ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

HEAT ENGINE:-

It is an engine which converts Chemical Energy of the fuel into Heat (Thermal) Energy
which is then utilized to perform Mechanical Work.

CHEMICAL ENERGY HEAT ENERGY MECHANICAL ENERGY

[In Heat Engines, the mechanical work produced is Linear motion which is converted into
Rotational motion with the help of elements such as cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crank
etc.]

Heat Engines are mainly Classified into:-

(1) External Combustion (E.C) Engines:-

Here the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine cylinder. Eg:- Steam Engine

(2)Internal Combustion (I.C) Engines:-

Here the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder. Eg:- Petrol Engines &
Diesel Engines.

I.C ENGINES:-

I.C Engine is a type of Heat Engine, which converts Chemical Energy of the fuel into Heat
(Thermal) Energy which is then utilized to perform Mechanical Work.

The extensive applications of IC engines are in:-

• ROAD – Motor Cycles, Scooters, Cars, Buses, Trucks, Rickshaw.

• RAIL – Railway Engines.
• SEA – Boats, Ships, Submarines, Hovercrafts.
• AIR – Aircrafts, Helicopters.
• AGRICULTURE – Tractors, Harvesters, Tillers.
• CONSTRUCTION – Bulldozers, Cranes.

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IC Engines have revolutionized the Transport Sector, Agricultural Sector & Construction
Sector which are very important for the development of any country.

The reasons for the development and application of IC engines in different sectors are
because of:-

(1) High Efficiency (2) Light Weight (3) Compact (4) Mobile Application.

CLASSIFICATION OF I.C ENGINES:-

I.C Engines are classified according to:-

[1] Nature of Thermodynamic Cycle :-

• Otto cycle engine
• Diesel cycle engine
• Dual combustion cycle engine
[2] Type of Fuel used:-
• Petrol Engine
• Diesel Engine
• Gas Engine
• Bi-Fuel Engine
[3] Number of Strokes (Cycle of Operation):-
• Four Stroke Engine
• Two Stroke Engine
[4] Method of Ignition:-
• Spark Ignition (S.I) Engine
• Compression Ignition (C.I) Engine
[5] Number of Cylinders:-
• Single Cylinder Engine
• Multi-Cylinder Engine
[6] Position of Cylinder:-
• Horizontal Engine
• Vertical Engine
• V- Engine
• Opposed Cylinder Engine

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• Radial Engine
• In-Line Engine
[7] Method of Cooling (Cooling System):-
• Air cooled engine
• Water cooled engine
[8] Engine Speed:-
• Low Speed Engine
• Medium Speed Engine
• High Speed Engine
[9] Application:-
• Stationary Engine
• Automotive Engine
• Marine Engine
• Aircraft Engine
• Locomotive Engine

PARTS OF I.C ENGINE:-

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[1] CYLINDER:-
• It’s the heart of the engine and inside the cylinder the fuel is burnt and power
is developed.
• Inside diameter of the cylinder is called BORE.
• The Piston reciprocates inside the cylinder.
• The cylinder is made up of materials like Cast Iron or Steel or Aluminium
Alloys.
[2] CYLINDER HEAD:-
• It’s fitted on the top of the cylinder.
• A Gasket is provided between cylinder and cylinder head to prevent the
leakage of hot gases.
• It accommodates the Inlet and Exhaust Valves, Spark Plug or Fuel Injector.

[3] PISTON:-
• It’s a close fitting hollow-cylindrical plunger which reciprocates inside the
cylinder.
• The power which is developed by the combustion of fuel is transmitted by
piston to the crankshaft through the connecting rod.
[4] PISTON RINGS:-
• They are metallic rings inserted into the circumferential grooves provided at
the top end of the piston.
• They maintain a gas-tight joint between the piston and cylinder.
• They help in conducting heat from the piston to cylinder.

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[5] CONNECTING ROD:-

• It’s a link which connects the Piston & the Crankshaft by pin joints.
• It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the
crankshaft.
• Connecting Rod oscillates between the Piston & the Crank.

[6] CRANK:-
• It’s a lever connected between the connecting rod and the crankshaft.
[7] CRANKSHAFT:-
• It supports the crank and the flywheel.

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[8] CRANK CASE:-

• It’s the lower part of the engine.
• It covers the crankshaft.
• Its base serves as a reservoir (sump) for lubricating oil.
[9] INLET & OUTLET (EXHAUST) VALVES (POPPET VALVES):-
• They are control devices, which controls the flow of the inlet and exhaust
gases to the cylinder and from the cylinder.
• They are operated by means of Cams which is driven by crankshaft through
timing gear or chain drive.
• They are used in 4-stroke engines.

[10] CAMS:-
• They control the opening and closing of the Inlet and Exhaust valves.
• They are used in 4-stroke engines.
• They are rotated by camshaft and driven by crankshaft through gears.

[11] FLYWHEEL:-
• It’s a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine.
• It’s used as energy reservoir.
• It stores excess energy during power stroke and supplies energy during other
strokes.
• It keeps the fluctuations in the crankshaft speed within desirable limits.

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[12] SPARK PLUG:-

• It is fitted on the cylinder head of Petrol or S.I engine.
• It is used to initiate spark for igniting the Charge (Charge= Petrol + Air).

[13] INJECTOR:-
• It is fitted on the cylinder head of the Diesel or C.I engine.
• It’s used to spray a controlled quantity of diesel oil, which gets ignited by the
high temperature of air.

[14] PORTS (INLET, OUTLET & TRANSFER PORTS):-

• It is used only in 2-stroke engine.
• They are passages cut on the circumference of the engine cylinder wall.

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I.C ENGINE TERMINOLOGY:-

[1] BORE (d):- The inner diameter of the engine cylinder is called Bore.
[2] CRANK RADIUS (rc):- It’s the distance between the centre of the crankshaft and
the centre of the crank pin.
L
rc = Where L= Stroke Length
2
[3] DEAD CENTRES:-These are the two extreme positions of the piston.(Here the
connecting rod and the crank are in-line or straight position).
• COVER END or TOP DEAD CENTER (TDC):- The extreme position of the
piston near to the cover or the cylinder head of the engine is called as TDC.
• CRANK END or BOTTOM DEAD CENTER (BDC):- The extreme position of the
piston near to the crank is called BDC.
[4] STROKE (L):- It’s the linear distance travelled by the piston when it moves from
one end of the cylinder to the other end.
L = 2rc where rc = crank radius
[5] SWEPT VOLUME (VS) :- It’s the volume through which the piston sweeps
during a stroke.
𝜋
𝑉𝑠 = × 𝑑2 × 𝐿
4

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[6] CLEARANCE VOLUME (VC):- It’s the volume between the top of the piston
and the cylinder head when the piston is at TDC.
[7] COMPRESSION RATIO (C.R):- It’s a ratio of the Total cylinder volume to the
Clearance Volume.

𝑉𝑐+𝑉𝑠
𝐶. 𝑅 = where Vc = Clearance Volume
𝑉𝑐

Vs = Stroke Volume

For Petrol Engines C.R varies from 4:1 to 10:1.

For Diesel Engines C.R varies from 12:1 to 22:1.

FOUR-STROKE PETROL ENGINE:-

The four stroke petrol engine works on the principle of Theoretical Otto Cycle, which is also
known as Constant Volume Cycle. Here the piston performs the four strokes to complete one
working cycle.

The four different strokes performed by piston are:-

[1] Suction Stroke

[2] Compression Stroke
[3] Working or Power Stroke
[4] Exhaust Stroke

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The P-V diagram of Theoretical Otto Cycle is shown below:-

Theoretical Otto Cycle

From the Graph:-

A-B = Suction

B-C = Adiabatic Compression

C-D = Constant Volume Combustion

D-E = Adiabatic Expansion

E-B = Constant Volume Exhaust

B-A = Exhaust

( Meaning of terms used above:- Adiabatic = Heat Transfer rate is zero or no heat transfer )

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Four Stroke Petrol Engine:-

• The four stroke petrol engine consists of a Cylinder with one end fitted with a cover
and other end open.
• Cover provides the Inlet & Outlet (Exhaust) apertures or ports.
• The apertures or ports are opened and closed by mechanical operated valves
• Inlet Valve is used for Inlet aperture (port) and Exhaust Valve is used for Exhaust
aperture (port).
• Spark Plug is fitted at the top of the cover and it initiates the ignition of the fuel.
• A Piston reciprocates inside the cylinder and the Connecting Rod and Crank converts
the Reciprocating Motion of the Piston into Rotary Motion of the Crankshaft.

Working of Four Stroke Petrol Engine :-

[1] SUCTION STROKE:- During the Suction Stroke,

• Inlet valve is opened & Exhaust valve is closed.
• Piston moves from Cover End (TDC) to Crank End (BDC).
• Energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by “CRANKING”, only during the
first cycle of operation at the time of starting the engine, and while the engine is
running the energy is supplied by the flywheel.

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• At the beginning of this stroke the pressure inside the cylinder is atmospheric, when
the piston moves from TDC to BDC the volume inside the cylinder increases and the
pressure inside the cylinder decreases which sets up a Pressure Differential between
the atmosphere & inside the cylinder.
• There will be low pressure inside the cylinder and high pressure outside the cylinder.
• It is shown in the P-V diagram by the line A-B
• The downward moving piston sucks a mixture of air and petrol vapour into the
cylinder through the inlet valve.
• Because of Pressure differential the Charge (Mixture of Petrol+ Air) will be drawn
into the cylinder through the Carburetor.
• In this stroke the Crankshaft revolves by half rotation.
• At the end of this stroke the cylinder will be filled by the charge and the inlet valve
will be closed.
[2] COMPRESSION STROKE:- During the Compression Stroke,
• Both Inlet & Exhaust valves are closed.
• Piston moves from Crank End (BDC) to Cover End (TDC).
• Energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by “CRANKING”, only during the
first cycle of operation at the time of starting the engine, and while the engine is
running the energy is supplied by the flywheel.
• The piston then moves upwards, compressing the Petrol and Air mixture inside the
cylinder. The Compression Ratio in petrol engines is in the range of 1:7 to 1:11.
• This stroke is represented by the curve B-C in the P-V diagram which is Reversible
Adiabatic.
• At the end of this stroke the Charge (Mixture of Petrol+ Air) is Ignited by the electric
spark given out by the Spark Plug and this Constant Volume Combustion Process is
represented by the vertical line C-D in the P-V diagram.
• In this stroke the Crankshaft revolves by half rotation.

[3] WORKING OR POWER STROKE:- During the Working Stroke,

• Both Inlet & Exhaust valves are closed
• Piston moves from Cover End (TDC) to Crank End (BDC).
• Just before the piston reaches the top of the cylinder a spark from the spark plug
ignites the gas mixture.

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• The high pressure from the rapidly expanding gas pushes the piston down and causes
the crankshaft to rotate and also rotate the flywheel that it is connected to the
crankshaft.
• It is this rotation that is used to drive the wheels of the vehicle.
• During this Expansion stroke, there will be a drop in the pressure and increase in the
volume and it is shown in the P-V diagram by the curve D-E which is Reversible
Adiabatic.
• At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve opens and there will be a sudden drop in
the pressure and it is denoted by the vertical line E-B in P-V diagram which is
Constant Volume Exhaust.
• In this stroke the Crankshaft revolves by half rotation.

[4] EXHAUST STROKE:- During the Exhaust Stroke,

• Inlet valve is closed & Exhaust valve is opened.
• Piston moves from Crank End (BDC) to Cover End (TDC).
• Energy is supplied by the flywheel which stores the energy during power stroke.
• The piston moves upwards in the cylinder again to push out the gases through the
exhaust valve into the exhaust system of the vehicle.
• There will be high pressure inside the cylinder and low pressure outside the cylinder
and this pressure differential inside the cylinder and the atmosphere will push the
exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
• It is shown in the P-V diagram by the line B-A.
• In this stroke the Crankshaft revolves by half rotation.
• And once again as the piston moves down, it sucks more fuel/air mixture in to begin
the next new cycle.

Note:-

• It requires 4 strokes to complete one working cycle.

• Crankshaft makes two revolutions to complete one cycle.

• Power is developed in every alternate cycle.

• Four stroke petrol engines have higher load carrying capacity than Two stroke
engines.

• Used in Cars & some high power-high speed bikes.

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FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE:-

The Four Stroke Diesel Engine works on the principle of Theoretical Diesel Cycle, which is
also known as Constant Pressure Cycle. Here the piston performs the four strokes to complete
one working cycle.

The four different strokes performed by piston are:-

[1] Suction Stroke

[2] Compression Stroke
[3] Working or Power Stroke
[4] Exhaust Stroke

The P-V diagram of Theoretical Diesel Cycle is shown below:-

Theoretical Diesel Cycle

From the Graph:-

 A-B=Suction
 B-C=Adiabatic Compression
 C-D=Constant Pressure Combustion
 D-E=Adiabatic Expansion
 E-B=Constant Volume Exhaust
 B-A=Exhaust

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Four Stroke Diesel Engine :-

• The four stroke diesel engine consists of a Cylinder with one end fitted with a cover
and other end open.
• Cover provides the Inlet & Outlet (Exhaust) apertures or ports.
• The apertures or ports are opened and closed by mechanical operated valves
• Inlet Valve is used for Inlet aperture (port) and Exhaust Valve is used for Exhaust
aperture (port).
• Fuel Injector is fitted at the top of the cover and it is used to spray the fuel.
• A Piston reciprocates inside the cylinder and the Connecting Rod and Crank converts
the Reciprocating Motion of the Piston into Rotary Motion of the Crankshaft.

Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engine :-

SUCTION STROKE:-During the Suction Stroke,

• Inlet valve is opened & Exhaust valve is closed.

• Piston moves from Cover End (TDC) to Crank End (BDC).
• Energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by “CRANKING”, only during the
first cycle of operation at the time of starting the engine, and while the engine is
running the energy is supplied by the flywheel.
• At the beginning of this stroke the pressure inside the cylinder is atmospheric, when
the piston moves from TDC to BDC the volume inside the cylinder increases and the

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pressure inside the cylinder decreases which sets up a Pressure Differential between
the atmosphere & inside the cylinder.
• There will be low pressure inside the cylinder and high pressure outside the cylinder.
• It is shown in the P-V diagram by the line A-B
• The downward moving piston sucks the pure Air into the cylinder through the Air
Filter and the inlet valve.
• Because of Pressure differential the Air will be drawn into the cylinder through the
Air Filter and the inlet valve.
• In this stroke the Crankshaft revolves by half rotation.
• At the end of this stroke the cylinder will be filled by the Air and the inlet valve will
be closed.

COMPRESSION STROKE:-During the Compression Stroke,

• Both Inlet & Exhaust valves are closed.

• Piston moves from Crank End (BDC) to Cover End (TDC).
• Energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by “CRANKING”, only during the
first cycle of operation at the time of starting the engine, and while the engine is
running the energy is supplied by the flywheel.
• The piston then moves upwards, compressing Air inside the cylinder. The
Compression Ratio in Diesel engines is in the range of 1:20 to 1:22.
• The Compression Ratio is higher in Four Stroke Diesel engines than the Four Stroke
Petrol engines.
• This stroke is represented by the curve B-C in the P-V diagram which is Reversible
Adiabatic.
• At the end of this stroke the Air as it is being compressed gets heated up and therefore
its temperature will be increased, and the air will have attained a temperature greater
than the ignition temperature of the Diesel oil.
• At the end of this stroke, a metered quantity of Diesel oil is sprayed into the cylinder
through the Fuel Injector. The high temperature of Air ignites the diesel oil as soon as
it is sprayed. And it called as Auto-Ignition or Self-Ignition.
• And this Constant Pressure Combustion Process is represented by the horizontal line
C-D in the P-V diagram.
• In this stroke the Crankshaft revolves by half rotation.

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• Because in this engine the compressed air ignites the fuel so it is called as
Compression Ignition Engine or C.I engine.

WORKING OR POWER STROKE:-During the Working Stroke,

• Both Inlet & Exhaust valves are closed

• Piston moves from Cover End (TDC) to Crank End (BDC).
• Just before the piston reaches the top of the cylinder auto-ignition of the diesel oil
initiates the combustion and the hot gases are released.
• The burnt gases from the combustion of the diesel oil that is continuously injected
into the cylinder pushes the piston down and causes the crankshaft to rotate and also
rotate the flywheel that it is connected to the crankshaft.
• It is this rotation that is used to drive the wheels of the vehicle.
• During this Expansion stroke, there will be a drop in the pressure and increase in the
volume and it is shown in the P-V diagram by the curve D-E which is Reversible
Adiabatic.
• At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve opens and there will be a sudden drop in
the pressure and it is denoted by the vertical line E-B in P-V diagram which is
Constant Volume Exhaust.
• In this stroke the Crankshaft revolves by half rotation.

EXHAUST STROKE:-During the Exhaust Stroke,

• Inlet valve is closed & Exhaust valve is opened.

• Piston moves from Crank End (BDC) to Cover End (TDC).
• Energy is supplied by the flywheel which stores the energy during power stroke.
• The piston moves upwards in the cylinder again to push out the gases through the
exhaust valve into the exhaust system of the vehicle.
• There will be high pressure inside the cylinder and low pressure outside the cylinder
and this pressure differential inside the cylinder and the atmosphere will push the
exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
• It is shown in the P-V diagram by the line B-A.
• In this stroke the Crankshaft revolves by half rotation.
• And once again as the piston moves down, it sucks the air in to begin the next new
cycle.

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Note:-
 It requires 4 strokes to complete one working cycle.
 Crankshaft makes two revolutions to complete one cycle.
 Power is developed in every alternate cycle.
 Diesel engines have higher power than petrol engines.
 Used in Trucks, Buses, Tractors, Jeeps, Military Tanks, Ships, Submarines etc.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PETROL ENGINE & DIESEL ENGINE:-

PETROL (S.I) ENGINE DIESEL (C.I) ENGINE

 It works on Theoretical Otto Cycle  It works on Theoretical Diesel Cycle

(constant volume cycle) (constant pressure cycle).
 Fuel used is Petrol.  Fuel Used is Diesel.
 Petrol-Air mixture is drawn during  Only Air is drawn during suction
suction stroke. stroke.
 Low compression ratio ranging from  High compression ratio ranging from
7:1 to 12:1. 16:1 to 20:1.
 Spark plug is necessary to ignite the  No need for spark plug as
fuel-air mixture. compression temp is enough to ignite.
 Due to low pressure, thickness of  Due to high pressure, thickness of
parts is less. parts is more.
 High engine speed of about 3000 rpm  Low engine speed of about 500 to
1500 rpm.
 Weight of engine is less.  Weight of engine is more.
 Cost of engine is less.  Cost of engine is more.
 Thermal Efficiency is lower  Thermal Efficiency is higher
 Lower maintenance cost.  Higher maintenance cost.
 Easily started in cold weather.  Difficult to start in cold weather.
 Low power output.  High power output.
 Noise & Vibration is low.  Noise & Vibration is high.
 Used in Light duty vehicles  Used in Heavy duty vehicles
 Examples are Cars, scooters, motor  Examples are Trucks, Buses,
cycles etc Tractors, bulldozers etc.

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SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC):-

 Its defined as the amount of fuel consumed by an engine for one unit of energy that is
produced.

 SFC is used to express the fuel efficiency of an IC engine.

 It also measures the amount of fuel required to provide a given power for a given
period.

 Its expressed in kg/MJ or kg/KW-hr.

Simple IC engine Calculations:-

(1) INDICATED POWER:-

It is the power produced inside the cylinder & is calculated by finding the actual mean
effective pressure.

Actual Mean Effective Pressure (pm):-

𝒔×𝒂
𝒑𝒎 = (N/m2)
𝒍

Where a = Area of the actual indicator diagram, (sq.cm)

l = Base width of the indicator diagram, (cm)

s = Spring value of the spring used in the indicator, (N/m2/cm)

pm = Actual Mean Effective Pressure (N/m2)

Indicated Power of 4-stroke Engine:-

(Work produced by the piston/stroke or cycle) = (Mean force acting on the piston) × (Piston
displacement in one stroke)

(Work produced by the piston/stroke or cycle) = (pm × A) × (L) Nm

(Work produced by the piston/stroke or cycle) = pm × L× A Nm

(Work produced by the piston/min) = (Work produced by the piston/cycle) × (Number of

Cycles/min)

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(Work produced by the piston/min) = (pm × L× A) × (n)

(Work produced by the piston/min) = pm × L× A × n Nm/min

In a 4-stroke engine, one cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft.

Therefore Number of cycles per minute will be equal to half the number of revolutions per
minute for a 4-stroke engine. i.e n=N/2

(Work produced by the piston/min) = pm × L× A × N/2 Nm/min

pm×L×A×N
Therefore Indicated Power = Nm/sec or Joule/sec
60×2

pm×L×A×N
Indicated Power = Watt (W)
60×2

pm×L×A×N
Indicated Power = (kW)
60×2×1000

 When pmis expressed in N/m2the I.P is given by: I.P=(pm×L×A×n) / (60×2×1000) (kW)

𝐩𝐦 ×𝐋×𝐀×𝐍
𝐈. 𝐏 = 𝟔𝟎 ×𝟐×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 (kW)

No. of cycles per minute will be equal to half the number of revolutions per minute

 pm = Mean effective pressure (N/m2)

 L = length of stroke (m)

 A= Area of cross section of the cylinder (sq. m)

 N = RPM of the crankshaft

 n = Number of cycles per minute n=N/2

(2) BRAKE POWER:-

 I.P produced inside the cylinder will be transmitted through the piston, connecting rod
& crank.

 These mechanical parts will experience friction due to relative motion.

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 Because of friction a small amount of the I.P produced inside the cylinder will be lost.

 Therefore the net power available at the crank shaft will be equal to the difference
between the I.P and the power lost because of Friction.

 The net power available at the crank shaft will be equal to the difference between the
indicated power inside the engine cylinder and the power lost due to friction.

 The net power available at the crankshaft is measured by the application of Brake on
the Brake Drum so it’s called Brake Power.

 FRICTION POWER (FP) = INDICATED POWER (IP) – BRAKE POWER(BP)

𝟐 × 𝝅 ×𝑵 ×𝑻
𝑩. 𝑷 = (kW)
𝟔𝟎

𝟗.𝟖𝟏 ×𝑾 ×𝑹
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = 𝑻 = (kNm)
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

Note:-

When W is given in N (newton) then substitute for Torque as T= W×R (Unit:- Nm)

Or when torque is taken as T= (W×R)/1000 then (Unit:-kNm)

When W is given in Kg (kilogram) then substitute for Torque as T= 9.81×W×R (Unit:-Nm)

 W = Net load acting on the brake drum (kg)

 R = Radius of the brake drum (m)

 N = RPM of the crankshaft

 T = Torque applied due to the net load W on the Brake drum (kNm)

(3) MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY:-

 It’s the efficiency of the moving parts of the mechanism transmitting the indicated
power to the crank shaft.

 Its defined as the ratio of the B.P and the I.P.

𝐁.𝐏× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
 𝛈𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡 =
𝐈.𝐏

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(𝐈.𝐏 − 𝐅.𝐏)× 𝟏𝟎𝟎

 𝛈𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡 =
𝐈.𝐏

𝐁.𝐏× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
 𝛈𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡 =
(𝐁.𝐏 + 𝐅.𝐏)

(4) THERMAL EFFICIENCY:-

 It is the efficiency of conversion of the heat energy produced by the actual

combustion of the fuel into the power output of the engine.
 It’s defined as the ratio of the power developed by the engine to the heat supplied by
the fuel in the same interval of time.

𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝛈 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 =
𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐮𝐞𝐥

The power output to be used can be either brake power or indicated power,
accordingly the thermal efficiency will become brake thermal efficiency and indicated
thermal efficiency.

 Brake thermal efficiency:-

 It is defined as the ratio of brake power to the heat supplied by the fuel.

𝐁𝐫𝐚𝐤𝐞 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝛈 𝐁 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 =
𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐮𝐞𝐥

𝐁. 𝐏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝛈 𝐁 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 =
𝐂𝐕 × 𝐦

 Where m= mass of the fuel supplied (kg/s)

 CV= Calorific Value of the fuel (kJ/kg)

 BP = Brake Power (kW)

 Indicated thermal efficiency:-

 It is defined as the ratio of indicated power to the heat supplied by the fuel.

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𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝛈 𝐈 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 =
𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐮𝐞𝐥

𝐈. 𝐏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝛈 𝐈 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 =
𝐂𝐕 × 𝐦

 Where m= mass of the fuel supplied (kg/s)

 CV= Calorific Value of the fuel (kJ/kg)

 IP = Indicated Power (kW)

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ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

There are two methods employed for artificial cooling are:

i. Refrigeration
ii. Air conditioning

REFRIGERATION DEFINED:

Refrigeration is defined as a method of reducing the temperature of a system below

that of the surroundings and maintains it at the lower temperature by continuously abstracting
the heat from it.

PRINCIPLE OF REFRIGERATION:

In refrigeration, the heat is to be removed continuously from a system at a lower

temperature and transfer it to the surroundings at a higher temperature. This operation is
based on Second law of Thermodymanics and can be performed only by the aid of the
external work. Therefore, in a refrigerator, power is to be supplied to remove the heat
continuously from the refrigerator cabinet to keep it cool at a temperature less than the
atmospheric temperature.

REFRIGERANT:

In a refrigerator, a medium called refrigerant continuously extracts the heat from the
space within the refrigerator which is to be kept cool at temperatures less than the atmosphere
and finally rejects to it.

Ex: Ammonia, Freon, Methyl Chloride, CO2, SO2 etc,.

Refrigeration Concepts:

1) Heat flows from a system at higher temperature to another at lower

temperature.
2) Fluids by absorbing the heat, change from liquid phase to vapour phase and
subsequently condense by giving off the heat.
3) The boiling and freezing temperatures of a fluid depend on its pressure. When
a certain fluid at a very low pressure and temperature is compressed, even
though its pressure increases it may still be in the condensed state itself if its

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temperature is not increased to the saturation temperature corresponding to the

increased pressure.
4) Heat can flow from a system at low temperature to a system at higher
temperature by the aid of external work as per the Second law of
Thermodynamics

PARTS OF A REFRIGERATOR:

The main parts of the refrigerator are:

1. Evaporator 2. Condenser

3. Circulating System 4. Expansion Device

EVAPORATOR

CIRCULATING EXPANSION
SYSTEM DEVICE

CONDENSER

1. Evaporator:

→ Heart of the refrigerator

→ Liquid refrigerant is evaporated by the absorption of heat from the refrigerator cabinet
in which the substances to be cooled are kept.
→ It consists of metal tubing which surrounds around the freezing and cooling
compartments to produce the cooling effect required.
→ It is sometimes referred as cooling coil or freezer coil.

2. Circulating System:

→ It mainly comprises of mechanical devices such as compressors or pumps necessary

to circulate the refrigerant to undergo the refrigeration cycle.
→ They increase the pressure and hence temperature increases.

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→ These devices are driven by electric motors.

→ The electrical energy input to the motor is the energy input to the refrigerators.

3. Condenser:

→ It is a device in which the heat from the refrigerant is rejected at higher temperature to
another medium, usually atmospheric air.
→ In this, the refrigerant vapour gives off its heat to the air and hence condenses into
liquid so that it can be reticulated again.
→ The heat of the refrigerant that is given off in the condenser comprises mainly of the
heat absorbed in the refrigerator cabinet and the heat developed due to compression.

4. Expansion Device:

→ It serves as a device to reduce the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant before it
passes to the evaporator.

DEFINATIONS:

Refrigerating Effect: Is defined as, the rate at which the heat is absorbed in a cycle from the
interior space to be cooled.

Ton of Refrigeration: Is defined as, the quantity of heat absorbed in order to form one ton of
ice in 24 hours when the initial temperature of the water is 0°C.

Coefficient of Performance (COP):The COP of refrigeration system is defined as the ratio

of heat absorbed in a system to the work supplied.

If Q= Heat absorbed or removed, kW

W= Work supplied, kW

𝑸
𝑪𝑶𝑷 =
𝑾

Relative Coefficient of Performance (Relative COP):is defined asthe ratio of the Actual
COP to the Theoretical COP.

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍𝑪𝑶𝑷
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝑪𝑶𝑷 =
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝑪𝑶𝑷

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Refrigerator and refrigeration:A refrigerator is a machine by means of which cold can be

produced and refrigeration is a process of removal of heat from a substance at a temperature
lower than the surroundings with the aid of external work.

Types of refrigeration:

1. Air refrigerator
2. Vapour Compression Refrigerator
3. Vapour Absorption Refrigerator

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR:

Principle:

→ Vapour is mainly used as refrigerant.

→ It is circulated through the system where it alternately evaporates and condenses, thus
changing its phase from liquid to vapor and back to liquid.
→ During evaporation it absorbs heat from system and gives off heat while
condensation.
→ Hence a vapour compression system makes use of mechanical energy supplied to the
compressor to run refrigerator.

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Operation:

→ It consists of an evaporator made of coiled tubes at freezing compartment which is

connected to the suction side of compressor and throttle valve.
→ The delivery side of compressor is connected to condenser which is in turn connected
to throttle valve.
→ The objective of the compressor in the system is to draw vapour from the evaporator
and compress them to high pressure so that the saturation temperature corresponding
to this pressure is higher than that of cooling medium in the condenser, hence the heat
can be easily rejected.
→ The refrigerant at low pressure and temperature passing in evaporated coiled tubes
absorbs heat from system and evaporates.
→ This will lower temperature of freezing compartment.

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→ This low pressure vapour is drawn by a compressor which compresses it to high

pressure to increase its saturation temperature more than that of cooling medium in
condenser.
→ This high pressure-high temperature refrigerant vapour from the compressor flows to
condenser.
→ Here it gives off its heat to atmospheric air.
→ As a result of loss of heat in condenser, the refrigerant condenses.
→ The high pressure condensed liquid refrigerant now flows to the throttle valve.
→ Here it expands to low pressure-low temperature liquid refrigerant.
→ This is then passed to evaporator coils for recirculation once again.

VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION:

Principle:

→ This system makes use of ability of substance called absorbent, to absorb the large
volumes of vapour of refrigerant even when cold and reduce it to liquid, and
subsequently give off its vapour when heated.
→ Water has the ability and used as absorbent.
→ Ammonia is used as refrigerant.
→ Thus absorption system makes use of heat energy to change the state of refrigerant
required in the cycle.
→ A pump is used to circulate the refrigerant in the cycle.

Operation:

→ It consists of an absorber, a circulation pump, heat exchanger, heater-separator,

condenser, expansion valve and evaporation coiled tubes.
→ Dry ammonia vapour from evaporator tubes is dissolved in cold water contained in
the absorber.
→ It will produce a strong ammonia solution.
→ A circulation pump draws the strong ammonia solution from absorber and pumps it to
heat exchanger.
→ Here it is warmed by the warm weak ammonia solution which is flowing back from
heater-separator.

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→ The heater-separator is provided with cooling coils.

→ The heating coil heats the strong ammonia solution.
→ While heating the high pressure strong ammonia solution it will drive out the
ammonia vapour from it.
→ Hence the solution in heater-separator becomes weak which in turn flows back to the
heat exchanger where it warms up the strong ammonia solution passing through it.
→ Hence the solution in heater-separator becomes weak which in turn flows back to the
heat exchange where it warms up the strong ammonia solution passing through it.
→ The high pressure ammonia vapour from the heater-separator now passes to a
condenser where it condenses.
→ The high pressure liquid ammonia liquid is now expanded to a low pressure and low
temperature in the throttle valve.
→ The low pressure- low temperature ammonia liquid is passed into the evaporator coils
provided in the freezing compartment, where it absorbs the heat and evaporates.
→ The low pressure ammonia vapour from the freezing compartment is passed again to
the absorber where it is reabsorbed by dissolving in water.
→ The strong low pressure ammonia solution from the absorber is again recirculated to
repeat the cycle continuously.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN VAPOUR COMPRESSION AND ABSORPTION

SYSTEM:

SL NO Principle Vapour compression system Vapour absorption system

1 Working Method Refrigerant Vapour is Refrigerant Vapour is
compressed absorbed and heated
2 Type of Energy Works solely on Works solely on heat energy
supplied Mechanical energy
3 Work or mechanical Mechanical energy required Mechanical energy required
energy supplied is more because refrigerant to run the pump is less since
vapours are compressed to the pump is required only to
high pressure circulate the refrigerant
4 COP Although the COP is Although the COP is
relatively higher, it reduces relatively lower, it will be
at part load. more or less same at part or

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full loads.
5 Capacity The design capacity is The absorption systems can
limited since a single be designed to capacities
compressor unit can well above 1000 tons.
produce upto 1000 tons of
refrigeration.
6 Noise Noise is more due to the Almost quite in operation as
presence of the compressor. there is no compressor.

7 Refrigerant Freon-12 Ammonia

8 Leakage of Due to high pressures, the Almost there is no leakage of
Refrigerant chance of leakage of the the refrigerant.
refrigerant are more and is a
major problem.
9 Maintainance The maintenance is high The maintenance is less.
because of the compressor
10 Operating Cost The operating cost is high The operating cost is less
since the electrical energy is because the thermak energy
expensive. can be supplied from sources
other than the electrical
energy required to run the
pump is relatively less.

REFRIGERANTS COMMONLY USED IN PRACTICE:

The most commonly used refrigerants are:

1. Ammonia: in vapour absorption refrigerator.

2. Carbon dioxide: in marine refrigerators.
3. Sulphur dioxide: in house hold refrigerators.
4. Methyl chloride: in small scale refrigeration and domestic refrigerators.
5. Freon-12: in domestic vapour compression refrigerators.
6. Freon-22: in Air conditioners.

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Ammonia:

→ Is employed in refrigerators operating on the absorption refrigeration.

→ It has high latent heat (1300 kJ/kg at -15°C) and low specific volume (0.509 m3/kg
at -15°C) so it produces high refrigeration effects.
→ It will not harm the ozone and it is environmental friendly.
→ It is widely used in cold storage, ice making plants etc.
→ It is toxic, flammable, irritating and has food destroying properties.

Carbon dioxide:

→ Not used in domestic refrigerators as efficiency is low.

→ Used in dry ice making plants.
→ It is colourless, odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable and non-corrosive.

Sulphur dioxide:

→ It has better thermodynamic properties.

→ But it has low refrigeration effect and high specific volume; hence it requires large
capacity high speed compressors.
→ It combines with water and forms sulfurous and sulfuric acid which are corrosive to
metals. Therefore, SO2 is not used.

Methyl Chloride:

→ It was used earlier in domestic and small scale industrial refrigerators.

→ It burns under some conditions and slightly toxic, hence not generally used.

Freon:

→ Is used almost universally in domestic refrigerators.

→ They are colourless, odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable, non-explosive and non-
corrosive.
→ Freon-12 is commonly used in domestic refrigerators.
→ Freon-22 is used in Air conditioners.

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→ Even though it is being used extensively as refrigerants, it has been found that these
refrigerants are posing a major threat to the global environment through their role in
the destruction of the ozone layer

PROPERTIES OF A GOOD REFRIGERANT:

1. Boiling Point: An ideal refrigerant must have low boiling temperature at atmospheric
pressure.
2. Freezing Point: An ideal refrigerant must have a very low freezing point because the
refrigerant should not freeze at low evaporator temperatures.
3. Evaporator and Condenser Pressure: In order to avoid the leakage of the
refrigerant to atmospheric air, both the evaporator and condenser pressures should be
slightly above the atmospheric pressure.
4. Latent heat of Evaporation:The latent heat of evaporation must be very high so that
a minimum amount of refrigerant will accomplish the desired result; in other words, it
increases the refrigeration effect.
5. Specific Volume: The specific volume of the refrigerant must be very low. The lower
specific volume of the refrigerant at the suction of the compressor reduces the size of
the compressor.
6. Specific heat of liquid and vapour:A good refrigerant must have low specific heat
when it is in liquid state and high specific heat when it is vaporized. The low specific
heat of the refrigerant helps in sub-cooling of the liquid and high specific heat of the
vapour helps in decreasing the superheating of the vapour. Both these desirable
properties increase the refrigerating effect.
7. Viscosity:The viscosity of a refrigerant at both the liquid and vapour states must be
very low as it improves the heat transfer and reduces the pumping pressure.
8. Toxicity:A good refrigerant should be non-toxic, because any leakage of the toxic
refrigerant increases suffocation and poisons the atmosphere.
9. Corrosiveness:A good refrigerant should be non-corrosive to prevent the corrosion of
the metallic parts of the refrigerators.
10. Chemical stability:An ideal refrigerant must not decompose under operating
conditions.
11. Coefficient of Performance:The coefficient of performance of a refrigerant must be
high so that the energy spent in refrigeration will be less.
12. Odour: A good refrigerant must be odourless.

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13. Leakage Tests:The refrigerant must be such that any leakage can be detected by
simple tests.
14. Action of lubricating Oil: A good refrigerant must not react with the lubricating oil
used in lubricating the parts of the compressor.

AIR CONDITIONER AND PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING:

Principle:

→ An air conditioner continuously draws the air from an indoor space ot be cooled.
→ It cools it by the refrigeration principles and discharges back into the same indoor
space to be cooled.
→ This cycle of drawing, cooling and recirculation of the cooled air keeps the indoor
space to cool at the required lower temperature needed for comfort cooling.

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Construction:

→ It mainly consists of an evaporator, condenser, compressor, two fans one each for
the evaporator and condenser, capillary tube etc.,
→ The capillary tube acts as the expansion device.
→ It is generally mounted on a window sill such that the evaporator unit is inside the
room and the condenser part projecting outside the building.

Working:

→ The high pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant from condenser is passed to
evaporator coils through capillary tube where it undergoes expansion.
→ The capillary tube is used as an expansion device.
→ The low pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant passes through evaporator coils.
→ The evaporator fan continuously draws air from interior space within the room and
forcing it to pass over evaporator coils.
→ The air from the interior space passing over the evaporator coils is cooled by
refrigerant which evaporates by absorbing heat from the air.

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→ The high temperature evaporated refrigerant from evaporator is drawn to suction side
of compressor which compresses it and delivers it to condenser.
→ The high pressure, high temperature refrigerant vapour now flows through the
condenser coils.
→ The condenser fans draw the atmospheric air from the exposed side portions of the
AC.
→ The high pressure, high temperature refrigerant passing inside the condenser coils
condenses by giving off heat to atmospheric air.
→ The cooled high pressure refrigerant from the condenser passes through the capillary
tube where it undergoes expansion and the cycle repeats.

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