Differences between Mobile Communication and Mobile Computing

Mobile computing enables connecting portable devices to wireless

networks to access data and use services while moving. Mobile communication
involves the infrastructure that is used to wirelessly transmit and receive data
between devices seamlessly and safely.
Both mobile communication and mobile computing involve wireless data
transfer. The difference is in the kind of data being transferred, and the kind of
service being provided.
The prevailing definition of mobile communication is any kind of
communication that is done over a mobile phone interface. People often use
the terms "mobile communication" and "wireless communication" somewhat
interchangeably. The main idea, though, is that mobile communication implies
voice communication, and unless someone who is talking about mobile
communication specifies data, many readers or listeners assume they’re talking
about voice communications.
By contrast, the term mobile computing specifically involves the kinds of
data transfer that we think of as data, not voice. Telecom providers have done
a good job of distinguishing between these two types of services, traditionally
separating data from voice charges and vice versa. That makes sense, because
the inherent structures for sending either voice or data communications are
different, even though voice has become much more like data as analog
systems are replaced by digital ones.
Another interesting point is that there’s a different time frame for mobile
communications compared to mobile computing. Anyone who understands the
history of the telecom industry through the last 20 years will be familiar with
the fact that individual consumers were using cell phones long before they
were able to use them for mobile computing. First, big telecom companies set
up dedicated wireless networks used to send voice communications and data
packets through wireless networking systems. These were significantly different
from the global IP network or Internet we can access today via a smartphone.
It’s only recently that telecom companies have been able to provide more and
more data through these same systems, which has led to the common use of
mobile devices to stream movies, respond to emails, or accomplish other
digital tasks, many of which are Internet-based.
 It’s also important to note that these modern mobile computer tasks are
different from SMS text messaging, which predated them by several years. SMS
text messaging is a significantly different service than mobile computing
because it only offers the ability to send character-based text messages instead
of voice through a particular interface. New mobile computing services, on the
other hand, allow for different kinds of data manipulation and two-way digital
communication. For a very evident example of the difference between mobile
communications and mobile computing, take a "pre-smartphone" cell phone
and set it next to a modern iPhone, Android or other smartphone. The
difference in layout and interface is a physical example of the difference
between a phone that offers mobile communications, and one that offers
mobile computing.
Mobile computing
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and
video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to
be connected to a fixed physical link.
It is the process of computation on a mobile device. In mobile computing, a set
of distributed computing systems or service provider servers participate,
connect, and synchronise through mobile communication protocols.

Mobile computing is a generic term describing ability to use the technology to

wirelessly connect to and use centrally located information and/or application
software through the application of small, portable, and wireless computing
and communication devices. It provides decentralized (distributed)
computations on diversified devices, systems, and networks, which are mobile,
synchronized, and interconnected via mobile communication standards and
protocols. Mobile device does not restrict itself to just one

application, such as, voice communication.

The main concept involves −

· Mobile communication

· Mobile hardware

· Mobile software

Mobile communication
The mobile communication in this case, refers to the infrastructure put in place
to ensure that seamless and reliable communication goes on. These would
include devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals necessary
to facilitate and support the stated services. The data format is also defined at
this stage. This ensures that there is no collision with other existing systems
which offer the same service.

Since the media is unguided / unbounded, the overlaying infrastructure is

basically radio wave-oriented. That is, the signals are carried over the air to
intended devices that are capable of receiving and sending similar kinds of
signals.

Mobile Hardware

Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that receive or

access the service of mobility. They would range from portable laptops, smart
phones, tablet Pc's, Personal Digital Assistants.

These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of sensing and
receiving signals. These devices are configured to operate in full- duplex,
whereby they are capable of sending and receiving signals at the same time.

They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating for the
other device to initiate communications. Above mentioned devices use an
existing and established network to operate on. In most cases, it would be a
wireless network.

Mobile software
Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware. It
deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is
the engine of the mobile device. In other terms, it is the operating system of
the appliance. It's the essential component that operates the mobile device.
vice.

Since portability is the main factor, this type of computing ensures that users
are not tied or pinned to a single physical location, but are able to operate from
anywhere. It incorporates all aspects of wireless communications.

Evolution of Mobile Computing

In today's computing world, different technologies have emerged. These have
grown to support the existing computer networks all over the world. With
mobile computing, we find that the need to be confined within one physical
location has been eradicated. We hear of terms such as telecommuting, which
is being able to work from home or the field but at the same time accessing
resources as if one is in the office.

The advent of portable computers and laptops, Personal Digital Assistants

(PDA), PC tablets and smart phones, has in turn made mobile computing very
convenient. The portability of these devices ensure and enable the users to
access all services as if they were in the internal network of their company. For
example, the use of Tablet PC and iPads. This new technology enables the users
to update documents, surf the internet, send and receive e-mail, stream live
video files, take photographs and also support video and voice conferencing.

The constant and ever increasing demand for superior and robust smart
devices has been a catalyst for market share. Each manufacturer is trying to
carve a niche for himself in the market. These devices are invented and
innovated to provide state-of-the-art applications and services. For instance,
different manufacturers of cellular phones have come up with unique smart
phones that are capable of performing the same task as computers and at the
same processing speed.

The market share for different competitors is constantly being fought for. For
example, the manufacturers of Apple's iPhone OS, Google's Android' Microsoft
Windows Mobile, Research In Motion's Blackberry OS, are constantly
competing to offer better products with each release.

The need for better, portable, affordable, and robust technology has made
these vendors to constantly be innovative. Market figure and statistics show an
ever growing need to purchase and use such devices for either professional or
personal use. It is in this light that services to suit long-term implementation
are developed or innovated. It has also pushed other industry vendors to adopt
services that will provide better services.

For example, cellular service providers are forced to improve and be innovative
to capture more subscribers. This can be in terms of superior services such as
high speed internet and data access, voice and video service etc. Hence the
adoption of different generations of networks like of 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G network
services.

The essence of mobile computing is to be able to work from any location. The
use of iPads, tablets, smart phones, and notebooks have pushed the demand
for these devices. Modern day workers have such devices that enable them to
carry out their work from the confines of their own location. These devices are
configured to access and store large amounts of vital data.

Executive and top management can take decisions based on ready information
without going to the office. For example, sales reports and market forecasts
can be accessed through these devices or a meeting can take place via video or
audio conferencing through these devices. With such features being high in
demand, manufacturers are constantly coming up with applications geared to
support different services in terms of mobile computing.

Advantages of Mobile Computing

Location Flexibility

This has enabled users to work from anywhere as long as there is a connection
established. A user can work without being in a fixed position. Their mobility
ensures that they are able to carry out numerous tasks at the same time and
perform their stated jobs.

Saves Time

The time consumed or wasted while travelling from different locations or to the
office and back, has been slashed. One can now access all the important
documents and files over a secure channel or portal and work as if they were
on their computer. It has enhanced telecommuting in many companies. It has
also reduced unnecessary incurred expenses.

Enhanced Productivity

Users can work efficiently and effectively from whichever location they find
comfortable. This in turn enhances their productivity level.

Ease of Research

Research has been made easier, since users earlier were required to go to the
field and search for facts and feed them back into the system. It has also made
it easier for field officers and researchers to collect and feed data from
wherever they are without making unnecessary trips to and from the office to
the field.

Entertainment
Video and audio recordings can now be streamed on-the-go using mobile
computing. It's easy to access a wide variety of movies, educational and
informative material. With the improvement and availability of high speed data
connections at considerable cost, one is able to get all the entertainment they
want as they browse the internet for streamed data. One is able to watch
news, movies, and documentaries among other entertainment offers over the
internet. This was not possible before mobile computing dawned on the
computing world.

Streamlining of Business Processes

Business processes are now easily available through secured connections.

Looking into security issues, adequate measures have been put in place to
ensure authentication and authorization of the user accessing the services.

Some business functions can be run over secure links and sharing of
information between business partners can also take place. Meetings, seminars
and other informative services can be conducted using video and voice
conferencing. Travel time and expenditure is also considerably reduced.

Disadvantages of Mobile Computing

Quality of Connectivity

One of the disadvantages is that the mobile devices will need either WiFi
connectivity or mobile network connectivity such as GPRS, 3G and in some
countries even 4G connectivity that is why this is a disadvantage because if you
are not near any of these connections your access to the internet is very
limited.

Security Concerns

Mobile VPNs are unsafe to connect to, and also syncing devices might also lead
to security concerns. accessing a WiFi network can also be risky because WPA
and WEP security can be bypassed easily.

Power Consumption
Due to the use of batteries in these devices, these do not tend to last long, if in
a situation where there is no source of power for charging then that will
certainly be a let down.
Emergency Services

Ability to receive information on the move is vital where the emergency

services are involved. Information regarding the address, type and other details
of an incident can be dispatched quickly, via a CDPD system using mobile
computers, to one or several appropriate mobile units which are in the vicinity
of the incident. Here the reliability and security implemented in the CDPD
system would be of great advantage.

For Estate Agents

Estate agents can work either at home or out in the field. With mobile
computers they can be more productive. They can obtain current real estate
information by accessing multiple listing services, which they can do from
home, office or car when out with clients. They can provide clients with
immediate feedback regarding specific homes or neighbourhoods, and with
faster loan approvals, since applications can be submitted on the spot.
Therefore, mobile computers allow them to devote more time to clients.
Emergency Services

Ability to receive information on the move is vital where the emergency

services are involved. Information regarding the address, type and other details
of an incident can be dispatched quickly, via a CDPD system using mobile
computers, to one or several appropriate mobile units which are in the vicinity
of the incident. Here the reliability and security implemented in the CDPD
system would be of great advantage.
In courts

Defence counsels can take mobile computers in court. When the opposing
counsel references a case which they are not familiar, they can use the
computer to get direct, real-time access to on-line legal database services,
where they can gather information on the case and related precedents.
Therefore mobile computers allow immediate access to a wealth of
information, making people better informed and prepared.

In companies

Managers can use mobile computers in, say, critical presentations to major
customers. They can access the latest market share information. At a small
recess, they can revise the presentation to take advantage of this information.
They can communicate with the office about possible new offers and call
meetings for discussing responds to the new proposals. Therefore, mobile
computers can leverage competitive advantages.
Stock Information Collation/Control

In environments where access to stock is very limited i.e.: factory warehouses.

The use of small portable electronic databases accessed via a mobile computer
would be ideal. Data collated could be directly written to a central database,
via a CDPD network, which holds all stock information hence the need for
transfer of data to the central computer at a later date is not necessary. This
ensures that from the time that a stock count is completed, there is no
inconsistency between the data input on the portable computers and the
central database.

Credit Card Verification

At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets, when customers
use credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication required between
the bank central computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification
of the card usage, can take place quickly and securely over cellular channels
using a mobile computer unit. This can speed up the transaction process and
relieve congestion at the POS terminals.

Taxi/Truck Dispatch

Using the idea of a centrally controlled dispatcher with several mobile units
(taxis), mobile computing allows the taxis to be given full details of the
dispatched job as well as allowing the taxis to communicate information about
their whereabouts back to the central dispatch office. This system is also
extremely useful in secure deliveries ie: Securicor. This allows a central
computer to be able to track and receive status information from all of its
mobile secure delivery vans. Again, the security and reliability properties of the
CDPD system shine through.
Electronic Mail/Paging

Usage of a mobile unit to send and read emails is a very useful asset for any
business individual, as it allows him/her to keep in touch with any colleagues as
well as any urgent developments that may affect their work. Access to the
Internet, using mobile computing technology, allows the individual to have vast
arrays of knowledge at his/her fingertips. Paging is also achievable here, giving
even more intercommunication capability between individuals, using a single
mobile computer device.
 UNIT II
3G AND 4G CELLULAR NETWORKS
What is UMTS?
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is a third-generation
(3G) mobile communication technology developed based on 3GPP
standards. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) operates by
utilizing a broader radio spectrum, allowing for the transmission of more data
at higher speeds.
How Does UMTS Work?
 Core Network Architecture:
o UMTS consists of three major parts:
o User Equipment (UE): These are the mobile devices
(like smartphones) used by subscribers.
o Access Network: This includes base stations (Node Bs) and
controllers (Radio Network Controllers or RNCs).
o Core Network: Manages call routing, authentication, and
other services.
o These components work together to transfer data through the
UMTS mobile network.
  WCDMA Technology:
o UMTS employs WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple
Access) as its underlying air interface technology.
o WCDMA allows multiple users to share the same frequency band
simultaneously.
o Unlike GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), which
used a mix of FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple
Access) and TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access).
 Packet-Switched System
o UMTS relies on a packet-switched system, where cellular devices
send small “packets” of data to a destination.
o This is different from circuit-switched networks, which require a
dedicated point-to-point connection for voice calls.
o The packet-switched approach allows efficient data transfer and
better utilization of network resources.

Features of UMTS
 UMTS could be a component of IMT-2000 standard of the Universal
Broadcast communications Union (ITU), created by 3GPP.
 It employments wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA)
discuss interface.
  It gives transmission of content, digitized voice, video and multimedia.
 It gives tall transmission capacity to portable operators.
 It gives a tall information rate of 2Mbps.
 For High-Speed Downlink Parcel Get to (HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate
is as tall as 7.2 Mbps within the downlink connection.
 It is additionally known as Flexibility of Mobile Multimedia Access
(FOMA).
Advantages of UMTS
 UMTS could be a successor to 2G based GSM advances counting GPRS
and EDGE . Gaining a 3rd title 3GSM since it could be a 3G relocation
for GSM
 Support 2Mbit/s information rates.
 Higher Information rates at lower incremental costs.
 Benefits of programmed universal wandering also necessarily security
and charging capacities, permitting administrators emigrate from 2G to
3G whereas holding numerous of their existing back-office frameworks
 Gives administrators the adaptability to present unused mixed media
administrations to trade clients and buyers
 This not as it were gives client a valuable phone but moreover
deciphers higher incomes for the administrator.
Disadvantages of UMTS
 It is more expensive than GSM.
 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System has poor video
experience.
 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System still not broadband.
Applications of UMTS
 Streaming / Download (Video, Audio)
 Videoconferences.
 Fast Internet / Intranet.
  Mobile E-Commerce (M-Commerce)
 Remote Login
 Background Class applications
 Multimedia-Messaging, E-Mail
 FTP Access
 Mobile Entertainment (Games)
Comparison of GSM and UMTS

Features GSM UMTS

Network Circuit- Circuit-switched and packet-

Architecture switched switched

Radio Access FDMA and

Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)
Technology TDMA

Bandwidth 200 kHz 5 MHz

Up to 384 Up to 2 Mbps for HSDPA; up to 7.2

Data Rate
kbps Mbps for HSDPA

Applications Voice and SMS Multimedia applications

Roaming Support Limited Automatic international roaming

Video Quality Poor Improved compared to GSM

Cost Affordable More expensive than GSM

Features GSM UMTS

Not
Broadband Offers broadband capabilities
broadband
 UNIT III SENSOR AND MESH NETWORKS
Pervasive computing, also called ubiquitous computing, is the growing trend
of embedding computational capability (generally in the form of
microprocessors) into everyday objects to make them effectively
communicate and perform useful tasks in a way that minimizes the end user's
need to interact with computers as computers. Pervasive computing devices
are network-connected and constantly available.
Unlike desktop computing, pervasive computing can occur with any device, at
any time, in any place and in any data format across any network and can
hand tasks from one computer to another as, for example, a user moves from
his car to his office. Pervasive computing devices have evolved to include:
 laptops;
 notebooks;
 smartphones;
 tablets;
 wearable devices;
 and sensors (for example, on fleet management and pipeline
components, lighting systems, appliances).
Often considered the successor to mobile computing, ubiquitous computing
generally involves wireless communication and networking technologies,
mobile devices, embedded systems, wearable computers, radio frequency ID
(RFID) tags, middleware and software agents. Internet capabilities, voice
recognition and artificial intelligence (AI) are often also included.
How ubiquitous computing is used
Pervasive computing applications have been designed for consumer use and
to help people do their jobs.
An example of pervasive computing is an Apple Watch that alerts the user to
a phone call and allows the call to be completed through the watch. Another
example is when a registered user for Audible, Amazon's audio book server,
starts his or her book using the Audible app on a smartphone on the train
and continues listening to the book through Amazon Echo at home.
An environment in which devices, present everywhere, are capable of some
form of computing can be considered a ubiquitous computing environment.
Industries spending money on research and development (R&D) for
ubiquitous computing include the following:
 energy
 entertainment
 healthcare
 logistics
 military
Importance
Because pervasive computing systems are capable of collecting, processing
and communicating data, they can adapt to the data's context and activity.
That means, in essence, a network that can understand its surroundings and
improve the human experience and quality of life.
History
Ubiquitous computing was first pioneered at the Olivetti Research Laboratory
in Cambridge, England, where the Active Badge, a "clip-on computer" the size
of an employee ID card, was created, enabling the company to track the
location of people in a building, as well as the objects to which they were
attached.
Caption: This diagram of pervasive computing shows the role of sensors and
other low-power embedded devices in pervasive computing.
Mark Weiser, largely considered the father of ubiquitous computing, and his
colleagues at Xerox PARC soon thereafter began building early incarnations of
ubiquitous computing devices in the form of "tabs," "pads" and "boards."
Weiser described the concept of ubiquitous computing thusly:
Inspired by the social scientists, philosophers and anthropologists at PARC,
we have been trying to take a radical look at what computing and networking
ought to be like. We believe that people live through their practices and tacit
knowledge, so that the most powerful things are those that are effectively
invisible in use. This is a challenge that affects all of computer science. Our
preliminary approach: Activate the world. Provide hundreds of wireless
computing devices per person per office of all scales (from 1" displays to wall-
sized). This has required new work in operating systems, user interfaces,
networks, wireless, displays and many other areas. We call our work
'ubiquitous computing.' This is different from PDAs [personal digital
assistants], Dynabooks or information at your fingertips. It is invisible,
everywhere computing that does not live on a personal device of any sort,
but is in the woodwork everywhere.
He later wrote:
For 30 years, most interface design, and most computer design, has been
headed down the path of the 'dramatic' machine. Its highest ideal is to make
a computer so exciting, so wonderful, so interesting, that we never want to
be without it. A less-traveled path I call the 'invisible': its highest ideal is to
make a computer so imbedded, so fitting, so natural, that we use it without
even thinking about it. (I have also called this notion 'ubiquitous computing,'
and have placed its origins in postmodernism.) I believe that, in the next 20
years, the second path will come to dominate. But this will not be easy; very
little of our current system's infrastructure will survive. We have been
building versions of the infrastructure-to-come at PARC for the past four years
in the form of inch-, foot- and yard-sized computers we call tabs, pads and
boards. Our prototypes have sometimes succeeded, but more often failed to
be invisible. From what we have learned, we are now exploring some new
directions for ubicomp, including the famous 'dangling string' display.
The term pervasive computing followed in the late 1990s, largely popularized
by the creation of IBM's pervasive computing division. Though synonymous
today, Professor Friedemann Mattern of the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in Zurich noted in a 2004 paper that:
Weiser saw the term 'ubiquitous computing' in a more academic and
idealistic sense as an unobtrusive, human-centric technology vision that will
not be realized for many years, yet [the] industry has coined the term
'pervasive computing' with a slightly different slant. Though this also relates
to pervasive and omnipresent information processing, its primary goal is to
use this information processing in the near future in the fields of electronic
commerce and web-based business processes. In this pragmatic variation --
where wireless communication plays an important role alongside various
mobile devices such as smartphones and PDAs -- ubiquitous computing is
already gaining a foothold in practice.
Pervasive computing and the internet of things
The internet of things (IoT) has largely evolved out of pervasive computing.
Though some argue there is little or no difference, IoT is likely more in line
with pervasive computing rather than Weiser's original view of ubiquitous
computing.
Like pervasive computing, IoT-connected devices communicate and provide
notifications about usage. The vision of pervasive computing is computing
power widely dispersed throughout daily life in everyday objects. IoT is on its
way to providing this vision and turning common objects into connected
devices, yet, as of now, requires a great deal of configuration and human-
computer interaction -- something Weiser's ubiquitous computing does not.
IoT can employ wireless sensor networks. These sensor networks collect data
from devices' individual sensors before relaying them to IoT's server. In one
application of the technology, such as when collecting data on how much
water is leaking from a city's water mains, it may be useful to collect data
from the wireless sensor network first. In other cases, for example, wearable
computing devices, such as an Apple Watch, the collection and processing of
data is better sent directly to a server on the internet in which the computing
technology is centralized.
Advantages of pervasive computing
As described above, pervasive computing requires less human interaction
than a ubiquitous computing environment where there may be more
connected devices, but that the extraction and processing of data requires
more intervention.
Because pervasive computing systems are capable of collecting, processing
and communicating data, they can adapt to the data's context and activity.
That means, in essence, that a network that can understand its surroundings
and improve the human experience and quality of life.
Data Dissemination In Wireless Sensor Network
Data Dissemination is a procedure where the server initiates and manages
transfer of data as well as updates. It also helps in maintaining data
consistency and cache management. It is defined as “Pushing data to mobile
devices from a server or some other computer.” Mobile devices can select
time and cache required data. In ad-hoc network, traffic is peer to peer.
Multi-hop routing is used to communicate data. In wireless sensor network,
other traffic models are possible which are as follows:
 Data Collection Model: The source sends data to a collection
periodically on demand
 Data Diffusion Model: A sensor node that generates data based on its
sensing mechanism’s observation.
Data dissemination has two different entities:
 Source: Generating data.
 Event: Something that needs to be reported for example, in target
detection, some abnormal activity.
 Sink: A node randomly located in the field, that is interested in events
and seeks such information.
Event in the below diagram indicates the information to be reported or sent.
After source receives an interest from the sink, the event is transferred from
the source to the sink. Data dissemination is a two step process. First, the
node that is interested in some events, broadcasts its interests to its
neighbors periodically. Interests are then propagated through the whole
sensor network. In the second step, nodes that have requested data, send
back data after receiving the request. Intermediate nodes in the sensor
network also keep a cache of received interests and data.

There exists several data dissemination methods:

Flooding: It is the simplest design. In this method, each node receiving data
repeats it by broadcasting the data to every neighbor unless the maximum
hop lifetime of the data has been reached.
Data dissemination is a critical function in wireless sensor networks (WSNs)
that involves the transmission of sensor data from one or more nodes to a
base station or other nodes in the network.
The features of data dissemination in WSNs include:
Energy Efficiency: WSNs are typically powered by batteries or other low-
power sources, and so energy efficiency is a crucial consideration in data
dissemination. Techniques such as data aggregation, compression, and
clustering can be used to reduce the amount of data transmitted and
conserve energy.
Reliability: Data dissemination in WSNs must be reliable, meaning that all
nodes in the network receive the necessary data without loss or duplication.
Techniques such as error detection and correction can be used to ensure
reliability.
Scalability: WSNs can range in size from a few nodes to thousands or even
millions of nodes. Data dissemination techniques must be scalable to
accommodate the number of nodes in the network.
Security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as eavesdropping,
tampering, and denial of service attacks. Techniques such as encryption and
authentication can be used to ensure the security of data dissemination.
Adaptability: WSNs must be adaptable to changing conditions in the
environment, such as changes in the number and location of nodes, changes
in data rates, and changes in network topology. Techniques such as dynamic
routing and load balancing can be used to adapt to these changes.
QoS Requirements: In some applications, data dissemination may have
Quality of Service (QoS) requirements such as delay, throughput, or
reliability. Techniques such as priority scheduling and traffic shaping can be
used to ensure that QoS requirements are met.
data dissemination in WSNs is a complex task that requires careful
consideration of the above features to ensure efficient and reliable operation
of the network.
Advantages
 Simple to setup and implement.
 Data and queries reach all the nodes in the network.
Disadvantages of Flooding
 Implosion- No restriction on multiple nodes sending same packets to
the same destination.
  Overlapping- Neighbor nodes may receive the same message if the
nodes access the same event.
 Resource Blindness- Flooding does not care about energy efficiency of
the nodes.
Gossiping: It is the enhancement of Flooding. In this, when a node receives
data, it randomly chooses a neighbor and sends the data to it. Unlike
Flooding, we does not need to bother about duplicate data packets being
sent to the same location. It also contributes to the latency of network.
Advantages
 This protocol is easily scalable.
 It eliminates some of the shortcomings of Flooding.
 This protocol sends data in autonomous and decentralized manner
Disadvantages of Gossiping
 The destination is selected randomly so it may lead to starvation for
some nodes as they may not be selected to send data at all.
SPIN: Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation (SPIN) has the
required features which can overcome the shortcomings of flooding. When
interested nodes send a request, SPIN will send the data to the corresponding
node otherwise it will not on its own. SPIN messages can be distinguished
into three types:
 ADV- ADV message is used to signal that the sensor has data to send
and describes the data by the help of a sensor
 REQ- REQ message is used when a node is ready to receive data from
neighboring node
 DATA- The information to be sent is contained here
Advantages
 SPIN is more efficient than flooding since the negotiation reduces the
implosion and overlap.
Disadvantages
  SPIN-2 is more effective than SPIN-1 as it uses energy or resource
threshold so that limited number of nodes can participate in data
transmission.
Cost- field Approach: The goal of the cost-field approach is the efficient flow
of data from source to sink through a path which is free of obstacles. It’s job
is to keep the path obstacle free. The cost-field approach relies upon two
steps to work properly. The first step is that all sensor nodes should have a
cost field, based on parameters like delay. In the second step, data is
distributed based on the parameter of costs. It is imperative that the lower
the cost at each node from the source to the sink, the more optimal the path
is. This approach does not require to maintain information about the path of
the nodes arranged in the configuration sequence.
Advantages
 Makes sure sensor path is problem free
 Does not need to maintain explicit path information
 The cost at each node is the minimum cost from the node to the sink,
which occurs on the optimal path
Disadvantages
 Time consuming. As it uses back-off timers for forwarding data to other
nodes.