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 Bringing Together
Data, Semantics, and Software

first edition

Ted Hills
Published by:

2 Lindsley Road
Basking Ridge, NJ 07920 USA
https://www.TechnicsPub.com
Cover design by John Fiorentino
Technical reviews by Laurel Shifrin, Dave Wells, and Steve Hoberman

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written
permission from the publisher, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review.
The author and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed or implied warranty of
any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential
damages in connection with or arising out of the use of the information or programs contained herein.
All trade and product names are trademarks, registered trademarks, or service marks of their respective companies, and
are the property of their respective holders and should be treated as such.
Copyright © 2016 by Theodore S. Hills, [email protected]
ISBN, print ed. 9781634621090
ISBN, Kindle ed. 9781634621106
ISBN, ePub ed. 9781634621113
ISBN, PDF ed. 9781634621120
First Printing 2016
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016930173
To my wife Daphne Woods, who
has always believed in me, and
gave me the space and support
I needed to write this book.
 Contents at a Glance

Part I: Real Words in the Real World

Chapter 1: It’s All about the Words
Chapter 2: Things: Entities, Objects, and Concepts
Chapter 3: Containment and Composition
Chapter 4: Types and Classes in the Real World

Part II: The Tyranny of Confusion

Chapter 5: Entity-Relationship Modeling
Chapter 6: The Unified Modeling Language
Chapter 7: Fact-Based Modeling Notations
Chapter 8: Semantic Notations
Chapter 9: Object-Oriented Programming Languages

Part III: Freedom in Meaning

Chapter 10: Objects and Classes
Chapter 11: Types in Data and Software
Chapter 12: Composite Types
Chapter 13: Subtypes and Subclasses
Chapter 14: Data and Information
Chapter 15: Relationships and Roles
Chapter 16: The Relational Theory of Data
Chapter 17: NoSQL and SQL Physical Design
Part IV: Case Study
Chapter 18: The Common Coffee Shop

APPENDIX: COMN Quick Reference

 Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Taking Care of Data
Plant Change Control 2.0
Where did the Savings Come From?
Why Model?
Why COMN?
Book Outline
Book Audience
NoSQL Database Developer
SQL Database Developer
Data Modeler
Software Developer
Ontologist

Part I Real Words in the Real World

Chapter 1 It’s All about the Words
References
Chapter 2 Things: Entities, Objects, and Concepts
Chapter Glossary
Chapter 3 Containment and Composition
Containment
Composition
Chapter Glossary
Chapter 4 Types and Classes in the Real World
Collections of Objects
Sets of Concepts
Sets of Objects
Types and Classes
 Types Designate Sets
Classes Describe Objects
Three Aspects of Types and Classes

Chapter Glossary
Part II The Tyranny of Confusion
Chapter 5 Entity-Relationship Modeling
Logical E-R Data Models
Multiple Levels of Abstraction
Limitations of E-R Modeling Notation
NoSQL Arrays and Nested Data Structures
Lack of Reusable Composite Types
Lack of Place
Modeling the Real World
Representing Individual Entities
Mapping Between Models
Data in Software

Terminology
Entity
Conceptual
E-R Terms Mapped to COMN Terms

References
Chapter 6 The Unified Modeling Language
Class Diagrams
Stereotyping

Limitations of the UML

Lack of Keys
Middling Level of Abstraction
Lack of Concept
Subclassing versus Subtyping

Terminology
Relationship, Composition and Aggregation
Type and Implementation Class
UML Terms Mapped to COMN Terms

References
Chapter 7 Fact-Based Modeling Notations
Facts and Relationships
 Limitations of Fact-Based Modeling
Lack of Instances
Incompleteness
Difficulty

Terminology
Fact-Based Modeling Terms Mapped to COMN Terms

References
Chapter 8 Semantic Notations
Predicates and RDF Statements
Doubles and Quadruples

OWL
Graphical Notations for Semantics
Terminology
Chapter 9 Object-Oriented Programming Languages
Classes, Objects, Types, and Variables
Terminology
Part III Freedom in Meaning
Chapter 10 Objects and Classes
Material Objects
Objects with States
Meaning of States
Objects with More States
Methods
Material Objects in Computers
Summary

Computer Object Defined

Composing Objects

Summary
Chapter Glossary
Chapter 11 Types in Data and Software
Types in Programming and Databases
What Does a Type Tell Us?

Classes in Object-Oriented Software

Separating Type and Class
 Simple Types
References
Chapter Glossary
Chapter 12 Composite Types
Composite Types as Logical Record Types
Types Representing Things in the Real World: Identification
Stepwise Refinement and Completeness

Types Representing Other Types

Measures as Composite Types
Nested Types
Modeling Documents
Arrays
Chapter Glossary
References
Chapter 13 Subtypes and Subclasses
Subtypes
Restriction is Subtyping

Subclasses
Subtypes and Extensions: Perfect Together
Inheritance
Using Subtype Variables and Values
Using Extending Types and Classes

Projection: The Inverse of Extension

Chapter Glossary
Chapter 14 Data and Information
Information
Is Information Always True?

From Information to Data

Data en Masse
Variable Names
Summary

Information and Data as Colloquialisms

Information En Masse
 It’s Just Data
Putting It All Together
“Unstructured Data” and “Semi-Structured Data”

Data Object
Chapter Glossary
Chapter 15 Relationships and Roles
Arrivals and Departures
Labeling Relationship Lines
Cleaning Up the Model

Roles, Predicates, and Relationships

Chapter Glossary
Chapter 16 The Relational Theory of Data
What is a Relation?
The Order of Rows
The Uniqueness of Rows
The Significance of Columns
Summary

Technical Relational Terminology

Tuple and Relation Schemes
Giving Data to the System
Data Attribute Versus Attribute
Relational Terminology Reprise

Composite Data Attributes

Relational Operations
NoSQL Versus the Relational Model
SQL Versus the Relational Model
Terminology
Chapter Glossary
Chapter 17 NoSQL and SQL Physical Design
What’s Different about NoSQL?
Database Performance
ACID versus BASE and Scalability
ACID
BASE and CAP
 NoSQL and SQL Data Organization
Key/Value DBMS
Graph DBMS
Document DBMS
Columnar DBMS
Tabular DBMS

Summary
References
Part IV Case Study
Chapter 18 The Common Coffee Shop
Analysis: Documenting Real-World Entities
Logical Data Modeling: Designing the Data
Physical Data Modeling: Designing the Implementation
APPENDIX COMN Quick Reference
Glossary
Photo and Illustration Credits
Index
 Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to Tony Shaw of Dataversity for giving me the opportunity to present
this new modeling notation to a wider audience, first at the NoSQL Now! conference in
San Jose in 2015, and then at the Enterprise Data World conference in San Diego in 2016.
Daniel Upton attended my workshop at the NoSQL Now! conference, and introduced me
to Steve Hoberman, data modeling enthusiast, leading author, and publisher. I met with
Steve to talk about my ideas. Steve accepted my proposal for this book, and that is how it
came into being.
The fundamental ideas behind concept and object modeling notation arose from my work
on object-oriented programming language design, and from tackling the difficult problem
of integrating objects and data. In the latter effort, I was helped tremendously by the many
writings of C. J. Date, most especially Foundations for Future Database Systems: The
Third Manifesto, Second Edition (by C. J. Date and Hugh Darwen). I had the opportunity
to correspond with and speak to Mr. Date about this topic, and this finally enabled me to
perceive the difference between data and objects. Mr. Date is not aware of the debt I owe
him for the clarity of his thinking on all things relational. One should not read this
acknowledgement as his endorsement of my ideas.
I have had the opportunity to discuss the Concept and Object Modeling Notation
(COMN), and the ideas behind it, with colleagues at LexisNexis, most notably Roger
Cass, Matthew Johnson, Michael Khatib, and Paul Rogers. They gave me the opportunity
to test my ideas and my expression of them. Roger has the additional distinctions of
having introduced me to Object Role Modeling, and of having put the “N” in COMN so
that the acronym became pronounceable as “common”. My immediate manager and
longtime friend Greg Saxton and our chief architect Ian Koenig encouraged me to pursue
this work.
My wife Daphne Woods, a brilliant novelist, long ago trained this technologist in the
mysteries of English grammar and composition. She also trained our daughter Heather
through ten years of home schooling to near perfection in these fields. Consulting with
these two during the writing of this book helped me with clarity and structure.
It was wonderful to have my colleague Laurel Shifrin, respected educator Dave Wells, and
Steve Hoberman as technical reviewers. Laurel’s knowledge of unstructured data and
Dave’s knowledge of structured data helped keep some unsupported assumptions out of
the work. Dave’s early enthusiasm for COMN has been a tremendous boost. What a
pleasure to have Steve, a leading author of data modeling books and my publisher,
encouraging and promoting this work.
Here’s to all who have struggled to tame their data. I hope you find this makes the journey
more pleasurable and more successful.
 Introduction
S am came barreling into the plant manager’s office, clutching a roll of blueprints in one
hand. He was so excited. “Joe, have I got great news!” he called out.
Joe looked up from his desk behind the office counter. He looked weary. Well, keeping
track of everything that goes on in a 150-acre refinery that processes 200,000 barrels of oil
a day could make anyone weary. He pushed back his chair, got up, and ambled over to the
counter.
“What’s the news?” Joe asked.
“The boys in engineering have figured out that, by just combining a few material flows
earlier in the process, the petrochemical plant could reduce emissions, produce more
product from the same input flows, and add $5,000 a day to the plant’s bottom line in
reduced expenses! So I’ve come down here to find out what it will take to implement
these changes.” Joe placed the rolled-up blueprints on the counter and spread them out.
Sam started studying the drawings, running his finger over the many lines and shapes that
represented the thousands of pipes visible out the office windows. He licked his finger and
pulled the top drawing back to look at the next blueprint, and then the next, all while Joe
watched excitedly but silently. Sam had a reputation. He knew his stuff. If Sam said it
could be done, it could be done, and if he said it couldn’t, well, you’d better do a ton of
research before you said Sam was wrong.
Finally Sam looked up from the counter. “I think I get it. This isn’t too bad. We’ll just
have to re-route a few pipes and this could be implemented pretty easily.”
Joe was happy and relieved. “So, how long do you think it will take?”
Sam kept his look level when he delivered the blow. “I think about six months.”
“Six months!” Joe nearly shouted. “I thought you said this was easy! Why, in six months
we will have lost”—Joe figured fast in his head—“nearly a million dollars in savings!”
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
curtain-rod is attached at the top of the case from which a curtain
may be hung, and the ledge formed by the top of the case and the
quarter-circular bracket will accommodate a few pieces of bric-à-brac
or a photograph frame or two. If the box is high enough, two shelves
may be arranged so that three lines of books can be accommodated;
otherwise one shelf will have to suffice.

A Handy Piece of Furniture

A place to put books and a place to keep bats, golf-clubs,

lacrosse-sticks, and other things that are always around, is a
convenient possession.
Here is a solution of the problem: The case shown in Fig. 22
should be about five feet six inches high and three feet wide. The
shelf across the top would hold a number of books, and underneath
are two beautiful tuck-away places. If, my friend, you are a college
boy, the curtain could be of your college colors; the rest of the case
stained a becoming color. The door is fastened by a big wooden
latch, and a pair of iron hinges would add very much to the style of
the bookcase.
If, however, you are of a studious frame of mind, and have been
fortunate enough to collect a number of books, the second case
would probably be more to your liking.
 Fig. 22. Fig. 23.

We will suppose that you have already a desk. Make two upright
rows of bookshelves far enough apart to allow the desk to be placed
between them. Shut off the lower part of the shelves, on each side,
with a door, which may be decorated with iron hinges or blackened
metal. These false hinges are of course placed against the real ones
on which the door swings, and are purely ornamental. These little
closets make fine places in which to store unsightly books and
magazines which look untidy but which one always wants to keep.
There is a shelf over the top of the desk on which could be placed a
row of plates, a tankard, or photographs; and a poster or nice little
etching would give interest to the big panel. This panel, by-the-way,
need not be made of wood, but could be closed in by a piece of
colored burlap or buckram. The case would then have to be braced
by three slats of wood nailed across the back behind the buckram.
When completed it will appear as shown in Fig. 23.

A Book-ledge and Stool

Two interesting and useful pieces of furniture are shown in the

drawing of a book-ledge and stool (Fig. 24), and as the main shelf is
but fourteen inches wide it will not occupy a great deal of space in a
room.
 The main shelf is forty-two inches long, fourteen wide, and one
inch and a quarter thick. The side pieces, or legs, supporting it are
twelve inches wide and thirty-three inches high, with V-shaped
pieces cut from the foot of each one. These pieces are thirty-six
inches apart, and arranged between them, and twenty inches above
the floor an under ledge eight inches wide is fastened with long
screws and brackets. Nine inches above the main ledge a top shelf
is supported on side legs, which, in turn, are propped at the outside
with wood braces, or blocks, six inches high and four inches wide at
the bottom. The side supports are placed the same distance apart as
the underside pieces, and are held in position on the top of the main
ledge with short dowels, or pegs, driven in their under end, and
which fit into holes bored in a corresponding position in the ledge.
This upper section may be omitted, however, if the plain ledge is
preferred.
The stool is twelve inches square and twenty-two inches high. The
top is covered with a stout square of leather caught all around the
edges with nails and imitation nail-heads. The lower rails that bind
the posts together are one and three-quarter inches wide and seven-
eighths of an inch thick. The posts are one and three-quarter inches
square, and the rails are let into them three inches up from the floor.
The top rails are the same width, and all let into the top of the posts
with the lap-joint union, where they are glued and screwed fast.
Small brackets under these rails will add an element of support, and
they can be dressed out of seven-eighths-inch wood with a
compass-saw, and made fast with glue and screws. These brackets
are comparatively small, being two and a half inches wide and four
inches deep, but they must be cut accurately to fit well.
Fig. 24.
 Chapter XXI
CLOCKS AND TIMEPIECES

Among the many useful and attractive pieces of furniture that a

boy can make to help furnish a home, clocks and timepieces offer a
good field for endeavor. Now, a clock is more often looked at than
any other piece of furniture; consequently, it should be a thing of
beauty rather than a distracting eyesore. And, since it is no more
expensive to construct a clock on good lines than on poor ones,
there is no reasonable excuse for the inartistic, commonplace
designs that are displayed for sale by jewelers, department stores,
and house-furnishing shops.
Several good designs for simple and artistic cases are shown on
the following pages, and none of them are too intricate to be made at
home by the boy who has gained some knowledge in the handling of
tools. There is nothing in their construction that requires the services
of a cabinet-maker, and the movements may be had from a clock-
manufacturer, or perhaps taken out of an old or unsightly case. For
instruction in the use of the pyrographic-point, see Chapter XII.
Thin white-wood or pine boards, sheet-lead, stain, and shellac are
some of the simple materials needed; and the tools required will be
those that may be found in every household, such as a saw,
hammer, plane, awl, square, mallet, compass-saw, and brace and
bit. Some steel-wire nails, glue, sand-paper, and black paint will
complete the list of necessaries, and the various small accessories
may be had at a hardware store at a nominal outlay.

A Bracket-clock

A design for a simple bracket-clock is shown in Fig. 1, and the

case is so plain in construction that any smart boy can easily make it
from thin pieces of board half an inch in thickness, half a yard of
burlap, and some sheet-lead.
 The box part of the clock is eight inches square and three and a
half inches deep. The brackets are extensions of the sides, cut as
shown in Fig. 2 A; they drop eight inches below the bottom-board of
the case. The dial and glass frame measure six inches in diameter,
and to fit them to the box it will be necessary to cut a hole in the front
of the case five and a half inches in diameter, as shown in Fig. 2 B.
The shelf-top to the box is bevelled at the under side, and is
attached by means of glue and nails; it overhangs one and a half
inches at the front and ends. The sides and front of the box are then
covered with tinted burlap in a soft, old-green, red, or tan shade, and
the exposed wood-work is stained a color to match. When dry it is
given a coat or two of thin shellac to lend a lustre to the grain and
stain.
To hide the joint between the cap and the body of the clock, a
round piece of wood, such as a dowel, should be inserted and nailed
fast; or a narrow strip of picture-moulding can be used.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

If it is impossible to find the large nails that bind the corners at a

hardware store, they may be made from sheet-lead. Disks half an
inch in diameter are cut from the lead by means of a small cold-
chisel and mallet. The edges of the disks are beaten with a tack-
hammer to give them the appearance of a rough, hammer-headed
nail. These disks are painted with a dead-black paint, made by
adding a small portion of dry lamp-black to thin shellac, and applying
it to the metal-work with a soft brush. These heads are attached to
the clock, as shown in the illustration, at regular distances apart, with
thin, small-headed, steel-wire nails, which when driven in and
painted with the black preparation become invisible.
The movement, which may be of either the spring or weight kind,
is attached to the back of the case before the dial is made fast, and
the pendulum-rod is dropped through a slot cut in the bottom-board.
If the mounting is bothersome, however, a clock-maker will
arrange it and adjust the dial and space the hands properly.
A metal hanger at the top and two long, slim screws driven
through the bottom of each bracket will hold this clock in place
against the wall.

A Mantel-clock

A simple but artistic mantel-clock is shown in Fig. 3. It is seven

inches wide, thirteen inches high, and three and a half inches deep.
It is made from thin white-wood, pine, cypress, or almost any soft
wood.
The top, or cap, is of half-inch wood, and it projects one and a half
inches beyond the front and sides. A small moulding, or a dowel, is
cut and mitred around the top under the cap. At the bottom the feet
are made by cutting out pieces of the wood with a compass-saw. A
small pendulum movement is mounted against the back before the
dial and glass frame are set in place.
The ornament on the front and sides is outlined with pencil, and
after the wood-work is stained a soft-brown, an old-green, or any
desired shade, the lines of the ornament are pyrographically burned.
Or they may be painted with a dark-brown paint in imitation of
pyrography. Below the ornament a half-inch band of sheet-lead is
laid around the body of the clock and held on with large, oval-headed
upholsterers’ nails painted black.

A Wall-clock
 An attractive wall-clock is shown in Fig. 4, page 327. With a
movement having a fifteen-inch pendulum, the case should be ten
inches wide, twenty-four inches high, and four inches deep. A
circular opening is made at the upper end of the box, and an oblong
one at the lower end through which the pendulum may be seen. The
box is covered with burlap in some desirable shade; it is applied with
glue and large-headed nails, or dummy heads.
The ornamental design is cut from sheet-lead and applied with
slim, steel-wire nails. The frame around the lower opening is cut from
lead and applied over a piece of glass which is cut and fitted to the
opening. The stems to the buds are made of thin telegraph wire,
bent to the proper shape, and applied with small staples made from
pins.
The top is cut from white-wood five-eighths of an inch thick; it
overhangs the sides and front two inches. Where the top is applied
to the body of the clock, the joint is hidden with a small strip of
moulding, or a dowel mitred at the corners, and attached with slim,
steel-wire nails.
The large nail-heads all along the edges are made from sheet-lead
beaten to represent wrought-iron bellows-nails, and fastened on with
thin, steel nails, and afterwards painted black.
The bottom of the box should be arranged on hinges, and caught
with a small bolt so that it may be dropped in order to start the
pendulum, and also to adjust the screw at the bottom of the rod.
A pleasing combination of colors for this case will be light, olive-
green burlap, black metal-work, and old-brown wood-work. The
pendulum-ball may be of bright brass or blackened. Equally effective
are combinations of red burlap and brass trimmings, or old-gold-
colored burlap and Pompeian-green metal-work, made by tinting all
the metal parts with a light and dark olive-green paint blended
together on the parts.

A High Wall-clock
 For the space over a mantel, or wherever it may be convenient to
hang it, a substantial high wall-clock is shown in Fig. 5. It is ten
inches wide, thirty inches high at the front, and four inches deep,
with the bracket-ends and the fancy top-pieces extending five or six
inches beyond the body of the clock at top and bottom.
In construction it is somewhat on the lines of the “mission”
furniture, the pieces being tongued and pinned, with a heavy slatted
front.
The wood-work is five-eighths of an inch in thickness. The cross-
rails are two inches in width, and the upright ones and the lattice are
one and a quarter inches in width. The ends of the cross-pieces are
shaped as shown in Fig. 6. When passed through mortises cut in
front of the side boards they are held in place with wooden pins.
At the back, near the top and bottom, two-inch cross-strips are let
into the side boards. The ends should project two inches beyond the
boards at both sides, and holes are made in them through which
screws are passed to anchor the clock to the wall.
An eight-day movement, with a twelve-inch pendulum, is made
fast to a back-board, and on the front-board, to cover a hole eight
inches in diameter, a large dial and glass are fastened.
 HANGING AND MANTEL CLOCKS

Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

The ornament at the sides and on the front-board around the dial
is cut with a carving-chisel, and tinted to darken the lines. Stain and
varnish will be a desirable finish; or the stain alone may be used
should an old, dull appearance be desired.

An Odd Mantel-clock
 The design for a mantel-clock that is odd in shape and striking in
appearance is shown in Fig. 7. It is seven inches wide at the top,
underneath the cap, and ten inches across at the base. In width it
varies from three inches at the top to four and a half inches at the
base.
The case is made from three-eighths-inch white-wood and joined
with glue and nails. The top is of core-moulding that may be had at a
carpenter-shop or planing-mill. It is mitred to fit at the front and ends.
The metal straps are of lead and the ornament is tinted and
outlined. A great deal of the beauty of this design is in its coloring,
and, unfortunately, this cannot be reproduced. The wood-work is in
light golden-brown, the buds in orange, toning down to a deep red at
the base, or similar to the colorings of the California poppy. The
stems and leaves are in several shades of green, and the entire
ornament is lined by the pyrographic-point, or painted with a line in
dark brown. The straps, nails, and glass frame are in dead black,
and the cap-moulding is in a darker shade of brown than that
employed for the body color of the case. A pale, old-pink dial, on
which black numerals are painted, completes this harmonious color-
scheme.

A Shelf-clock

A quaint clock is shown in Fig. 8, and it is quite as simple to

construct as it is in appearance.
It is fourteen inches wide, twelve inches high, and four and a half
inches in depth. A six-inch dial and glass are mounted on the front,
and in the bottom of the movement-box a narrow slot is cut to
accommodate the swing of the pendulum-rod.
 Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

White-wood boards three-eighths of an inch in thickness are

fastened to corner-posts, having the two upper sides cut away as
shown in Fig. 9. Laps are cut at the lower end of each corner-post
into which the rail fits, as also shown in Fig. 9.
The same general description given for the other cases applies to
this one, and after the ornament is stained and lined the surface of
the wood may be lightly lined from top to bottom with the
pyrographic-point.

An Old-style Timepiece

A case of old-fashioned design is shown in Fig. 10.

 The top measures eight inches square; the waist is five inches
wide and twelve inches long; and the base is six inches high and
twelve inches long. Two bars are fastened from the top to the base;
they pitch at a slight angle.
The average depth is four inches, and the top, or head, extends
out over the waist for a quarter of an inch, or enough to make a
break in the straight line of the front.
The ornamentation is carried out as described for the other
designs, and if properly constructed this clock should present a very
unique appearance.
 Chapter XXII
SCREENS, SHOE-BOXES, AND WINDOW-SEATS

Among the many convenient pieces of furniture that a boy can

make for the home, there are, perhaps, none that are so handy and
generally useful as screens, shoe-boxes, and settles of various
kinds.
Screens in particular are of so many and varied designs that it
would be quite impossible in this short chapter to give more than a
few of the simpler forms; but they will serve as hints for others.

A Light-screen

One of the easiest screens to make, and perhaps the most

generally useful, is that shown in Fig. 1. This is a light-screen, which
may be easily taken from one room to another.
Four rails of pine or white-wood are cut and tapered at one end for
the tops, and slightly cut away at the other for the bottom, as shown
in the illustration. The rails are four feet six inches long, two and a
half inches in width, and seven-eighths of an inch thick. Dowels five-
eighths of an inch in diameter are used for the cross-sticks. They can
be purchased at a hardware store or from a cabinet-maker, and
should be cut twenty-four inches long. Holes are to be bored in one
edge of each strip, into which the dowels are driven, and fastened
with glue and small nails. Four or five dowels will be sufficient for
each wing, and they should be spaced evenly, the first one four
inches below the top of the rails and the bottom one ten inches
above the floor.
The wings are fastened together with two or three hinges, so that
the screen may be folded and stood in a closet or behind a door
when not in use.
Some pretty figured material, such as China silk, silkoline,
cretonne, or printed cotton goods may be used for the covering,
which is to show on both sides of each wing. It should be from three
to five feet wide, so as to allow for some fulness. One end of the
goods is tacked to the top dowel; then it is passed around the bottom
dowel and brought up to the top, where it is again tacked fast. Some
narrow gimp and brass nails will hide the edges of the goods at the
top, and to hold the material in place a few tacks may be driven
along the bottom dowel.
The wood-work should be painted, or stained and varnished,
before the covering material is put on. If a dull finish is desired, some
dark paint may be thinned with turpentine and rubbed on with a soft
cloth, then partially wiped off and allowed to dry. It will not be
necessary to varnish or shellac the surface, but a little beeswax can
be dissolved in turpentine and rubbed on.

A Fire-screen

When an open fire is burning on the hearth a screen that will

protect the eyes from the glare, and yet allow the heat to reach the
lower part of the body and the feet, is a useful piece of furniture.
A simple screen of this description is shown in Fig. 2, and for a
living-room or bedroom it should measure thirty-six inches long,
forty-two inches high, the screen proper being eighteen or twenty
inches wide.
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8.

The uprights are of wood two inches square, and the cross-rails
are seven-eighths of an inch thick and two inches wide. The joints
are mortised and tenoned, and held with screws and glue, while the
apparent fastenings are large, round, mock nail-heads. The feet are
cut from hard-wood seven-eighths of an inch in thickness, as shown
in Fig. 3, and attached to the bottom of the upright posts with glue
and screws, the vertical edges of the feet being let into a lap cut in
the posts. Each foot will then measure eighteen inches across at the
bottom, and twelve inches high from the floor to the top of the lap cut
in the posts.
Leather, burlap, denim, tapestry-cloth, or any good covering fabric,
may be used for the screen. This material should be tacked on the
top and bottom rail with large upholsterers’ tacks painted black.
A design may be lightly drawn on the fabric with a pencil, and
afterwards painted in oil or water colors, or the ornament may be
stencilled on with aniline colors, as described in Chapter XIX.
 A Shoe-screen

For a bedroom a convenient screen is shown in Fig. 4. This is

properly called a shoe-screen, since there is a ledge made fast to
the lower part of it to serve as a rest for the foot when lacing or
buttoning shoes. There are also two rows of pockets on the inside of
the screen, into which shoes, slippers, and sandals can be slipped.
A convenient size to make this screen is three feet six inches high
and two feet six inches wide. The foot-ledge should not be more than
fourteen inches above the floor and six inches wide. The frame may
be made from any easily worked wood, since when it is painted, or
stained and varnished, nothing but the grain will show. The uprights
should be three inches wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and
three feet three inches long. Lap or dowelled joints should be made
at the top corners, and at the foot of both pieces notches are to be
cut in with saw and chisel, as shown at Fig. 5. The foot-pieces may
then be driven up in place and made fast with screws or slim nails
driven through the projecting ends of the side uprights and into the
feet. The feet are of wood seven-eighths of an inch thick, sixteen
inches long, and six inches high. The pattern may be drawn with
lead-pencil on the wood; then, with a compass-saw, cut the wood on
the lines, having first clamped the piece in a vise to hold it securely.
The foot-shelf is made fast to the screen after the covering material
is in place, and at both ends it is supported with brackets, the lower
ends of which are made fast with screws.
A cross-rib should be made fast in the screen-frame midway
between the top-rail and the one to which the ledge is attached, and
a line of tacks is driven through the covering material and into the
frame on both sides. This is to give a better finish, and also to
support the rows of pockets when full of shoes.
The strip of denim for the pockets is seven inches wide and
hemmed on both edges. It is then caught to the covering material so
that generous pockets will be formed, each one being large enough
to accommodate a pair of shoes.
 The front of the screen may be covered with a fancy-figured
material fastened on with small tacks; over this a gimp to match the
material can be laid and held down with large-headed tacks, such as
may be purchased at upholstery supply stores. The painting,
staining, or varnishing should, of course, be done before the fabric,
or covering material, is made fast to the frame.

A Bedroom-door Screen

At night it is often agreeable to have a bedroom door left open. Yet

one does not want to sleep in an actual draught, and a screen such
as is shown in Fig. 6 will be found most useful.
This screen is in one piece, six feet six inches high and eighteen
inches wide. The frame is made from pine, white-wood, or any other
wood to match the trim of the room. Two cross-rails are fixed so as
to remain equal distances apart, thus forming three panels to the
screen. Hinges are arranged at one edge, which in turn are made
fast to the door-casing, so that when the screen is not in use it can
be thrown back against the wall; or, if thought preferable, eyes may
be driven in the casing and hooks in the edge of the screen, so that it
may swing as if on hinges, and yet be lifted off at will and set away in
a closet. An eye on the door and a hook on the screen will serve as
a fairly secure fastening against intrusion. Any pretty material that
matches the paper of the room may be used to cover this screen,
and the edges should be bound with gimp and large-headed tacks to
give it a good appearance.

A Heavy Fire-screen

For a dining-room, living-room, or library, an attractive design for a

heavy fire-screen is shown in Fig. 7. This is constructed of oak, ash,
or other hard-wood. It is thirty-six inches wide, forty-two inches high,
and the rails and feet are one and one-eighth inches thick. The
uprights and cross-rails are four inches wide, and the top and bottom
of each upright are cut as shown in Fig. 8.
 The cross-rails should be mortised in the uprights, or they may be
made fast by butting one end against an edge and securing the joint
with dowels. The feet are fourteen inches across at the bottom and
fifteen inches high. They are glued and screwed in the laps cut at the
lower ends of the uprights, and the screw-heads are covered with
imitation wrought-iron nail-heads beaten from sheet-lead and
attached with steel-wire nails, the heads of which are invisible when
driven into the lead.
The side of the screen which faces the fire should be covered with
burlap, denim, or other stout cotton fabric. The outer side of the
screen should be faced with leather, on which the ornamental design
is followed out with stains and pyrography (see Chapter XII).
The leather should be caught to the frame with tacks placed two
inches apart, and also glue. Over the tacks imitation lead heads may
be secured with slim, steel nails.

A Window-seat with Under Ledge

In the drawing of the window-seat with under ledge (Fig. 9) an odd

but useful piece of furniture is shown. It is made from two boards
fourteen inches wide and forty inches long, two end-pieces fifteen
inches wide and twenty-two inches high, and four brackets eight
inches on the right-angle edges. These latter are necessary to brace
the top and ends, as shown in Fig. 10 A A.
The top shelf, or seat, is eighteen inches high from the floor, and
the under ledge is made fast eight inches below it. The fastening is
made with screws and liquid glue, and allowed to stand several
hours before the drapery is attached.
For the upholstery material the dry-goods stores offer quite a
variety of stuffs from which to choose. The least expensive are
burlap, denim, cretonne, and some of the heavy, cotton, printed
goods. Other fabrics, richer in appearance and more lasting, are
velour, tapestry-cloth, rep, and brocade. Goods of this class will cost
from fifty cents to several dollars a yard.
 Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

To upholster this seat, obtain some curled hair from an old

mattress, and spread it over the top board, having first tacked a
piece of unbleached muslin along one edge of the seat. When a
sufficient quantity of the hair is on the board, draw the muslin over it,
and tack it down along the other edge and at the ends. Over this the
fabric can be drawn and tacked.
The end boards are covered with plain goods of the same color as
the seat and flounce, and the edges are bound with gimp an inch
wide, held down with large, oval-headed upholsterers’ tacks painted
black. Across the back of the seat (the part that goes against the wall
or window-base) plain goods can be drawn and tacked, or it may be
left open.
The front is provided with a flounce made by shirring the goods on
a stout cotton cord and tacking it along the front of the top board,
then covering the tacks with gimp and nails, as shown in the
drawing. A coat of paint or shellac at the inside will finish the wood-
work, and it will then be ready for use.
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