of 1 mV per 100 kN/m . It feeds into an
an emf that is a function of the deformation. This
amplifier which may be considered as having negligible
output emf may be measured to know the value of
output impedance and a voltage gain of 25. The amplifier
applied force and hence the pressure.
output is taken to an oscilloscope having calibrated vertical
Advantages : sensitivities ofl, 5, 20, 100 and 500 mV/mm. The viewing
(z) This transducer needs no external power and area of the oscilloscope screen is 100 mm x 100 mm. The
is therefore self-generating (active types). transducer is used to measure a pressure fluctuating at a
(zz) It has a very good high-frequency response. frequency of 50 Hz between upper and lower level of about
700 kN/m~ and 100 kN/m respectively. Assuming that the
Disadvantages :
trace seen on the screen is steady and the peak to peak
(z) The principal disadvantage is that this amplitude may be estimated correctly within ± 1 mm,
transducer cannot measure static pressure. what is
(zz) The output of the transducer is affected by («) optimum setting of the vertical sensitivity, and
changes in temperature. Therefore tempe­
(b) the likely maximum reading error in a
rature compensating devices have to be used.
measurement of the peak amplitude of wave in
7. Oscillation Transducers kN/m*2.

These transducers use a force summing member (zz) The two extreme pressures of
Solution,

to change the capacitance, C, or inductance, L, of an LC 700 kN/m and 100 kN/m“ give the outputs as
oscillator circuit. Figure 29.29 shows the basic 700x(l/100)x25 = 175 mV
elements of LC transistor oscillator whose output
frequency is affected by a change in the inductance of and 100x(l/100)x25 = 50 mV
a coil. The change in inductance is caused by the force The corresponding peak to peak voltages are :
summing member acting upon an inductive device.
2 x 175 = 350 mV
and 2 x 25 = 50 mV
Suppose we use the sensitivity of 1 mV/mm
.■. Deflection on the screen corresponding to
maximum pressure =350/1 = 350 mm.
Since the length of the screen is 100 mm, the
waveform is out of range and hence the 1 mV/mm
should not be used. Let us tr^ 5 mV/mm setting.
The peak to peak deflection =350 / 5 = 70 mm
Fig. 29.29 Basic elements of an oscillation transducer. This is within the range of the screen of the scope.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1113

Solution, (t?) Peak to peak voltage at amplifier d

=~ ...(29.81)
output = 0.2 V
Peak voltage at amplifier output = 0.2/2 = 0.2 V Similarly, a sinusoidal signal of frequency f Hz
This is the voltage under loaded conditions. travelling in the flow direction has a phase shift of:

From Eqn. 2.37, page 35, we have : AA 2nfd J

M = —— rad ...(29.82)
Voltage under loaded conditions c+v
El=-§L_ and that travelling against the direction of flow has a
1+ZOZL
phase shift of:
2nfd
or peak open circuit voltage rad -.(29.83)
EQ= El(1 + Zq/Zl) Velocity can, therefore, be determined by either
= 0.1 [1 + (250x103)/2.5x106] = 0.H V measuring the transit time or the phase shift.
The peak open circuit voltage at the amplifier Figure 29.87 shows a system which can be used
output terminal is : external to the pipe carrying the liquid. T and R are
respectively transmitting and receiving crystals. They
Eq = Blvx gain
are either pressed to the exterior of pipe or are
.-. Average flow rate immersed in the liquid so that the signal is transmitted
0.11 through the liquid.
v =---------------- z------T = 0.0002 m/s
0.1 x 50 x 10-3 x 103
(b) The effluent conductivity decreases by 20 per
cent and therefore its impedance increases to :
Zo = 1.2 x250x 103 =300x 103 Q =300 kQ

Therefore, for the same flow rate, the peak to peak

of voltage under loaded conditions
Fig. 29.87 Ultrasonic method for measurement of flow.
________ 2x0,11________
= 0.1964 V
[lx (300x 103)/(2.5x 106)] The oscillator provides a sinusoid signal of about
100 kHz to crystal T whereas crystal R acts as the
Percentage decrease in voltage receiver. The functions of T and R are reversed
0.2-0.1964 periodically by a commutating switch. The difference 29
x 100 = 1.78%
0.2 in transit times is,
2 dv
29.42.5 Ultrasonic Flow Transducer Af = Af2-Af1=^---- y ...(29.84)
(7 — V
Basically an ultrasonic transducer for flow rate
This is measured by a phase sensitive detector
consists of two piezoelectric crystals in the liquid or
driven synchronously with the commutator. Usually
gas separated by a distance. One of the crystals' acts as
c » v.
a transmitter and the other as a receiver.
The transmitter emits an ultrasonic pulse which is ...(29.85)
received at the receiver a time Af later. The transit time (7

in the direction of flow is, Hence, time Af is linearly proportional to flow

velocity v. This system, though gives a linear
AR = — ...(29.80) relationship, is subject to an error on account of
c+ v
uncertainty of the value of c.
where d - distance between transmitter and
A system based upon frequency may be evolved.
receiver; m,
Figure 29.88 shows two self-excited oscillating systems
c = velocity of sound propagation
created because of using the received pulses to
in medium ; m/s,
trigger the transmitted pulses in feed back arrange­
v - linear velocity of flow ; m/s. ment. The pulse repetition frequency in the forward
When the signal is travelling in the opposite propagating loop is 1 / Af ( while that in the backward
direction against the flow loop is 1 / Af2.
 1114 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

d t (c+ucosO) The electric transducers used for level measure­

ments are :
d r (c-ucos0) A Resistive,
AL =--------------- or L = -------------- -
2 (c+ycos0) d A Inductive, and
A Capacitive.
Hence difference in frequency,
V = /t-/2=^^ ...(29.86) 29.42.1 Resistive Method
This method uses mercury as a conductor as
Equation 29.86 shows that the output is shown in Fig. 29.89. A number of contact rods are
independent of c, and is, therefore, not subject to placed at various liquid levels. As head h increases, the
errors on account of errors involved in the value of c. rising level of mercury above the datum, shorts
successive resistors R and increases the value of h
directly.

Fig. 29.88 Ultrasonic meter using feedback.

Also the output is linearly proportional to the
flow velocity v. Ultrasonic flow meters are presently
used for mainly liquids. The advantages are that there
is no obstruction to the flow, they are insensitive to
variations in viscosity, density and temperature, there
are no moving parts, there exists a linear relationship Fig. 29.89 Measurement of level of liquids by
between input and output, their dynamic response is resistive method.
excellent and they lend themselves to bidirectional
flow. Advantages :
However the complexity and relatively high cost (z) Where there is a need for a fairly continuous
limit the use of this instrument for individual record of the level, more and more contact
applications. rods can be added, with separate signal
The range is 0 -80 km/h for air with an accuracy of outputs for each contact rod. The signal can
± 0.5%. be used for indication and also for initiating
some control action to actuate valves or
29.43 MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL pumps as well as warning lights and alarms
depending upon the level.
Electrical Methods
(zz) The system uses low voltage to eliminate
The direct conversion to liquid level position to danger to the operators and to prevent arcing
electrical signal is used in many instances. The at the contact points.
measurement is generally done by two conversions, so (iii) The signal can be transmitted to any desired
that the liquid level is determined indirectly. The first point.
conversion usually is liquid level to a displacement
(iv) These transducers can be used in pressurised
through a float in a liquid or a spring loaded plate in
containers without packing glands or shafts.
contact with the surface in the case of granular solids.
This displacement is then converted into an electrical (v) The unit is simple to calibrate since the
signal by a secondary transducer connected to float or distance between the levels of contact rods
plate. There are, however, many applications where can be accurately measured and the indicated
this is not possible and hence other methods like value may be checked for each measured
optical or acoustic means or gamma rays are used. value.
442 Chapter 16

the outer surface. Because the obstacle is not streamlined, the flow cannot follow the
contours of the body on the downstream side, and the separate layers become detached and
roll into eddies or vortices in the low-pressure region behind the obstacle. The shedding
frequency of these alternately shed vortices is proportional to the fluid velocity past the
body. Various thermal, magnetic, ultrasonic, and capacitive vortex detection techniques
are employed in different instruments.
Such instruments have no moving parts, operate over a wide flow range, have low power
consumption, require little maintenance, and have a similar cost to measurement using an
orifice plate. They can measure both liquid and gas flows, and a common inaccuracy value
quoted is 1% of full-scale reading, although this can be seriously downgraded in the
presence of flow disturbances upstream of the measurement point and a straight run of pipe
before the measurement point of 50 pipe diameters is recommended. Another problem with the
instrument is its susceptibility to pipe vibrations, although new designs are becoming available
that have a better immunity to such vibrations.

16.3.7 Ultrasonic Flowmeters

The ultrasonic technique of volume flow rate measurement is, like the magnetic flowmeter, a
noninvasive method. It is not restricted to conductive fluids, however, and is particularly useful for
measuring the flow of corrosive fluids and slurries. In addition to its high reliability and low
maintenance requirements, a further advantage of an ultrasonic flowmeter over an electromagnetic
flowmeter is that the instrument can be clamped externally onto existing pipe work instead of being
inserted as an integral part of the flow line. As the procedure of breaking into a pipeline to insert a
flowmeter can be as expensive as the cost of the flowmeter itself, the ultrasonic flowmeter has
enormous cost advantages. Its clamp-on mode of operation also has significant safety advantages
in avoiding the possibility of personnel installing flowmeters coming into contact with hazardous
fluids, such as poisonous, radioactive, flammable, or explosive ones. Also, any contamination of
the fluid being measured (e.g., food substances and drugs) is avoided. Ultrasonic meters are still
less common than differential pressure or electromagnetic flowmeters, although usage continues to
expand year by year.
Two different types of ultrasonic flowmeter exist that employ distinct technologies—one based on
Doppler shift and the other on transit time. In the past, the existence of these alternative technologies
has not always been readily understood and has resulted in ultrasonic technology being rejected
entirely when one of these two forms has been found to be unsatisfactory in a particular application.
This is unfortunate because the two technologies have distinct characteristics and areas of
application, and many situations exist where one form is very suitable and the other is not. To reject
both, having only tried out one, is therefore a serious mistake. Ultrasonic flowmeters have become
available that combine both Doppler shift and transit time technologies.
 Flow Measurement 443

Particular care has to be taken to ensure a stable flow profile in ultrasonic flowmeter applications.
It is usual to increase the normal specification of the minimum length of straight pipe run prior to
the point of measurement, expressed as a number of pipe diameters, from a value of 10 up to 20 or,
in some cases, even 50 diameters. Analysis of the reasons for poor performance in many
instances of ultrasonic flowmeter application has shown failure to meet this stable flow profile
requirement to be a significant factor.

Doppler shift ultrasonic flowmeter

The principle of operation of the Doppler shift flowmeter is shown in Figure 16.12. A
fundamental requirement of these instruments is the presence of scattering elements within
the flowing fluid, which deflect the ultrasonic energy output from the transmitter such
that it enters the receiver. These can be provided by solid particles, gas bubbles, or eddies
in the flowing fluid. The scattering elements cause a frequency shift between transmitted and
reflected ultrasonic energy, and measurement of this shift enables fluid velocity to be inferred.
The instrument consists essentially of an ultrasonic transmitter–receiver pair clamped onto the
outside wall of a fluid-carrying vessel. Ultrasonic energy consists of a train of short bursts of
sinusoidal waveforms at a frequency between 0.5 and 20 MHz. This frequency range is described
as ultrasonic because it is outside the range of human hearing. The flow velocity, v, is given by

Ultrasonic source

Scattering particles

q
q
Flow

Ultrasonic detector
Figure 16.12
Doppler shift ultrasonic flowmeter.
444 Chapter 16

cð ft  fr Þ
v¼ , ð16:4Þ
2ft cosðyÞ
where ft and fr are the frequencies of the transmitted and received ultrasonic waves, respectively,
c is the velocity of sound in the fluid being measured, and y is the angle that the incident and
reflected energy waves make with the axis of flow in the pipe. Volume flow rate is then calculated
readily by multiplying the measured flow velocity by the cross-sectional area of the fluid-
carrying pipe.
The electronics involved in Doppler shift flowmeters is relatively simple and therefore
inexpensive. Ultrasonic transmitters and receivers are also relatively inexpensive, being based on
piezoelectric oscillator technology. Therefore, as all of its components are inexpensive, the
Doppler shift flowmeter itself is inexpensive. The measurement accuracy obtained depends on
many factors, such as the flow profile; the constancy of pipe wall thickness; the number, size, and
spatial distribution of scatterers; and the accuracy with which the speed of sound in the fluid is
known. Consequently, accurate measurement can only be achieved by the tedious procedure of
carefully calibrating the instrument in each particular flow measurement application. Otherwise,
measurement errors can approach 10% of the reading; for this reason, Doppler shift flowmeters
are often used merely as flow indicators rather than for accurate quantification of the volume flow
rate.
Versions are now available that are being fitted inside the flow pipe, flush with its inner surface.
This overcomes the problem of variable pipe thickness, and an inaccuracy level as small as
 0.5% is claimed for such devices. Other recent developments are the use of multiple path
ultrasonic flowmeters that use an array of ultrasonic elements to obtain an average velocity
measurement. This reduces error due to nonuniform flow profiles substantially but there is a
substantial cost penalty involved in such devices.

Transit time ultrasonic flowmeter

A transit time ultrasonic flowmeter is an instrument designed for measuring the volume flow
rate in clean liquids or gases. It consists of a pair of ultrasonic transducers mounted along an
axis aligned at angle y with respect to the fluid flow axis, as shown in Figure 16.13.
Each transducer consists of a transmitter–receiver pair, with the transmitter emitting ultrasonic
energy that travels across to the receiver on the opposite side of the pipe. These ultrasonic
elements are normally piezoelectric oscillators of the same type used in Doppler shift flowmeters.
Fluid flowing in the pipe causes a time difference between the transit times of beams traveling
upstream and downstream, and measurement of this difference allows the flow velocity to be
calculated. The typical magnitude of this time difference is 100 ns in a total transit time of 100 ms,
and high-precision electronics are therefore needed to measure the difference. There are three
distinct ways of measuring the time shift. These are direct measurement, conversion to a phase
 Flow Measurement 445

Ultrasonic element

Flow

Ultrasonic element
Figure 16.13
Transit time ultrasonic flowmeter.

change, and conversion to a frequency change. The third of these options is particularly attractive,
as it obviates the need to measure the speed of sound in the measured fluid as required by the first
two methods. A scheme applying this third option is shown in Figure 16.14. This also multiplexes
the transmitting and receiving functions so that only one ultrasonic element is needed in each
transducer. The forward and backward transit times across the pipe, Tf and Tb, are given by

Multiplexer Receiver

Flow

Multiplexer Transmitter
Figure 16.14
Transit time measurement system.
446 Chapter 16

L L
Tf ¼ ; Tb ¼ ,
c þ v cosðyÞ c  v cosðyÞ
where c is the velocity of sound in the fluid, v is the flow velocity, L is the distance between the
ultrasonic transmitter and receiver, and y is the angle of the ultrasonic beam with respect to the
fluid flow axis.
The time difference, dT, is given by
2vL cosðyÞ
dT ¼ Tb  Tf ¼
c2  v2 cos2 ðyÞ:
This requires knowledge of c before it can be solved. However, a solution can be found much
more simply if the receipt of a pulse is used to trigger transmission of the next ultrasonic energy
pulse. Then, the frequencies of the forward and backward pulse trains are given by

1 c  v cosðyÞ 1 c þ v cosðyÞ
Ff ¼ ¼ ; Fb ¼ ¼ :
Tf L Tb L
If the two frequency signals are now multiplied together, the resulting beat frequency
is given by

2v cosðyÞ
dF ¼ Fb  Ff ¼ :
L
c has now been eliminated, and v can be calculated from a measurement of dF as

LdF
v¼ :
2 cosðyÞ
This is often known as the sing-around flowmeter.
Transit time flowmeters are of more general use than Doppler shift flowmeters, particularly
where the pipe diameter involved is large and hence the transit time is consequently sufficiently
large to be measured with reasonable accuracy. It is possible then to reduce the inaccuracy value
down to 0.5%. However, the instrument costs more than a Doppler shift flowmeter because of
the greater complexity of the electronics needed to make accurate transit time measurements.

Combined Doppler shift/transit time flowmeters

Recently, some manufacturers have developed ultrasonic flowmeters that use a combination of
Doppler shift and transit time. The exact mechanism by which these work is rarely, if ever,
disclosed, as manufacturers wish to protect details from competitors. However, details of various
forms of combined Doppler shift/transit time measurement techniques are filed in patent offices.