Homework #2

Solutions
Chapter 3
Practice Problems
1. For each group in the following list, nd the order of the group and the order of each of
the element of the group. What relation do you see between the orders of the elements
and the order of the group?
Z
12
U(10) U(12) U(20) D
4
Z
12
= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}, so |Z
12
| = 12. This is an additive group, so
to nd the order of k Z
12
were looking for the smallest positive integer, n, such that
nk 0 (mod 12):
|0| = 1, |1| = 12, |2| = 6, |3| = 4, |5| = 12, |6| = 2, |7| = 12, |8| = 3, |9| = 4, |10| =
6, |11| = 12.
U(10) = {1, 3, 7, 9}, so |U(10)| = 4.
|1| = 1, |3| = 4, |7| = 4, |9| = 4.
U(12) = {1, 5, 7, 11}, so |U(12)| = 4.
|1| = 1, |5| = 2, |7| = 2, |11| = 2
U(20) = {1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19}, so |U(20)| = 8.
|1| = 1, |3| = 4, |7| = 4, |9| = 2, |11| = 2, |13| = 4, |17| = 4, |19| = 2
D
4
= {R
0
, R
90
, R
180
, R
270
, H, V, D, D

}, so |D
4
| = 8.
|R
0
| = 1, |R
90
| = 4, |R
180
| = 2, |R
270
| = 4, |H| = |V | = |D| = |D

| = 2
11. Find a group that contains elements a and b such that |a| = |b| = 2, and
(a) |ab| = 3
In D
3
, let a = F and b = F

. Both a and b are ips, so they have order 2.

= R
120
, which has order 3.
(b) |ab| = 4
In D
4
, let a = H and b = D

. Both a and b are ips, so they have order 2.

= R
90
, which has order 4.
(c) |ab| = 5
In D
5
any two dierent ips, F
i
and F
j
with i = j, combine to give a non-
zero rotation, and every non-zero rotation in D
5
has order 5.
Can you see any relationship among |a|, |b|, and |ab|?
There does not seem to be any relationship. |ab| = |a||b| nor does |a| or |b| divides |ab|.
17. Suppose G is the group given by the following Cayley table.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2
4 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5
5 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4
6 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7
7 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
(a) Find the centralizer of each element of G.
C(1) = C(5) = G
C(2) = C(6) = {1, 2, 5, 6}
C(3) = C(7) = {1, 3, 5, 7}
C(4) = C(8) = {1, 4, 5, 8}
(b) Find Z(G).
Z(G) = {1, 5}
(c) Find the order of each element of G. How are these orders arithmetically related
to the order of the group.
|1| = 1
|2| = |4| = |5| = |6| = |8| = 2
|3| = |3| = 4
The orders of the elements, 2 and 4, are divisors of the order of the group, 8.
21. Must the centralizer of an element of a group be Abelian?
No. For example, the centralizer of the identity is the entire group G, which is not
necessarily Abelian.
22. Must the center of an group be Abelian?
Yes. Since an element of the center commutes with everything in the group, it must
commute with everything in the center, so the center is an Abelian subgroup.
Written Problems
10. Prove that an Abelian group with two elements of order 2 must have a subgroup of
order 4.
Let G be an Abelian group and let a, b G with a = b and |a| = |b| = 2. We
want to show that {e, a, b, ab} is a subgroup of G of order 4. First we show it is closed
via a Cayley table:
e a b ab
e e a b ab
a a a
2
ab aab
b b ba b
2
bab
ab ab aba abb abab
e a b ab
e e a b ab
a a e ab b
b b ab e a
ab ab b a e
We simplify to the table on the right using a
2
= b
2
= e, since the order of both a
and b are 2, and ab = ba, since G is Abelian.
By the Finite Subgroup Test, if a nonempty subset is closed, then it is a subgroup. So,
{e, a, b, ab} G.
It looks like our subgroup has order 4, but what if two elements of the set are ac-
tually the same? We know neither a nor b are the identity, since they both have order
2, and e always has order 1. If a = ab or b = ab, then a or b is the identity, which we
know if not true. So, could ab = e? If ab = e, then a
1
= b, but a
2
= e, so a
1
also
equals a. Since inverses are unique, this means that a = b. Since we chose a and b to
be distinct, this is a contradiction. Thus, we have four distinct elements, so the order
of the subgroup is 4.
13. For each divisor k > 1 of n, let U
k
(n) = {x U(n) | x mod k = 1}. List the elements
of U
4
(20), U
5
(20), U
5
(30), and U
10
(30). Prove that U
k
(n) is a subgroup of U(n). Let
H = {x U(10) | x mod 3 = 1}. Is H a subgroup of U(10)?
U(20) = {1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19} U
4
(20) = {1, 9, 13, 17} U
5
(20) = {1, 6, 11}
U(30) = {1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29} U
5
(30) = {1, 11} U
10
= {1, 11}
To prove that U
k
(n) is a subgroup of U(n), well use the Two Step Subgroup Test.
First we check that U
k
(n) = . Since 1 is always in U(n) for any n and equal to
1 mod k for any k, 1 U
k
(n).
So, suppose a, b, U
k
(n).
First we show that ab U
k
(n). We know since a and b are both congruent to 1 mod k
that a = qk + 1 and b = q

k + 1 for some q, q

Z. Then
ab = (qk + 1)(q

k + 1)
= qq

k
2
+ qk + q

k + 1
= (qq

k + q + q

)k + 1
Since qq

k + q + q

Z, ab mod k = 1, so ab U
k
(n).
Now we want to show a
1
U
k
(n). We know a = qk + 1, as before, and a
1
= q

k +r
for some q

Z and 0 r < k, by the division algorithm. We also know that aa

k + r) (mod n)
1 = qq

k
2
+ qk + q

k + r (mod n)
1 = (qq

k + q + q

)k + r (mod n)
So, r = 1 mod k, and 0 r < k, so r = 1. Thus a
1
= 1 mod k, so a
1
U
k
(n).
Thus, by the Two Step Subgroup Test, U
k
(n) U(n).
U(10) = {1, 3, 7, 9} and H = {1, 7}. H is not a subgroup of U(10), since 7
2
=
49 = 9 / H, so H is not closed. Why does this not contradict the proof above? 3 is
not a divisor of 10, so U
3
(10) is not the subset we dened.
20. If H is a subgroup of G then by the centralizer C(H) of H we mean the set {x G| xh =
hx for all h H}. Prove that C(H) is a subgroup of G.
Well use the Two Step Subgroup Test to show that C(H) is a subgroup of G:
First well show that C(H) is non-empty. Since e G commutes with all elements of
G, it certainly commutes with all elements of H, thus e C(H).
Second, suppose that a, b C(H) and well show ab C(H), by showing (ab)h = h(ab)
for all h H.
(ab)h = a(bh)
= a(hb) since b C(H)
= (ah)b
= (ha)b since a C(H)
= h(ab)
So, ab CH(H).
Last, well show that a
1
C(H):
a
1
h = (h
1
a)
1
by Problem 16 in Chapter 2
= (ah
1
)
1
since H is a subgroup, h
1
H, so a commutes with h
1
= ha
1
again by Problem 16
So, a
1
C(H).
Thus, by the Two-Step Subgroup Test, C(H) G.
Chapter 4
Practice Problems
7. Find an example of a noncyclic group, all of whose proper subgroups are cyclic.
U(8) = {1, 3, 5, 7} with multiplication modulo 8 is an example of a noncyclic group all
of whose proper subgroups are cyclic:
< 3 > = {1, 3}
< 5 > = {1, 5}
< 7 > = {1, 7}
There are no other proper subgroups of U(8).
9. How many subgroups does Z
20
have? List a generator for each of these subgroups. Sup-
pose that G =< a > and |a| = 20. How many subgroups does G have? List a generator
for each of these subgroups.
We have a corollary that says each subgroup of Z
n
is generated by
n
k
, and each di-
visor, k, of n generates a subgroup in this way. The divisors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10,
and 20. So, the subgroups of Z
20
are
< 1 > = Z
20
< 2 > = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
< 4 > = {0, 4, 8, 12, 16}
< 5 > = {0, 5, 10, 15}
< 10 > = {0, 10}
< 0 > = {0}
If G =< a > and |a| = 20, then |G| = 20. The Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups
says all the subgroups of a cyclic group are cyclic, and they are generated powers of a,
k, that are divisors of 20. So, the subgroups of G are
< a > = G
< a
2
> = {e, a
2
, a
4
, a
6
, a
8
, a
10
, a
12
, a
14
, a
16
, a
18
}
< a
4
> = {e, a
4
, a
8
, a
12
, a
16
}
< a
5
> = {e, a
5
, a
10
, a
15
}
< a
10
>{e, a
10
}
< a
20
= e > = {e}
14. Suppose that a cyclic group G has exactly three subgroups: G itself, {e}, and a subgroup
of order 7. What is |G|? What can you say if 7 is replaced with p where p is prime?
From the Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups, we know that a cyclic group has
exactly one subgroup of order k for every divisor k of the order of the group. So, our
group G has exactly three distinct divisors 1, 7, and |G|. Since |G| > 7, |G| = 7
k
for
some integer k. If k > 2, then 7
2
= 49 would be a divisor of |G|, and thus a subgroup
of order 49, which we know is not true. Thus, k = 2, and |G| = 49.
The same ideas hold if 7 is replaces with a prime p. If G has exactly three sub-
groups: {e}, G, and a subgroup of order p, then G has order p
2
.
34. Determine the subgroup lattice for Z
8
.
We know that Z
8
will have a subgroup for each divisor of the order of the group,
8. So Z
8
will have subgroups of order 1, 2, 4, and 8:
< 1 > = Z
8
< 2 > = {0, 2, 4, 6}
< 4 > = {0, 4}
< 8 = 0 > = {0}
So, the subgroup lattice looks like:
< 1 >
< 2 >
< 4 >
< 0 >
Written Problems
11. Let G be a group and let a G. Prove that < a
1
>=< a >.
To show the two subgroups are equal, well show that each subgroup contains the
other.
() Let x < a
1
>. So x = (a
1
)
n
or some n Z.
x = (a
1
)
n
= a
1
a
1
a
1
. .
n times
= (a a a)
1
. .
n times
by Problem 16 in Chapter 2
= (a
n
)
1
Clearly a
n
< a >, and < a > is a subgroup so it is closed under inverses, thus
(a
n
)
1
< a >.
() Let x < a >. So x = a
n
or some n Z.
x = (a)
n
= a a a
. .
n times
= (a
1
a
1
a
1
)
1
. .
n times
by Problem 16 in Chapter 2
= ((a
1
)
n
)
1
Clearly (a
1
)
n
< a
1
>, and < a
1
> is a subgroup so it is closed under inverses,
thus ((a
1
)
n
)
1
< a
1
>.
20. Suppose that G is an Abelian group of order 35 and every element of G satises the
equation x
35
= e. Prove that G is cyclic. Does your argument work if 35 is replaced
with 33?
Let G be an Abelian group of order 35 where every element x G satises the equation
x
35
= e. By a corollary in chapter 4, this equation tells us that |x| divides 35. So,
|x| = 1, 5, 7, or 35.
If we nd an element of order 35, then that element will generate a cyclic subgroup of
order 35, and thus generate the whole set.
Suppose G has only elements of order 1 and 5, so every non-identity element has
order 5. Thus G has 34 elements of order 5. But this contradicts another corollary;
that in a nite group the number of elements of order d is divisible by (d). (5) = 4,
and 4 does not divide 34. So G cannot have only elements of order 1 and 5.
Now, suppose that G has only elements of order 1 and 7. Then G would have 34
elements of order 7. Again a contradiction: (7) = 6 and 6 does not divide 34. So G
cannot have only elements of 1 and 7.
Now, what if G has elements of orders 1, 5, 7. So G will have at least one element,
say a, of order 5 and one element, say b of order 7. Now we claim that the element
ab G will have order 35. There are four possibilities for the order of ab: 1, 5, 7, and 35.
First suppose that |ab| = 1. Then ab = e, and thus a = b
1
. But we know an element
and its inverse have the same order, so then |a| = |b
1
| = |b|, which is not true. So
|ab| = 1.
Suppose |ab| = 5. Then
(ab)
5
= e
a
5
b
5
= e since G is Abelian
eb
5
= e since a has order 5
b
5
= e
So the order of b must divide 5. 7 does not divide 5, so |ab| = 5.
Suppose |ab| = 7. Then similarly
(ab)
7
= e
a
7
b
7
= e
a
7
e = e
a
7
= e
So the order of a must divide 7. 5 does not divide 7, so |ab| = 7.
If |ab| cannot equal 1, 5, or 7 it must equal 35. Thus G =< ab >, and G is cyclic.
If 35 is replaced by 33, the possible orders of the elements of G are 1, 3, 11, and
33. So when we look at the possibility of G only having elements of order 1 and 3, we
see G will have 34 elements of order 3, and (3) = 2 which does divide 34. So we dont
reach the same contradiction. Our same argument will not work for 33.
22. Prove that a group of order 3 must be cyclic.
Let G be a group with three elements, and suppose that G is not cyclic. We know
G must have an identity element, e, and two non-identity elements, a and b. Since G
is not cyclic, the orders of a and b must be strictly less than 3, the order of G, but
they also must be strictly greater than 1, since a and b are not the identity. Thus
|a| = |b| = 2. We know G must be closed, so ab {e, a, b}. If ab = e, then ab
2
= b
which means a = b, since b
2
= e, which isnt true. If ab = a or ab = b cancellation
gives that b = e or a = e, which is also not true. Thus, ab / {e, a, b} so G is not closed
and hence, not a group. This is a contradiction, so G must be cyclic.
24. For any element a in any group G, prove that < a > is a subgroup of C(a).
Let G be a group and a G. We know both < a > and C(a) are subgroups of G,
meaning they are groups under the same operations as G. So, to show < a > C(a),
we need only show < a > is contained in C(a). Let a
n
< a > for some n Z. Does
a
n
commute with a?
(a
n
)a = a
n+1
= a(a
n
)
Thus, < a > C(a).
35. Determine the subgroup lattice for Z
p
n, where p is a prime and n is some positive in-
teger.
We know Z
p
n will have a subgroup for every divisor of p
n
, 1, p, p
2
, . . . , p
n
:
< 1 >
< p >
< p
2
>
< p
n1
>
< 0 >
62. Prove that H =
__
1 n
0 1
_
| n Z
_
is a cyclic subgroup of GL(2, R).
First we look at how the operation in GL(2, R) looks in our potential subgroup:
_
1 n
0 1
_ _
1 m
0 1
_
=
_
1 m + n
0 1
_
So, the multiplication of the matrices amounts to adding the entries in the upper right
corner. Thus,
_
1 1
0 1
_
k
=
_
1 k
0 1
_
for any k Z
Thus,
__
1 1
0 1
__
= H
Chapter 5
Practice Problems
3. What is the order of each of the following permutations?
(a) (124)(357)
|(124)(357)| = lcm(3, 3) = 3
(b) (124)(93567)
|(124)(93567)| = lcm(3, 5) = 15
(c) (124)(35)
|(124)(35)| = lcm(3, 2) = 6
(d) (124)(357869)
|(124)(357869)| = lcm(3, 6) = 6
(e) (1235)(24567)
|(1235)(24567)| = |(124)(3567)| = lcm(3, 4) = 12
(f) (345)(245)
|(345)(245)| = |(25)(34)| = lcm(2, 2) = 2
4. What is the order of each of the following permutations?
(a)
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 1 5 4 6 3
_

_
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 1 5 4 6 3
_

= |(12)(356)| = lcm(2, 3)
(b)
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 6 1 2 3 4 5
_

_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 6 1 2 3 4 5
_

= |(1753)(264)| = lcm(4, 3) = 12
5. What is the order of the product of a pair of disjoint cycles of length of 4 and 6?
lcm(4, 6) = 12
18. Let
=
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 3 4 5 1 7 8 6
_
=
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 3 8 7 6 5 2 4
_
Write , , and as
(a) products of disjoint cycles,
= (12345)(678)
= (23847)(56)
= (12345)(678)(238472)(56)
= (12485736)
(b) products of 2-cycles
= (15)(14)(13)(12)(68)(67)
= (27)(24)(28)(23)(56)
= (16)(13)(17)(15)(18)(14)(12)
Written Problems
10. Show that a function from a nite set S to itself is one-to-one if and only if it is onto.
Is it true when S is innite?
Well prove something even stronger: For S = {s
1
, s
2
, . . . s
n
} and T = {t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
n
}
and f : S T, f is one-to-one if and only if it is onto.
Well prove this by induction on the size of the sets S and T.
For n = 1, S = {s
1
} and T = {t
1
}. Clearly f : s
1
t
1
is one-to-one and onto.
So the our statement is true for the base case of n = 1.
Now, we assume that our statement is true for sets of size k 1, and show it must then
be true for k.
So let S = {s
1
, . . . , s
k
}, T = {t
1
, . . . t
k
}, and f : S T. Consider the sets S

= S\{s
k
}
and T

= T\{f(s
k
)}. Then f|
S
is a map from S

to T

, and S

and T

are size k 1.
(=) Suppose f is one-to-one. Then f|
S
is also one-to-one. By our induction hy-
pothesis, f|
S
is onto. Now, for any t
i
T, if t
i
T

, then there is some s

such
that f|
S
(s
j
) = f(s
j
) = t
i
, since f|
S
is onto T

. If t
i
/ T

, then t
i
must equal f(s
k
). So
for any t
i
T there is some s
j
S such that f(s
j
) = t
i
, so f is onto T.
(=) Suppose f is onto T. Let f(s
i
) = f(s
j
). If s
i
and s
j
are both elements of S

,
then the induction hypothesis implies s
i
= s
j
, since f|
S
is one-to-one. If both s
i
and
s
j
are not in S

, then s
i
= s
k
= s
j
. If s
i
S

and s
j
/ S

, then and f(s

.
But f(s
i
) = f|
S
(s
i
) T

, so f(s
j
) = f(s
i
). Thus, if f(s
i
) = f(s
j
), then s
i
= s
j
, and f
is one-to-one.
If f is a function from a nite set, S, to itself, then it is certainly a function be-
tween nite sets of the same size. So what weve proven implies that f is one-to-one if
and only if it is onto.