Dr Saravanan.

K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Stream Flow
Stream flow, or channel runoff or runoff, is the flow of water in streams, rivers,
and other channels, and is a major element of the water cycle.
As we know that the Precipitation, Evaporation, interception, infiltration,
transportation and Evapotranspiration are all difficult to measure exactly but
Module: 2 Stream Flow and Runoff Analysis 5 hrs the Stream flow is the only part of the hydrologic cycle that can be measured
Measurement of stream flow-Factors affecting stream flow- accurately.
Hydrograph analysis, base flow separation, unit hydrograph and
 Stream flow is one of the most
curve number methods of stream flow determination, synthetic important topics in engineering
unit hydrograph-Hydrological modelling for stream flow hydrology because it directly relate to
estimation-Methods for peak discharge estimation. water supply, flood control, reservoir
design, navigation, irrigation, drainage,
water quality, and others.
 Stream flow is measured in units of
discharge(m3/s).

Stream Flow
Sources for the water :

1. Surface Runoff
2. Base Flow
3. Direct rainfall Surface Runoff and Base Flow
4. Release from water body (dam,
lake pond etc) and
5. Discharge from bore well

Stream Flow = Discharge = Area X Velocity

Stream flow measurement Stream flow network

A stream gauge, streamgage or gauging station is a technique / process of The spacing and sampling intervals depends on
measurement of water flowing in a stream / nallah / river / canal 1) Stream characteristics
2) Available annual flow and rainfall
3) Purpose of the study
4) Expected accuracy
5) Geographic configuration of the study region;
6) Economic consideration
7) Collaboration and standardization
8) Legal guidelines

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Central Water Commission (CWC )

National Flood Forecasting Network
Methods of stream flow measurements
Various methods are adopted for stream flow measurements some are
1. Velocity-area methods
CWC issues short range (upto 24 hours)
a) Float method
flood forecast based on gauge to gauge
b) Dilution techniques
correlation and medium range (up to 7
c) Current meters
days) advisory flood forecast based on
d) Electromagnetic method
models to the concerned stakeholders at
e) Ultrasonic method
338 stations (200 Level Forecast Stations
2. Discharge measurement using artificial structures
+ 138 Inflow Forecast Stations) across the
a) Weirs
country, including the State of Haryana.
b) Flumes
3. Indirect determination of stream flow
c) Slope-area method
d) Stage-discharge rating curve

Stream flow measurements : Velocity-Area methods Velocity-Area methods : Float method

Discharge is the product of cross-sectional area and velocity of water. The velocity- The measurement is made by measuring the time that it takes a floating object to travel
area methods involve measuring the flow area and velocity and these are multiplied to a specified distance downstream. The method is only used for a rough estimation of the
get discharge: discharge due to the high level of inaccuracy of the results.

Discharge = Area X Velocity

Discharge = Area X Velocity

Velocity-Area methods : Float method Velocity-Area methods : Dilution techniques

A simple float moving on stream surface is called surface float. It is easy to use and the Dye, or chemical is injected into the water and its time concentrated
mean velocity is obtained by multiplying the observed surface velocity by a reduction development is used to determine the flow rate. In selecting a dye/
coefficient. However, surface floats are affected by surface winds. To get the average chemical, it is important to make sure that the dye is bio-degradable
velocity in the vertical directly, special floats in which part of the body is under water or otherwise approved for the application.
are used. Rod float, in which a cylindrical rod is weighed so that it can float vertically,
belongs to this category.

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Velocity-Area methods : Current meters Velocity-Area methods : Electromagnetic method

Current meter is the most commonly used instrument to measure the velocity of flowing `between the ends of the conductor.
water. Accurate measurements of the velocity profile of the stream cross section are
made by current meters.

Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction

Velocity-Area methods : Ultrasonic method Discharge measurement using artificial structures

 Structures like notches, weir, flumes and sluice gates for flow measurements in hydraulic
Ultrasonic sound : frequency of 20 kHz and higher
laboratories are well known.
 These conventional structures are used in the field conditions but their use is limited by the
ranges of head, debris or sediment load of the stream and the backwater effects produced by
the streams.
 The basic principle governing the use of these structure is that these structure produce a
unique control section in the flow. At these structure the discharge Q is the function of the
water surface elevation measured from the specified datum.
Q = f(H)
A typical transit-time ultrasonic liquid flow meter utilizes two ultrasonic transducers H= water surface elevation measured from the specified datum
that function as both ultrasonic transmitter and receiver. The ultrasonic flow meter
operates by alternately transmitting and receiving a burst of ultrasound between the
two transducers by measuring the transit time that it takes for sound to travel
between the two transducers in both directions. The difference in the transit time (∆
time) measured is directly proportional to the velocity of the liquid in the pipe

Weirs Weirs
A weir is a small barrier built across a stream or river to control and raise
the water level slightly on the upstream side, essentially a small-scale
dam.
Q = f (H)
Rectangular notch Triangular notch Trapezoidal notch

Q = K Hn

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Flumes Indirect determination of stream flow

Flumes are specially shaped, engineered structures used to measure the flow of water These methods make use of the relationship between the flow discharge and the water
in open channels. Flumes are static in nature - having no moving parts - and develop a surface slope and depth at specified locations.
relationship between the water level in the flume and the flow rate by restricting the
flow of water in various ways.

Slope- Area method Slope- Area method

Slope-area method is an approximate and indirect method of discharge The Manning equation
estimation which is used when measurement by more accurate methods,
such as the velocity-area method, is not possible.
Where
Q = discharge (m3/s)
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (range between 0.01 and 0.75)
A = cross-section area (m2)
R = the hydraulic radius, equal to the area divided by the wetted perimeter (m)
S = the head loss per unit length of the channel, approximated by the channel
slope
R=A/P
P = witted parameter

Slope- Area method Stage discharge method

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Runoff
 Excess rainfall is the rainfall remaining after all of the hydrologic abstractions have
been subtracted. Excess rainfall water traveling over the ground and collecting in a
body of water is called surface runoff.
 Runoff is one of the most important component in Water Resources Engineering
because it directly relate to water supply, flood control, reservoir design, navigation,
irrigation, drainage, water quality, and others.

Rating curve 25

Runoff pathways
• Runoff means the drainage or flowing of precipitation from a
catchment area through a surface channel
• Runoff includes
Over land flow reaches channel soon after rain
Interflow reaches channel after few hours
Ground water flow reaches channel after few days

Based on the time delay between rainfall and the

Runoff Factors affecting Run-off
• Direct run off : Overland and inter flow reaches stream soon Climate characteristics such as:
after rain
• Indirect run off or Base flow: Ground water flow may be • Type of precipitation
termed as base flow and flow will not reaches stream soon after • Rainfall intensity
rain • Rainfall duration
• Rainfall distribution
• Antecedent precipitation and
• Soil moisture

Source: M. Ritter, The Physical Environment.

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Factors affecting Run-off

Physical characteristics such as:

• Land use
• Vegetation
• Soil
• Basin shape
• Basin area
Hydrograph
• Elevation
• Slope
• Topography
• Drainage patterns
Source: M. Ritter, The Physical Environment.

Hydrograph Essential Components of Hydrograph

A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus Time to Peak, tp: Time from the beginning of
time past a specific point in a river, or other channel or conduit carrying the rising limb to the occurrence of the peak
discharge.
flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed in m3/sec or m3/hr or m3/day
Time of Concentration, tc: Time required for
or ft3/sec.
water to travel from the most hydraulically
remote point in the basin to the basin outlet
Lag Time, tl: Time between the center of
mass of the effective rainfall hyetograph and
the center of mass of the direct runoff
hydrograph
Time Base, tb: Duration of the direct runoff
hydrograph.

Essential Components of Hydrograph

Factors affecting Hydrograph
Climate characteristics such as:

a) the rising limb, • Type of precipitation

b) the crest segment, and • Rainfall intensity
c) the recession limb. • Rainfall duration
• Rainfall distribution
d) Direct run off
• Antecedent precipitation and
e) Base flow • Soil moisture

Source: M. Ritter, The Physical Environment.

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Factors affecting Hydrograph Why Base Flow Separation?

Physical characteristics such as: Direct run off : Overland and
Inter flow reaches stream soon
• Land use after rain
• Vegetation
• Soil Indirect run off or Base flow:
• Basin shape Ground water flow may be
• Basin area termed as base flow and flow
• Elevation will not reaches stream soon
• Slope after rain
• Topography
• Drainage patterns
Source: M. Ritter, The Physical Environment.

Why Base Flow Separation? Why Base Flow Separation?

Overland flow + Inter

flow = Direct run off

Why Base Flow Separation? Base flow separation

Base flow is a portion of streamflow that is not directly generated from

the excess rainfall during a storm event. In other words, this is the flow
that would exist in the stream without the contribution of direct runoff
from the rainfall. Estimation of base flow and direct runoff is useful to
understand the hydrology of a watershed, including interaction of
surface and sub-surface water, role of urbanization on runoff
generation and the health of aquatic habitat within a stream

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Hydrograph Direct run off hydrograph (DRH)

Water reaches the river by
Direct run off :
The hydrograph obtained after the base 1. Overland Reaches immediately
flow separation is known as direct run
off hydrograph 2. Inter flow after rain

Base flow removed

Basin lag time
Peak flow
3. Base flow
3 Reaches 1 or 2 days after rain -
Only if water table above river bed
Discharge (m3/s)

2
Direct run off

1
0 2 12 24 36 48
Base Flow 30 72
Base flow
Hours from start of rain storm

Base flow separation Method I – Straight line method

 In this method the separation of the base flow is achieved by joining with a straight line the beginning of
Process of separating the quick-response flow from slow the surface runoff to a point on the recession limb representing the end of the direct runoff.
 In point A represents the beginning of the direct runoff off and it is usually easy to identify in view of
response flow from total run off hydrograph the sharp change in the runoff rate at that point. Point B, marking the end of the direct runoff is rather
difficult to locate exactly.
 An empirical equation for the time interval N
Quick response flow : Overland & Inter flow (days) from the peak to the point B is

Slow response flow :Ground water/Base flow N  0 .8 3 A 0 .2

A – Catchment area in km2

Three methods of base flow separation  Points A and B are joined by a straight line to
1. Method I – Straight line method demarcate to the base flow and surface runoff.
This method of base-flow separation is the
2. Method II simplest of all the three methods.

3. Method III

Method II Method III

 In this method the base flow curve existing prior to the commencement of the surface In this method the base flow recession curve after the depletion of the flood water is extended
runoff is extended till it intersects the ordinate drawn at the peak (point C in Fig). This backwards till it intersects the ordinate at the point of inflection (line EF in Fig. 23.3). Points
point is joined to point B by a straight line. A and F are joined by an arbitrary smooth curve. This method of base-flow separation is
 Segment AC and CB demarcate the realistic in situations where the groundwater contributions are significant and reach the stream
base flow and surface runoff. This is quickly.
probably the most widely used base-
flow separation procedure.

Pi – Point of inflection

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Volume of rainfall = Catchment area X Rainfall

Volume of direct runoff = Area of direct runoff hydrograph

Volume of direct runoff = Area of direct runoff hydrograph

T o ta l v o lu m e o f d ir e c t r u n o ff
R u n o ff o f d e p t h =
A r e a o f C a tc h m e n t

Run off depth is also known as effective rainfall or Rainfall excess

Effective Rainfall or Rainfall excess Effective Rainfall or Rainfall excess

 The distribution of total rainfall can be given by the continuity Vol of rainfall = Vol of Surface runoff + Vol of Infiltration
equation as

Vol rainfall = Vol Surface runoff + vol Interception + vol Depression

storage + vol Evaporation + vol Transpiration +
vol Evapotranspiration + vol Infiltration
Depth of rain fall X Catchment area = Depth of Run-off X Catchment area -
Depth of Infiltration X Catchment area
 The Interception, Depression storage, Evaporation, Transpiration and
Depth of rain fall = Depth of Run-off + Depth of Infiltration
Evapotranspiration losses are called as initial losses. In general the
initial losses are very small and may be neglected. Hence Depth of Run-off = Depth of rain fall - Depth of Infiltration

Vol of rainfall = Vol of Surface runoff + Vol of Infiltration Depth of Infiltration = Losses/Infiltration losses/ᴓ Index

Effective Rainfall or Rainfall excess Effective Rainfall or Rainfall excess

After the initial and infiltration losses are met, the rainfall excess reaches
the stream through overland flow and inter flow
The initial and infiltration losses are subtracted from the actual rain fall The simpler method to determine rainfall excess include
is known as effective rain fall
The resulting hyetograph is known as effective rainfall hyetograph 1. Horton infiltration method
2. Ø index method

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

1. Horton infiltration method 2. Ø index method

Effective Rainfall or Rainfall excess Effective Rainfall or Rainfall excess

The following Table list the ordinates of a runoff hydrograph

in response to a rainfall of 14 cm occurring over a duration
of 4 hour on July 19, 2016 in Warasgaon catchment in
Maharashtra whose area is 133 km2. Assume constant base
flow of 10 m3/sec. Compute the pi(ᴓ) index and effective
Volume of direct runoff = Area of direct runoff hydrograph rainfall.
Table I
T o ta l v o lu m e o f d ir e c t r u n o ff Time (hr) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
R u n o ff o f d e p t h =
A r e a o f C a tc h m e n t Discharge
7 98 171 393 465 297 133 51 10 9
(m3/Sec)
Run off depth is also known as effective rainfall or Rainfall excess

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

The rainfall mass curve of an automatic rain gauge station is

shown in the below fig. Construct the rainfall and effective Direct Runoff Volume = Area under ERH x Catchment area
rainfall hyetographs. Assume constant φ- index of 3 cm/hr. Catchment area = 25 km2 = 25 X106 m2
The rainfall happed over catchment of are a 25 km2 had a
duration of 18 hours. The volume of direct runoff from the
catchment due to the storm. 70
60 61

50 55 cm
41 cm
40 41 cm

30
23 cm
20
10 8 cm
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21

Run-off Forecasting Run-off Forecasting

 A runoff model is a mathematical model describing the rainfall–
runoff relations of a rainfall catchment area, drainage basin or 1. Rainfall runoff models
watershed.
 More precisely, it produces a surface runoff hydrograph in 2. Run-off formula and table
response to a future or forecasted rainfall event.
3. Infiltration method
4. Rational method
5. Unit hydrograph method

Rainfall runoff models Run-off Forecasting

Two types of hydrologic models have been used in most applications:
lumped-conceptual models and physically-based models.
SWB (Schaake et al., 1996),
GR4J (Perrin et al., 2003),
WMS Urban area
HBV (Bergström & Lindström, 2015), Storm Water Management Model (SWMM)
HEC- HMS (Feldman, 2000), MIKE URBAN
MGB-IPH (Collischonn et al., 2007), PCSWMM
SWAT (Arnold et al., 1998) and
Mike SHE (Abbott et al., 1986)

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Run-off Forecasting
1. Rainfall runoff models
2. Run-off formula and table Unit hydrograph (UH)
3. Infiltration method
4. Rational method
5. Unit hydrograph method

UNIT HYDROGRAPH Unit Hydrograph

A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff Peak flow
resulting from one unit depth (1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring 3
uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate for a specified
duration (D hours). 2
Direct run off
Discharge

The term unit here refers to a unit depth of rainfall excess which is
(m3/s)

1
usually taken as 1 cm. 0 2 12 24 Base
36 Flow
48 30 72
Base flow
The duration, being a very important characteristic, is used as
indication to a specific unit hydro graph. Thus one has a 6-h unit
hydrograph, 12-h unit hydrograph, etc. and in general a D-h unit
hydrograph applicable to a given catchment. Hours from start of rain storm

Two basic assumptions constitute the foundations for the unit- Unit hydrograph limitations
hydrograph theory:
•Suitable for storm patterns similar with patterns from which Unit Hydrograph
drawn
1. 1-cm (unit) of effective rainfall
•Rain fall spread uniformly over space – size of catchment should not more then
2. Spread uniformly over space - evenly over the catchment 1600 km2
3. Uniformly in time - the excess rate is constant over the time •Catchment don’t have any storage
interval •No change in channel pattern
4. Rain fall duration D hrs •Snow melt not considered.
5. Time invariance
6. Linear response.

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Application of the unit hydrograph

1. Computation of direct runoff hydrograph in a catchment
due to a given rainfall event
2. Effects of land use-land cover changes, channel
modifications, storage additions, and other variables can Developing/Driving Unit Hydrograph
be evaluated to determine changes in the unit hydrograph.
3. Effects of the spatial variation in precipitation can be
evaluated.
4. Hydrographs of watersheds consisting of several
subbasins can be produced.

The following table provides the ordinates of a runoff

hydrograph and base flow in response to a rainfall of 7 cm
over a period of 2 hours on July 19, 2020 in Warasgaon
catchment basin whose area is 133 km2. Develop the 2 hr
unit hydrograph for catchment. Developing Hydrograph
Time
(hrs)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 from Unit Hydrograph
Discharge
8 70 150 323 450 350 70 10 8 8
(m3/Sec)
Base Flow
10 10 11 15 15 15 12 10 10 10
(m3/sec)

Given that the effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH) for a given storm on Given ordinate of 6-hour unit hydrograph
the catchment has been given in the Table I. The ordinates of a 6-hour Effe rainfall = 1 cm
unit hydrograph of a catchment are given in Table II. Derive Direct
Runoff Hydrograph (DRH) and flood hydrograph corresponding to 0 hr 6 hr
each rainfall is delayed by 6 hours appropriately. The base flow is
assumed to be 10 m3/sec.
Derive Direct Runoff Hydrograph for given rain event
Table: I Time (hrs) 0 6 12
Effective Rainfall (cm) 0 3 6 Time (hrs) 0 6 12
Table : II Effective Rainfall (cm) 0 3 6
Time Effe rainfall = 3 cm Effe rainfall = 6 cm
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84
(hrs)
Ordinate
of UH 0 25 50 85 125 160 185 160 110 60 36 25 16 8 0
(m3/sec) 0 hr 6 hr 12 hr

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Dr Saravanan. K SCE VIT Chennai 1/24/2025

Time Ordinate of UH Ord for 3 cm UH logg by 6 Ord for 6 cm

(hrs) (m3/sec) Eff rainfall hr Eff rainfall DRH (m3/sec) Base Flow Hydrograph Unit Hydrograph of Different Durations
0 0
6 25
 Under condition where lack of adequate data in
12 50
18 85 developement of unit hydrograph
24 125
30 160  D-hour unit hydrograph is used to develop unit
36 185
42 160 hydrographs of differing durations nD
48 110
54 60  Two method available:
60 36
66 25 1. Method of superposition
72 16
78 8 2. The S-Curve
84 0

1.Method of Superposition
Example
Given the ordinates of a 4-hr unit hydrograph as below
derive the ordinates of a 12-hr unit hydrograph for the
1–hr UH
same catchment
2–hr UH Time (hr) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Ordinates of 4- 0 20 80 130 150 130 90 52 27 15 5 0
hr UH
The linear property of a UH can be used to generate a UH of a larger duration. Here
two copies of a 1-hour UH are lagged by 1-hr and added, then the ordinates are
divided by 2, to make a 2-hour UH (1 inch over two hours).
However this lagging method is restricted to integer multiples of the original
duration.

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