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richugeorge01EMG 2203: Engineering Mechanics I (Statics)
Lecture Notes Compiled By:
Dr. Onesmus Mũtukũ Mũvengei (PhD)
c SEPTEMBER 2021
Students are reminded not to treat these lecture notes as a comprehensive and solely sufficient material
for their studies since the purpose of the notes is not meant to be a substitute for regularly attending
classes, reading relevant textbooks and recommended books. The notes are aimed at providing a quick
reference and a brief guidance for the students.
i
EMG 2203 Engineering Mechanics I (Statics)
Purpose
The aim of this course is to enable the student to;
1. get a basic understanding of the concept of a force and how to deal with two and three
dimensional forces
2. understand the concept of equilibrium and structural analysis of force systems
3. understand the concept of a centroid as it relates to masses and areas.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this course, the student should be able to;
1. solve force problems in two and three dimensions including couples and resultants
2. isolate a free body diagram in a given problem and solve for force components
3. analyze all the forces in members of a loaded truss.
Course description
Introduction to statics and system of units.
Review of Vectors: Manipulating Vectors, Cartesian components in 2D and 3D, Dot Product,
Cross Product, Mixed Triple Product
Force Systems: Types of forces, two- and three-dimensional force systems; closed and open force
systems; Cartesian components, moments, couples, resultants.
Equilibrium of particles and rigid bodies: Equilibrium in two- and three-dimensions; system iso-
lation, equilibrium conditions, free body diagrams. Statically indeterminate objects.
Structural Analysis: Trusses; method of joints, method of sections, space trusses. Frames and
Machines.
Centroids, centre of mass and properties of plane areas: Centre of mass and centroids of lines,
areas and volumes, composite bodies. Theorems of Pappus-Gulinus. Centroids of areas, centroids
of composite areas, area moments of inertia, radius of gyration, parallel axis theorem, polar mo-
ments of inertia, products of inertia, rotation of axes, principal axes; principal points, principal
moments of inertia, Mohr’s circle of inertia.
Distributed forces: Introduction to: Loads distributed along a line, internal forces and moments
in beams, shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Virtual work: Work, equilibrium and principle of virtual work, potential energy and stability.
Prerequisites: SPH 2173 Physics for Engineers I and SMA 2170 Algebra.
ii
Prescribed text books
1. Meriam J.L. & Kraige L.G. (1986) Engineering Mechanics Vol I (Statics), John Wiley &
Sons, 2nd Ed.
2. Bedford, A. & Fowler W. (2007) Engineering Mechanics (Statics), Prentice Hall, 5th Ed.
3. Hibbeler, R. C., (1997) Engineering Mechanics (Statics), Prentice Hall, SI Edition.
4. Journal of Applied Mechanics
References
1. William F.R. & Leroy, D. S. (1995) Engineering Mechanics (Statics), John Wiley & Sons,
2nd Ed.
2. Condoor S.S. (2000) Engineering Statics, Schroff Development Corp, 2nd Ed.
Topics Coverage
1. Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and System of Units
2. Review of Vectors
3. Force Systems
4. Static Equilibrium of Particles and Bodies: Application to structural analysis of frames and
machines
5. Properties of plane areas
6. Distributed Forces, Shear force and bending moment diagrams
7. Virtual work.
Contents
Course Outline i
Table of Contents iii
1 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Systems of Units 1
1.1 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 System of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 C.G.S. units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 F.P.S. units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 M.K.S. units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.4 S.I units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Terminologies used in Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Review of Vectors 9
2.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Representation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Graphical representation of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Cartesian Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Vector Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Force Systems 15
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.1 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
CONTENTS iv
3.1.2 System of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Resolution of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.1 Composition of Forces by Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Cartesian Components of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Tutorial 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4 Equilibrium of a Body 35
4.1 Static Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Free Body Diagrams (FBDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Types of Forces on a Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.1 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.2 External Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Moment of a Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.4.1 Moment of a Force about an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4.2 Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.3 Resultant of a Coplanar Non-concurrent Force System . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4.4 Equilibrium of Coplanar Non-concurrent Force System . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.5 Forces and Reactions in Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.5.1 Reactions at Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.6 Forces in Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.6.1 Classification of Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.6.2 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6.3 Nature of Forces in Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6.4 Method of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.7 Static Forces in Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.8 Tutorial 2b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.9 Tutorial 2a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.10 Shear Force and Bending Moment in Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
CONTENTS v
4.10.1 Sign Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.10.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5 Area Properties 68
5.1 Centroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.1.1 Centroid of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.1.2 Centroid of Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.1.3 Centroid of Simple (plain) Geometrical figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.1.4 Location of Centroid of Composite Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Second Moment of Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2.1 Rectangular Section - 2nd Moment of Area about the Centroid . . . . . . . 76
5.2.2 Circular Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.3 Polar Second Moment of Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.2.4 Moment of Area Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2.5 Perpendicular Axis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.6 2nd Moment of Area of Composite Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2.7 Product of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.2.8 Centroid of a volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3 Centre of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4 Tutorial 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6 Distributed Load 92
6.1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams for Beams with Distributed Loads . . 96
6.1.1 Cantilever Beam with Uniformly Distributed Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.1.2 Simply Supported Beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load . . . . . . . . 97
6.1.3 Combined Loading on an overhang Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
CONTENTS vi
7 Virtual Work 101
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.2 Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.2.1 Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter 1
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics
and Systems of Units
1.1 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics
Engineering Mechanics is a combination of two terms: Engineering and Mechanics.
Engineering is the application of mathematical and physical sciences in the design, building and
maintenance of products which benefit humanity. In this regard, products refer to machines,
structures, materials, systems, processes, or any other artificial thing which is used by mankind
in his day to day activities.
While on the other hand, Mechanics is the branch of physical science which deals with the study
of action of forces on bodies that are at rest or in motion. In mechanics, the effects of force on
a physical body, that is deformation and motion, together with the relations between them are
studied.
Therefore, Engineering Mechanics is the application of principles of mechanics in any aspect of
design, building and maintenance of products taking into account the effects of forces. Engineering
mechanics is also called Classical Mechanics since it considers the motion of ordinary bodies (a
body whose size is larger than that of an atom, and/or which moves at a speed less than that of
light)
The entire application of mechanics in engineering is based on Newton’s three laws of motion,
and hence Engineering Mechanics is also referred to as Newtonian Mechanics. These laws may be
briefly stated as follows:
1. Newton’s First Law(Inertia law): States that, an object at rest stays at rest, and an
object in motion stays in motion at a constant velocity unless acted upon by a net external
force.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 1.1 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics 2
2. Newton’s Second Law (Force and acceleration law): States that he rate of change of
momentum in a body is directly proportional to the force acting on the body and takes
place in the direction of the force. From this law, it is found that the acceleration of an
object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its
mass, that is,
F = ma
3. Newton’s Third Law (Action and reaction law): States that for every action of one body
on another, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
As shown in Figure 1.1, Engineering Mechanics is divided into two major branches: Statics and
Dynamics.
Engineering Mechanics
Statics Dynamics
Kinematics Kinetics
Figure 1.1: Classification of Engineering Mechanics
Statics
This is the branch of Engineering Mechanics which deals with the study of forces and their effects
on bodies that are at rest.
Statics is applied in designing structures such as buildings, bridges, dams, cranes among other
similar mechanical components. To be able to calculate the dimensions of such structures and
machine components, designers must first calculate the forces that act on the parts.
Dynamics
This is the branch of Engineering Mechanics which deals with the forces and their effects on bodies
that are in motion.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 1.1 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics 3
Dynamics is further classified into two: Kinematics and Kinetics.
1. Kinematics: This deals with the motion of bodies without considering the forces causing
the motion. In Kinematics, the position, displacement, velocity and the acceleration of the
moving body are analyzed.
2. Kinetics: This deals with the bodies in motion due to the application of forces. Other than
position, displacement, velocity and the acceleration, the forces causing the motion are also
analyzed.
Machines contain components which are in motion in order to do work. Hence the design and
analysis of these components will require application of dynamics.
Engineering Mechanics is widely applied in fields such as mechanical engineering, civil engineering,
marine engineering, aerospace engineering, biomedical engineering and others which are involved
with design of mechanical and structural components. These mechanical and structural compo-
nents usually carry loads and can either be at rest or in motion. Designers of these components
use Engineering Mechanics concepts to understand and analyze the behavior of components under
various loads and forces, and to ensure that these components are safe, durable, and efficient.
Engineering Mechanics forms a strong groundwork for further study in the design and analysis
of the mechanical and structural components, and it is a prerequisite to other advanced areas of
design such as:
1. Solid mechanics (Strength of materials): This deals with the action of forces on deformable
(flexible) bodies. It is also called deformable body mechanics, and involves application of
statics concepts to analyze the internal deformation on the body due to the applied forces.
It is widely used in the design of mechanical and structural components which are at rest
and under action of forces/loads.
2. Mechanics of machines (Theory of machines): This deals with the study of motion of various
parts of a machine and the forces which act on these parts due to the motion. It involves
application of dynamic concepts to analyze the motion of the machine parts together with
the forces involved, and is useful in the design of machine elements and mechanisms.
3. Fluid mechanics: This is the study of the behavior of a fluid, either a liquid or a gas which
is at rest or in motion. It involves application of basic principles of statics and dynamics to
analyze the fluid which is at rest or in motion together with the forces it produces. Fluid
mechanics is useful in design of hydraulic systems such as brakes, fluid flow machinery such
as pumps, heating & cooling systems such as air conditioning system, power generation
systems such as turbines, power plants, engines, aeroplane wings among other components
and systems which involve use of a fluid.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 1.2 System of Units 4
4. Mechanical vibrations: This is the study of oscillations or repetitive motions of a mechanical
system or structure about an equilibrium position. It involves use of dynamic concepts to
analyze the resulting vibrations, and is useful in the design of mechanical and structural
systems to reducing the unwanted vibrations, or maximizing the wanted vibrations.
1.2 System of Units
Engineers deal with physical quantities in the analysis and design of components. A physical
quantity is anything that can be measured, and once measured it is expressed in terms of some
internationally accepted way called units. Example of physical quantities include: Length, area,
volume, time, pressure, temperature, density, velocity, acceleration, current, voltage, work, mass
etc.
All the physical quantities in engineering are expressed in terms of the following four fundamental
quantities:
1. Length - It is needed to locate the position of a point in space and thereby describe the
size of a physical system.
2. Time - It is conceived as the succession of events. The principles of statics are time inde-
pendent, while the principles of dynamics are time dependent. Hence this quantity plays an
important role in the study of dynamics.
3. Mass - It is the quantity of matter in a body. With mass we can compare the action of one
body with that of another.
4. Force - In general, force is considered as the ’push’ or ’pull’ exerted by one body on another.
A force is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. This is also called derived
quantity.
The units of these four fundamental quantities are referred to as fundamental units, Most of the
other units are derived using these fundamental units, and are called derived units. Examples of
derived units are those of: Area, density, pressure, volume, velocity, acceleration, work, momen-
tum, among others.
The four fundamental quantities are related by Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma. Hence
the units used to define mass, length, time and force cannot be chosen arbitrarily. The equality
F = ma can be maintained only if three of the four units (i.e. for the mass, time and length)
are arbitrarily defined, and then the fourth unit (i.e. for force) is derived from the equation. It
implies that, 1 N is equal to 1 kg.m/s2 .
There are four systems of units which are commonly used and internationally accepted:: C.G.S.
units, F.P.S. units, M.K.S. units and S.I. units. In Kenya, S.I units are the ones widely used.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 1.2 System of Units 5
1.2.1 C.G.S. units
In this system of units, the fundamental units of length, mass and time are centimeter, gram and
second respectively. These are also called absolute units or physicist’s units.
1.2.2 F.P.S. units
In this system of units, the fundamental units of length, mass and time are foot, pound and second
respectively.
1.2.3 M.K.S. units
In this system of units, the fundamental units of length, mass and time are meter, kilogramme
and second respectively. These are also called gravitational units or engineer’s units.
1.2.4 S.I units
S.I is an acronym for Systeme International. The 11th General Conference of weights and Mea-
sures recommended a unified and systematically system of fundamental and derived units for
international use. This system specifies length in meters (m), time in seconds(s) and mass in
kilograms (kg). The unit of force, called newton (N) is derived from F = ma. Hence 1 N is equal
to a force required to give 1 kg of mass an acceleration of 1 m/s2 .
Prefixes when using S.I units
When a numerical quantity is either very large or very small, units used to define its size may be
modified by using a prefix, some of which are are shown in the table 1.1.
For instance, 4 000 000 000N=4 GN (giga-newton)=4000 MN (mega-newton)=4000 000 kN (kilo-
newton)
Rules for S.I units
(a) A symbol for unit is never written with a plural “s”, since it may be confused with second (s)
- unit for time.
(b) Symbols for units are always written in lowercase letters with the following exceptions;
• symbols for two largest prefixes shown in table 1.1, giga and mega are capitalized as G
and M
EMG 2203/EME2201: 1.3 Terminologies used in Mechanics 6
Table 1.1: Prefixes used in basic units
S/NO. Factor by which unit is multiplied Exponent Form Prefix Abbreviation
1 1 000 000 000 000 1012 Tera T
2 1 000 000 000 10 9 giga G
3 1 000 000 10 6 mega M
4 1 000 10 3 kilo k
5 100 10 2 hecto h
6 10 101 deca da
7 0.1 10 1 deci d
8 0.01 10 2 centi c
9 0.001 10 3 milli m
10 0.000 001 10 6 micro
11 0.000 000 001 10 9 nano n
12 0.000 000 000 001 10 12 pico p
• symbols for units which are named after an individual are capitalized, e.g. N.
(c) Units with names of an individual when written in full should not start with a capital letter.
For example, 10 newton and not 10 Newton.
(d) For numbers having five or more digits, the digits should be placed in groups of three separated
by spaces (instead of commas) counting both to the left and right of the decimal point.
(e) A dash should be used to separate units which are multiplied together. For example newton-
meter is written as N-m.
(f) The exponent power represented for a unit having a prefix refers to both the unit and its
prefix, e.g. µN 2 = (µN )2
(g) Compound prefixes should not be used; e.g. kµs (kilo-micro-second) should be expressed as
ms (milli-second).
(h) Always separate the value of the quantity and the its units. For instance; 10 mm and not
10mm.
1.3 Terminologies used in Mechanics
Some common terminologies used in engineering mechanics are:
Body
In Engineering Mechanics, a body refers to a physical object with a finite size and shape. A body
therefore has mass, volume and dimensions, and its motion and behavior when subjected to forces
EMG 2203/EME2201: 1.3 Terminologies used in Mechanics 7
are influenced by it’s size, shape and material properties. For example, a bridge is considered as
a body when analyzing it because it’s size and shape determine how it behaves when subjected
to forces.
In Engineering Mechanics, bodies are categorized as either rigid bodies or flexible bodies.
A rigid body is a physical object that does not deform when forces are applied on it. In other
words, the distances between any two points on a rigid body remain constant, regardless of external
forces or moments applied to it. Rigid bodies are often used in statics and dynamics analysis,
where the focus is on determining the equilibrium or motion of objects without considering their
deformation. The material properties of any body that is assumed to be rigid are not considered
when analyzing the forces acting on it.
A flexible body, on the other hand, is a physical object that can deform under applied loads.
Unlike rigid bodies, flexible bodies undergo changes in shape or size when subjected to forces or
moments. They can bend, stretch, compress, or twist in response to external loads. Flexible bodies
are commonly encountered in solid structural engineering, where the behavior of materials like
beams, plates, and shells is analyzed considering their flexibility and deformability. The material
properties of any body that flexible must be considered when analyzing the forces acting on it.
In summary, the main distinction between rigid bodies and flexible bodies lies in their ability to
resist deformation: rigid bodies do not deform, while flexible bodies can deform under applied
loads. This differentiation is crucial for accurately analyzing the behavior of various engineering
systems and structures.
Particle
In engineering mechanics, a particle is a theoretical point with mass but no size. A particle is
considered to be a concentrated mass located at a specific point in space, which is usually the
center of mass of the body.
When a body is idealized as a a particle, the principle of mechanics reduce to a simplified form,
since the geometry of the body will not be involved in the analysis of the problem. Particles
are used to simplify the analysis of systems where the size and shape of objects are not relevant,
and only their mass and motion matter. For example, a car can be treated as a particle when
analyzing it’s motion as a whole.
In summary, the main difference between a particle and a body in engineering mechanics lies in
their conceptualization: a particle is a point mass with no spatial extent, while a body is a physical
object with mass, volume, and dimensions.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 1.3 Terminologies used in Mechanics 8
Force
This is a push or a pull acting on a body. The force can result in a change in the motion of the
body, or cause the body to deform. The force can either be concentrated force or distributed force.
Equilibrium
This is a state when all forces acting on an object balance each other out. It can either be static
equilibrium or dynamic equilibrium
In static equilibrium, no motion either translational or rotational is produced on the body by the
forces acting on it, and hence the resultant force and moment are zero. Static equilibrium is a
fundamental concept used in analyzing structures, determining the stability of structures under
different loads, and solving problems in statics.
In dynamic equilibrium, motion either translational or rotational is produced on the body by the
forces acting on it, and the resultant force produced is said to balance the inertia force. Dynamic
equilibrium is often encountered in problems involving moving objects, such as vehicles, machinery,
or projectiles.
Both static and dynamic equilibrium play crucial roles in engineering analysis and design. Engi-
neers use these concepts to ensure the stability, safety, and efficiency of structures, machines, and
systems under various conditions.
Free Body Diagram (FBD)
This is a diagram showing all the forces acting on a body when isolated from the other bodies.
Chapter 2
Review of Vectors
2.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities
Most of the physical quantities encountered in mechanics are either scalar or vector quantities
(1) Scalar quantities: These are quantities which have magnitude only. To fully define a scalar
quantity, the directional component is not required. Examples of scalar quantities encountered
in mechanics are; mass, volume, length time, temperature, density among others.
(2) Vector quantities: These are quantities which have both magnitude and direction. Hence
to fully define a vector quantity, the magnitude and direction must be stated. Examples of
vector quantities encountered in mechanics are; velocity, position, force, moment, acceleration
among others. To work with vector quantities, one must know the method for representing
these quantities.
2.2 Representation of Vectors
The vector quantities are represented by vectors. A vector is generally represented by a letter
~ or a letter with a tilde ∼ below it.
with an arrow over it (A)
2.2.1 Graphical representation of vectors
A vector is represented graphically by an arrow which is used to define its magnitude, direction
and sense.
(i) The magnitude of the vector is indicated by the length of the arrow to some scale.
(ii) The direction is defined by the angle between a reference axis and the arrows line line of
action
EMG 2203/EME2201: 2.2 Representation of Vectors 10
(iii) The sense is indicated by the arrowhead.
~ shown in figure 2.1 has a magnitude of four units, a direction which
For example, the vector (A)
is 200 measured anticlockwise from the horizontal axis and a sense which is upward and to the
right.
Figure 2.1:
The point O is called the root or tail of the vector while the point P is the tip or head of the
vector It should be noted that the angle of a vector is measured from its tail not the head.
2.2.2 Cartesian Vector Notation
It is also possible to represent the components of a vector in terms of Cartesian unit vectors.
When we do this, the methods of vector algebra are easier to apply, and we will see that this
becomes particularly advantageous for solving problems in three dimensions.
Consider point P in space relative to a fixed point o which is the origin of xyz coordinate system,
P
RP
y X
z
Z
x
Figure 2.2:
A vector may be expressed in terms of its components and the 3 unit vectors i, j and k whose
directions are along X, Y and Z axes respectively. These unit vectors have a dimensionless mag-
EMG 2203/EME2201:
2.3Vector
Operations
11
nitude of unity, and their sense (or arrowhead) will be described
analytically
by aplus or minus
sign, depending on whether they are pointing along the positive or negative X, Y or Z axis.
If x, y and z are the components of the vector on the X, Y and Z axes respectively, then we have,
RP =
xi +
yj + zk
The magnitude of the vector RP is,
p 2 2 2
|RP | = x +y +z
2.3 Vector Operations
Vector Addition
~ and B ~ of the same
Two vectors, say A type
as shown in
Figure 2.3(a) can
be added toform a
resultant vector by using the parallelogram law.
Figure 2.3:
This is done using the following procedure;
~ and B
(a) Join vectors A ~ at their tails
(b) Draw parallel lines from the head of each vector to intersect at a common point, hence forming
the adjacent sides of a parallelogram.
(c) The resultant vector (R~ =A ~ + B)
~ is the diagonal of the parallelogram, which extends from
~ and B
the tails of A ~ to the intersection of the lines drawn in step (b) above.
~ =A
Vector addition is commutative. that is the vectors can be added in any order, (R ~+B
~ =
~ + A).
B ~
~ and B
If the two vectors, A ~ are collinear, the parallelogram law reduces to an algebraic or scalar
addition as shown in Figure 2.4.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 2.3 Vector Operations 12
Figure 2.4:
Vector Subtraction
The resultant difference
between two vectors ~ and B ~ of the same type may be expressed as;
A
~
R ~− B
= A ~ =A
~ + (−B)
~
This
vector sum
is shown graphically
in Figure 2.5
Figure 2.5:
Vectors can
also
be added as
algebraically
follows:
(a) Represent
the
vectors
in unit cartesian
notation:
A = ax i + ay j + az k
B = bx i + by j + bz k
(b) Add or subtract the components of vectors which are
in the same direction:
R = A+B
= (ax i + ay j + az k) + (bx i + by j + bz k)
= (ax + bx )i + (ay + by )j + (az + bz )k
R = A−B
= (ax i + ay j + az k) − (bx i + by j + bz k)
= (ax − bx )i + (ay − by )j + (az − bz )k
EMG 2203/EME2201: 2.3 Vector Operations 13
Scalar (Dot) Product of two Vectors
If A and B are vectors originating from point O as shown in Figure 2.6, and if θ is the angle
between the vectors, then the dot product of the two vectors is,
A.B = |A||B| cos θ
θ
A
Figure 2.6:
Hence we have,
• i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 cos 00 = 1
• i.j = j.k = k.i = 1 cos 900 = 0
Therefore if,
A = ax i + ay j + az k
B = bx i + by j + bz k
Then,
A.B = (ax i + ay j + az k)(bx i + by j + bz k)
= ax b x + ay b y + az b z
Dot product gives a scalar quantity.
Vector (Cross) Product of two Vectors
If A and B are vectors originating from point O as shown in Figure 2.6, and if θ is the angle between
the vectors, then the cross product of the two vectors which is a vector always perpendicular to
the two vectors is given by,
A × B = |A||B| sin θ
Hence we have,
EMG 2203/EME2201: 2.3 Vector Operations 14
• i × i = j × j = k × k = 1 sin 00 = 0
• i × j = k, j × i = −k
• j × k = i, k × j = −i
• k × i = j, i × k = −j
Therefore if,
A = ax i + ay j + az k
B = bx i + by j + bz k
Then,
A × B = (ax i + ay j + az k)(bx i + by j + bz k)
= 0 + ax b y k − ax b z j − ay b x k + 0 + ay b z i + az b x j − az b y i + 0
= (ay bz − az by )i + (az bx − ax bz )j + (ax by − ay bx )k
This result can be simply represented by means of a determinant as,
i j k
A × B = det ax ay az
bx by bz
Cross product gives a vector quantity.
Chapter 3
Force Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Force
Force is considered as the push or pull exerted on one body by another. This interaction can
occur when there is direct contact between bodies e.g. a person pushing on a wall, or it can occur
at a distance when the bodies are physically separated e.g gravitational, electrical and magnetic
forces. In any case, the force is characterized by its magnitude, direction and point of application.
The following are the effects a force can produce on a body on which it acts:
a) A force can cause a body which is at rest to start moving, or bring to rest a body which was
moving.
b) A force can increase or decrease the speed of a body which is in motion.
c) A force can deform an elastic body, causing changes in its shape or size.
d) A force can give rise to internal stresses in the body on which it acts.
e) A force can change the direction of a moving body.
In order to determine the effects of a force acting on a body, the following characteristics of a
force must be known
• The magnitude of the force.
• The direction of the line along which the force acts. This is also called the line of action of
the force.
• The nature of the force (push or pull).
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.1 Introduction 16
• The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body.
An applied force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Hence to fully
define force, its magnitude, direction and point of application must be known.
3.1.2 System of Forces
When several forces of different magnitude and directions act upon a body, they constitute a
system of forces. Figure 3.1 shows classifications of force systems.
Force Systems
Coplanar Force Systems Non-Coplanar Force Systems
Coplanar Non-Coplanar
Concurrent Concurrent Force Concurrent
Force Systems Systems Force Systems
Coplanar Non- Non-Concurrent Non-Coplanar
Concurrent Force Systems Non-Concurrent
Force Systems Force Systems
Figure 3.1: Classification of force systems
a) Coplanar force System - All the forces acting on a body lie in the same plane. Coplanar
force systems are relatively simpler to analyze because they involve forces acting in only two
dimensions.
b) Non-Coplanar Force System - The forces acting on a body do not all lie in the same plane.
These forces have components in different directions in three-dimensional space. Analyzing
non-coplanar force systems typically involves working with vectors in three dimensions, which
can be more complex than coplanar systems.
c) Concurrent Force System - The lines of action of all the forces acting on a body meet at a
common point. This implies that the forces share a common point of intersection, also known
as a point of concurrency. Two unparallel forces acting on a body will always form a concurrent
force system. The point of concurrency simplifies the analysis of the resultant force and the
equilibrium of the body.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.1 Introduction 17
d) Non-Concurrent Force System - The lines of action of all the forces acting on a body do not meet
at a common point. This implies that the forces do not share a common point of intersection.
Analyzing non-concurrent force systems will involve more complex calculations compared to
concurrent systems, since the forces may create moments about various points in the body,
leading to a more intricate equilibrium analysis.
e) Coplanar Concurrent Force System - These are forces whose lines of action lie in the same
plane and at the same time pass through a common point.
f) Coplanar Non-Concurrent Force System - These are forces which do not meet at a common
point, but their lines of action lie on the same plane.
g) Non-Coplanar Concurrent Force System - These are forces which meet at a common point, but
their lines of action do not lie on the same plane.
h) Non-Coplanar Non-Concurrent Force System - These are forces which do not meet at a common
point and their lines of action do not lie on the same plane.
Coplanar Concurrent Forces
If all the forces in a system lie in a single plane and pass through a single point, then the system
constitutes a coplanar concurrent force system.
It is possible to find a single force which will have the same effect as that of a number of forces
acting on a body. Such a single force is called a resultant force and the process of finding out the
resultant force is called Composition of forces.
The fundamental principle of finding the resultant of a force is the parallelogram law of forces which
states that if two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are represented in magnitude
and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through the point of
intersection of the two sides representing the forces. This is shown in Figure 3.2
F1 R
F1
θ
θ
α
F2 F2
Figure 3.2: Composition of forces (Parallelogram law of forces)
The same result can be obtained by constructing the triangle FABC instead of the parallelogram
R F y
ABCD. Line AB is drawn to represent the force F2 and BC to represent force F1 . The closing line
AC represents the resultant inα magnitude, line of action and direction.
F 1
θ
F2 Fx
F2 F2
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.1 Introduction 18
R Fy
α F1
F2
Figure 3.3: Composition of forces (Triangle law of forces)
This represents the Triangle Law of Forces which states that: if two forces acting simul-
taneously on a body are represented by the sides of a triangle taken in order, their resultant is
represented by the closing side of the triangle taken in the opposite order.
P4 P3
P3
R2
P2 F
R
R1
P2
P4 P1
P1
Figure 3.4: Composition of forces (Polygon law of forces)
Fh
EMG 2203/EME2201:
3.2 Resolution of Forces 19
If more than two forces are to be added, successive applications of the parallelogram law or triangle
law of forces can be carried out in order to obtain the resultant force. For example, if three forces
act at a point O, as shown in Figure 3.5, the resultant of any two of the forces is found, say, F1
and F2 . Then this resultant is added to the third force, yielding the resultant of all three forces;
i.e., FR = (F1 + F2 ) + F3 .
Figure 3.5:
This represents the polygon law of forces which may be stated as: If a
number of concurrent
forces acting simultaneously on a body, are represented in magnitude
and direction by the
sides
of a polygon, taken in order, then the resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the
closing side of the polygon, taken in the opposite order.
Example 3.1.1. A system of three concurrent forces act on a body as shown in Figure 3.6. Using
the polygon law in conjunction with cosine and sine rules, determine the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force for the force system.
Figure 3.6:
3.2 Resolution of Forces
The resolution of forces is exactly the opposite process of composition
of forces. It is the process
of finding a number of component forces which will have the same effect onthe
body as the
given
single force. Force F can be resolved into the x-component Fx and y-component Fy .
Fy = F sin θ (3.1)
Fx = F cos θ (3.2)
F2 F2
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.2
F1 Resolution of Forces R 20
F1
θ
θ
α
F2 F2
F
R Fy
α F1
θ
F
R Fy
α F1 Fx θ
F2 Fx
Figure 3.7: Resolution of forces
Example 3.2.1. The guy wire of an electric pole shown in figure 3.8 makes an angle of 30o to the
pole and is subjected to a 20 KN force. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the force.
F
Fv
F
Fv
Fh
Fh
Figure 3.8: Example 1
Solution
Fv = F cos 30o
= 20 cos 30o
= 17.32KN
Fh = F sin 30o
= 20 sin 30o
= 10KN
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.2 Resolution of Forces 21
P4 P3
P3
R2
3.2.1 Composition of Forces by Resolution
P2
R
This is an analytical method of finding the resultant of a number of Rforces.
1 The components
of each force in the system are first found in two mutually perpendicular directions.
P2 Then the
P4
P1
components in each direction are algebraically added to get theP1two component forces. The two
component forces which are mutually perpendicular are combined to get the resultant.
Let P1 , P2 and P3 be a system of three forces.
P2
P1
P3
Figure 3.9: Example 2
To find the resultant force of the three forces, use the following procedure;
1. Find the components of each force in the x and y directions
2. Find the algebraic sum of the component forces
X
Fx = P1x + P2x + P3x
X
Fy = P1x + P2x + P3x
3. Obtain the resultant and its inclination to the x - axis.
r
X 2 X 2
R = Fx + Fy
P
F
x
α = tan−1 P
Fy
Example 3.2.2. A system of three concurrent forces act on a body as shown in Figure 3.10. Using
the resolution of forces method, determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force for
the force system.
Solution
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.2 Resolution of Forces 22
Figure 3.10:
3 4
sin θ = cos θ = or θ = 36.87o
5 5
Using the composition by resolution method:
X 4
Fx = 400 cos 300 + 500 cos 700 − 600 ×
5
= 37.42N
X 3
Fy = 400 sin 300 + 500 sin 700 + 600 ×
5
= 1029.85N
Therefore the magnitude and direction of the resultant is:
r 2 X 2
X
R = Fx + Fy
√
= 37.422P+ 1029.852 = 1030.53kN
F
y
θ = tan−1 P
Fx
1029.85
= tan−1 = 87.920
37.42
Example 3.2.3. The screw-eye shown in Figure 3.11 is subjected to two forces, F1 and F2 . Deter-
mine analytically the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. Check the values graphically.
Solution
Consider Figure 3.12;
Resolve force F1 along the X and Y-axis.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.2 Resolution
of Forces
23
Figure 3.11:
Figure 3.12:
F1x = F1 cos 150 = 100 cos 150 = 96.6N
0 0
F1y = F1 sin 15 = 100 sin 15 = 25.9N
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.2 Resolution of Forces 24
Resolve force F2 along the X and Y-axis.
F2x = F2 sin 100 = 150 sin 100 = 26.05N
F2y = F2 cos 100 = 150 cos 100 = 147.7N
Total components of force in X-direction;
Fx = F1x + F2x = 96.6 + 26.05 = 122.65N
Total components of force in Y-direction;
Fy = F1y + F2y = 25.9 + 147.7 = 173.6N
Consider now Figure 3.13;
Figure 3.13:
Magnitude of the resultant force is;
q √
FR = Fx2 + Fy2 = 122.652 + 173.62 = 212.56N
Angle of the resultant force as measured from the horizontal axis is;
Fy 173.6
tan θ = = = 1.4154
Fx 122.65
θ = tan−1 1.4154 = 54.760
The values are confirmed graphically as shown in Figure 3.14
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.2 Resolution of Forces 25
Figure
3.14:
Example 3.2.4. The force F acting on the frame shown in Figure 3.15
has a magnitude of 500N
and is to be resolved into two components acting along members AB and AC. Determine the angle
θ ,measured below the horizontal, so that the component FAC is directed from A
toward C
and has
a magnitude of 400N. Determine also the magnitude of the force component along member AB.
Figure 3.15:
Solution
Using parallelogram law, the vector addition of the two components of force 500N
along the
members AB and AC is as shown in Figure 3.16.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.3 Cartesian Components of Forces 26
Figure 3.16:
The angle φ can be determined by using sine rule as follows;
F FAC
0
=
sin 60 sin φ
FAC sin 600 400 sin 600
sin φ = = = 0.6928
F 500
φ = sin−1 0.6928 = 43.850
Therefore angle θ is;
θ = 180 − (60 + 43.85) = 76.150
The magnitude of force component along member AB is found also by using sine rule;
FAB F
=
sin θ sin 600
F sin 76.150
FAB = = 560.56N
sin 600
3.3 Cartesian Components of Forces
Force vector can also be represented in terms of cartesian unit vectors. For example, a two
dimensional force as shown in Figure 3.17 can be represented as;
F~ = Fx i + Fy j
where Fx and Fy are the components of F in x and y-directions respectively. These components
are always positive quantities.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.3 Cartesian Components of Forces 27
Figure 3.17:
By representing each force in a system as cartesian vector and then applying vector algebra, the
force system analysis problem is simplified. For example, to determine the resultant force in Figure
3.18 using cartesian vector notation, each force is first represented as a cartesian vector as;
F~1 = F1x i + F1y j
F~2 = −F2x i + F2y j
F~3 = F3x i − F3y j
Figure 3.18:
The vector of the resultant force becomes;
F~R = F~1 + F~2 + F~3
= (F1x i + F1y j) + (−F 2x i + F2y j) + (F3x i − F3y j)
= (F1x− F2x + F3x )i + (F1y + F2y − F3y )j
= FRx i + FRy
Therefore, the magnitude and direction angle θ of the resultant force are respectively given as;
q
2 2
FR =
FRx + FRy
hF i
θ = tan−1
Ry
FRx
where θ is
measured from the x-axis.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.3 Cartesian Components of Forces 28
When applying this method, its important to use sign convention established for the
components,
that is, components having a directional sense along the positive coordinate axes are considered
positive scalars, otherwise they are considered negative scalars.
Example 3.3.1. The end of
the boom O in Figure 3.19 is subjected to three concurrent and
coplanar forces F1 = 400N ,
F2 = 250N and F3 = 200N . Determine using cartesian vector
notation the magnitude and orientation of the resultant force.
Figure 3.19:
Solution
Representing each force as a cartesian vector:
F~1 = −400i + 0j
F~2 = (250 sin 450 )i + (250 cos 450 )j =
176.78i + 176.78j
4 3
F~3 = (−200 ×
)i + (200 × )j = −160i + 120j
5 5
The vector of the resultant force becomes;
F~R = F~1 + F~2 + F~3
= (−400i + 0j) + (176.78i +
176.78j) + (−160i + 120j)
= (400 − +176.78 − 160)i + (0 + 176.78 − +120)j
= −383.22i + 296.78j
force are respectively given as;
Therefore, the magnitude and direction angle θ of the resultant
√
−383.222 + 196.782 = 384.7N
F
R =
h 296.78 i
θ = tan−1 = 37.80
383.22
Cartesian Unit Vectors in 3D
In three dimensions, the set of Cartesian unit vectors, i, j, k, is used to designate the directions
of the x, y, z axes respectively. The sense (or arrowhead) of these vectors will be described
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.3 Cartesian Components of Forces 29
analytically by a plus or
minus sign, depending
on whether
they
are pointing
along
the positive
or negative x, y, or z axes. The positive Cartesian unit vectors are shown in Figure 3.20.
Figure 3.20:
~ whose components act in the positive i, j and k directions as shown in Figure
Consider vector A
3.21
Figure
3.21:
Vector A can be written in Cartesian form as;
~ = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
A
The magnitude and direction of each component vector are separated, and as a result this
will
simplify the operations of vector algebra, particularly in
three dimensions.
The magnitude of vector A is equal to the positive
square
root of
the sum of the squares of its
components, that is;
q
A = A2x
+ A2y + A2z
~ is defined by the coordinate direction angles α (alpha), β (beta), and γ
The orientation of A
~ and the positive x, y, z axes located at the tail of A.
(gamma), measured between the tail of A ~
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.3 Cartesian Components of Forces 30
Figure 3.22:
Hence from Figure 3.22, the coordinate angles are;
Ax
cos α =
~
|A|
Ay
cos β =
~
|A|
Az
cos γ =
~
|A|
These angles are related as;
cos2 α + cos2 β cos2 γ = 1
This equation can be used to determine one of the coordinate direction angles if the other two are
known.
~ are given, then A
If the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of A ~ may be expressed in
Cartesian vector form as;
~ = A cos αi + A cos βj + A cos γk
A
= Ax i + Ay j + Az k
Example 3.3.2. Determine the magnitude and the coordinate direction angles of the resultant
force acting on the ring shown in Figure 3.23.
The vector of the resultant force of the two forces is;
F~R = F~1 + F~2
= (60j + 80k)lb + (50i − 100j + 100k)lb
= (0 + 50)i + (60 − 100)j + (80 + 100)k
= (50i − 40i + 180k)lb
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.3 Cartesian Components of Forces 31
Figure 3.23:
The magnitude of the resultant force is;
p
FR = 502 + (−40)2 + 1802 = 191.05lb
The coordinate direction angles are;
Fx 50
cos α = = = 0.2617
FR 191.05
0
α = 74.83
Fy −40
cos β = =
= −0.2094
FR 191.05
β = 102.090
Fz 180
cos γ = = = 0.9422
FR 191.05
γ = 19.58
0
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.4 Tutorial 1 32
3.4 Tutorial 1
Q1 Three concurrent forces acting on a post produce a resultant force R=0. If F2 = 12 F1 , determine
the angle θ and the magnitude F3 in terms of F1 .
[Ans: θ = 117o , F3 = 1.118F1 ]
Figure 3.24:
Q2 Figure 3.25 shows a system of three forces. Using the polygon law of forces in conjunction
with the sine and cosine rule, determine:
(i) the magnitude of the resultant R.
(ii) The angle between the x-axis and the line of action of the resultant.
[ Ans: R = 1140N, θ = 77.28o -]
Figure 3.25:
Q3 Determine the resultant of the three forces acting on the dam section shown in Figure 3.26
and locate its intersection with the base line AB. For a good design, this intersection should
occur within the middle third. Is it a good design?
[Ans: R = 137.12N, α = 79.911o &, Resultant intersects AB at 3.33m from A. It is a good
design since 2 < d < 4]
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.4 Tutorial 1 33
Figure 3.26:
Q4 Determine the magnitude of force F in Figure 3.27 so that the resultant FR of the three forces is
as small as possible. What is the minimum magnitude of FR ?[ Ans: F = 5.9kN, FR = 3.42kN ]
Figure 3.27:
Q5 The cables attached to the screw eye are subjected to three concurrent forces as shown in
Figure 3.28. Express each force in Cartesian vector form and determine the magnitude and
coordinate direction angles of the resultant force.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 3.4 Tutorial 1 34
Figure 3.28:
Q6 The bracket is subjected to two concurrent forces as shown in Figure 3.29. Express each force
in Cartesian vector form and then determine the
magnitude and coordinate direction angles
of the resultant
force.
Figure 3.29:
Chapter 4
Equilibrium of a Body
4.1 Static Equilibrium
A body is said to be in static equilibrium when it is at rest or continues to be in steady linear
motion. According to Newton’s second law of motion (F = ma), it means that the resultant of
all the forces acting on a body in equilibrium is zero. In graphical terms, this means that the
polygon of forces closes.
The resultant of a system of concurrent forces is zero only when the following conditions are
satisfied:
X
Fx = 0
X
Fy = 0
X
Fz = 0
These equations are the necessary and sufficient conditions for a body or particle to be in static
equilibrium.
4.2 Free Body Diagrams (FBDs)
To apply the equations of static equilibrium correctly, the known and unknown forces in the
system must be accounted for. This is achieved by drawing free body diagrams. Hence a thorough
understanding of how to draw a free body diagram is of paramount importance for solving problems
in mechanics.
A free body diagram is a sketch of a body isolated from other bodies on which all the forces acting
on it are shown in action.
The following steps are followed in drawing a free body diagram:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.3 Types of Forces on a Body 36
1. Draw or sketch the outlined shape of the body.
2. Indicate all the forces acting on the body using arrows. These forces could be active forces
(forces which tend to cause motion to the body) or reactive forces (forces such as those
caused by constraints or supports that tend to prevent motion.
3. Label the forces that are known with their proper magnitude and direction. Letters and
symbols are used to represent the magnitudes and directions of forces that are unknown.
Free body diagrams are very important in analysis of forces and moments in machines, since;
• they assist in understanding of the problem
• they make it easy for one to translate word thoughts into physical models
• they make mathematical relations in static equilibrium easy to see and find.
4.3 Types of Forces on a Body
When applying equilibrium conditions to a body, it is essential to consider all the forces acting on
a body. The various forces acting on a body may be grouped as:
1. Internal forces
2. External forces
• Applied forces
• Non-applied forces
4.3.1 Internal Forces
The internal forces are forces which all other particles exert on the ith particle in a body and
produce a resultant force Fi .
X n
Fij = Fi (4.1)
j=1,j6=i
From Newton’s third law, these forces always occur in equal but opposite collinear pairs and
therefore their net effect on the body is zero, and hence they are not represented in a free body
diagram.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.3 Types of Forces on a Body 37
4.3.2 External Forces
Applied forces are forces applied externally to a body. Each of these forces has a point of contact
with the body. Non-applied forces can be classified as:
(a) Self weight
Every body is subjected to gravitational acceleration and has got weight.
W =m×g (4.2)
where,
m mass of the body
g gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2 near the earths surface)
The weight of a body always acts in a vertically downward direction and acts through the
centre of gravity of the body.
(b) Reactions
These are reactive forces developed by other bodies which come into contact with the body
under consideration or developed by constraints or supports that tend to prevent motion.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the reactions are equal and opposite to the
active forces.
Example 4.3.1. The crate shown in figure 5.17 has a weight of 20N. Determine the force in cord
AB and CD.
Solution
1. Isolate the crate, draw the free body diagram and apply equilibrium condition.
For equilibrium
X
Fy = 0 (4.3)
FBD − 20 = 0 (4.4)
FBD = 20N (4.5)
2. Isolate the ring and draw its free body diagram.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.3 Types of Forces on a Body 38
Figure 4.1:
For equilibrium,
X
Fy = 0 (4.6)
FAB sin45o − FBD = FAB sin45o − 20 = 0 (4.7)
20
FAB = = 28.284N (4.8)
X sin45o
Fx = 0 (4.9)
FBC − FAB cos45o = 0 ⇒ FBC = 28.284cos45o (4.10)
FBC = 20N (4.11)
Figure 4.2:
P1
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.4 Moment of a Force 39
P3
4.4 Moment of a Force
Moment of a force about a point is a measure of its rotational effect. Moment is defined as the
product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance or shortest distance of the
point from the line of action of the force. The point about which the moment is considered is
called a moment centre and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force is called
moment arm.
Figure 4.3: Moment of a force
MA = F × d1 − anticlockwise
MB = F × d2 − clockwise
MC = F × 0 = 0
MD = F × d3 − anticlockwise
The third equation shows that, a force will not have a moment about a point which lies along its
line of action.
Example 4.4.1. Find the moment of force P = 100N about point A as shown in figure 5.13.
Solution
The force P may be resolved into x and y components and then Varignon’s Theorem applied.
Varignon’s Theorem states that the algebraic sum of the moments of a system of coplanar
forces about a moment centre in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant force about
the same moment centre.
P3
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.4 Moment of a Force 40
Figure 4.4: Example 3
Taking anticlockwise moment as positive,
MA = −Px × 0.5 + Py × 0.4 (4.12)
= −100 cos 60o + 100 sin 60o (4.13)
= 9.641N m − anticlockwise
4.4.1 Moment of a Force about an Axis
The moment of a force about an axis is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the force and the axis
A force will not contribute a moment about a specified axis if the line of action of the force is
parallel to the axis or its line of action passes through the axis.
Figure 4.5:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.4 Moment of a Force 41
4.4.2 Couples
A couple is defined as a pair of equal and opposite parallel forces which are separated by a definite
distance. Figure 4.6 shows a couple.
The sum of the forces forming a couple in any direction is zero, which means that the translational
effect of a couple is zero.
The rotational effect (moment) of a couple about any point is constant and equal to the magnitude
of the force and the perpendicular distance between the two forces.
Figure 4.6: Couple
MA = F d1 + F d2 = F (d1 + d2 )
= Md
Resolution of a Force into a Force and a Couple
It is sometimes convenient to resolve a force acting at a given point on a body into a force acting
at some other suitable point on the body and a moment of a couple.
Figure 4.7: Resolution of a force acting at point A into a force acting at point B and a couple
about point B.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.4 Moment of a Force 42
4.4.3 Resultant of a Coplanar Non-concurrent Force System
The resultant of a coplanar non-concurrent force system is one which will have the same transla-
tional and rotational effect as the given system of forces. It may be a single force, a pure moment
or a force and a moment.
Figure 4.8: Resultant of a coplanar non-concurrent force system
qX X
Resultant R = ( Fx )2 + ( Fy )2
P
Fy
α = P
F
P x
MA
d =
R
where:
P
Fx algebraic sum of the components of all forces in the x-direction.
P
Fy algebraic sum of the components of all forces in the y-direction.
P
MA algebraic sum of the components of moments of forces about point A.
d perpendicular distance of the resultant R from point A.
Principle of Transmissibility: External effects on a rigid body remain unchanged when a force,
acting at a given point on the body, is applied to another point lying on the line of action of the
force.
Example 4.4.2. For the force system acting on a rigid body shown in Figure 4.9,
1. determine the resultant force and its location from point D.
2. resolve this force into a force and a couple acting at point D.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.4 Moment of a Force 43
Figure 4.9:
Solution
X
Fy = 60 sin 45 + 50 + 80 sin 30 = 132.43 N
X
Fx = 40 + 80 cos 30 − 60 cos 45 = 66.86 N
qX X √
R = ( Fx )2 + ( Fy )2 = 132.4262 + 66.862 = 148.345 N
132.426
α = tan−1 = 63.21o
66.86
Figure 4.10:
X
+ MD = 50(5) + 60 sin 45(7) − 60 cos 45(4) − 140 = 237.28 Nm
P
MD 237.28
d = = = 1.6 m
R 148.345
4.4.4 Equilibrium of Coplanar Non-concurrent Force System
A body under a system of forces is said to be in equilibrium when it does not have any translatory
or rotary motion in any direction. Therefore,two conditions must be satisfied:
1. the algebraic sum of components of forces along each of the directions equals zero.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.5 Forces and Reactions in Beams 44
2. the algebraic sum of components of moments about any point equals zero.
That is,
X
Fx = 0
X
Fy = 0
X
Fz = 0
X
Mx = 0
X
My = 0
X
Mz = 0
4.5 Forces and Reactions in Beams
A beam is a structural member supported horizontally and carries transverse loading. Beams are
usually classified according to the manner in which they are supported:
1. Simply (or freely) Supported Beam: This is a beam with a pin or knife edge support
at one end and a roller support at the other end. A pin support prevents translation at the
end but does not prevent rotation. A pin support is capable of developing both horizontal
and vertical reactions (Rx and Ry ).
A roller support prevents translation in the vertical direction but not in the horizontal
direction. Hence this support develops a vertical reaction (Ry ).
P2 P2
P1
P1
θ θ
HA
RA RB
Figure 4.11: A simply supported beam with its free body diagram
2. Cantilever Beam: A cantilever is a beam which is fixed (clamped) at one end and free at
the other end. At the fixed support, the beam can neither translate nor rotate whereas at
the free end it may do both. Consequently, both moment and force reactions (both vertical
and horizontal) may exist at the fixed support.
RA RB
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.5 Forces and Reactions in Beams 45
RA
Figure 4.12: Cantilever beam
3. Overhanging Beam: The beam is simply supported at points A and B but projects beyond
the roller support at B. The overhanging segment BC is similar to a cantilever beam except
that the beam axis may rotate at point B.
P M1 P
M1
RA RB
Figure P4.13: Cantilever
M beam P
1
The above 3 types of beams are known as statically determinate beams as the reactions of
these beams at their supports can be determined by use of the equations of static equilibrium
and the reactions are independent of the deformation of the beams.
RA
4. Fixed Beam: A beam whose both ends are rigidly fixed or built in into its supporting walls
or columns
Figure 4.14: Built-in beam
5. Continuous Beam: A beam which has more than two supports. Supports at the extreme
left and right are called end supports and all other supports are called intermediate
supports.
The last two types of beams are known as statically indeterminate beams as their reactions
at the supports cannot be determined by the use of equations of static equilibrium.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.5 Forces and Reactions in Beams 46
Figure 4.15: Continuous beam
4.5.1 Reactions at Supports
Finding the reactions of beams at the supports is usually the first step in the analysis of a beam.
The support reactions are determined by applying the conditions for static equilibrium. Once the
reactions are known, the shear forces and bending moments can be found.
A beam can be statically determinate or statically indeterminate;
1. A beam is said to be Statically determinate if the number of equations available from state
of static equilibrium is equal to the number of unknown forces including support reactions.
2. A beam is said to be Statically indeterminate if the number of equations available from state
of static equilibrium is less than the number of unknown forces including support reactions.
If a beam is supported in a statically determined manner, all reactions can be found from free
body diagrams and equations of static equilibrium.
Example 4.5.1. Obtain the reactions at the supports of the beam shown in Figure 4.16. Units
are in meters.
Figure 4.16:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.6 Forces in Frameworks 47
Solution
Figure 4.17: Free body diagram
Assume that the depth of the beam is negligible as compared to the longitudinal length.
For equilibrium of moments,
X
MA = 0 = RB (6) − 100(0.5) + 200(3.5) − 500 sin 60(2)
216.03
RB = = 36.0 N
6
For equilibrium of forces,
X
FH = 0 ⇒ HA − 500 cos 60 − 100 = 0
HA = 350 N
X
Fv = 0 ⇒ RA + 200 + 36 − 500 sin 60
RA = 197.01 N
4.6 Forces in Frameworks
A pin-jointed frame is a structure made up of slender (small x-section compared to the length)
members, connected at the ends and is capable of taking loads at the joints. Example include:
machine support frames, roof trusses, bridge trusses etc.
In this section, we focus on the determination of internal forces in connected members as a result
of applied and reaction forces. This analysis requires careful application of Newton’s third law
which states that each action is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction.
In this analysis, we consider only statically determinate structures, which do not have more
supporting constraints than are necessary to maintain an equilibrium configuration.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.6 Forces in Frameworks 48
4.6.1 Classification of Frames
A pin-jointed frame which has got just sufficient number of members to resist loads without
undergoing deformation in shape is called a perfect frame. A triangular frame is the simplest
perfect frame. It has 3 members and three joints.
Figure 4.18:
To increase one joint in a perfect frame, two members are required.
Thus the number of members in a frame is given by:
m = 2j − 3
where m is the number of members and j is the number of joints.
The only necessary and sufficient condition for a perfect frame is that it should retain its shape
when a load is applied at a joint in any direction.
Figure 4.19:
A frame is said to be deficient if the number of members is less than that required for a perfect
frame. Such frames cannot retain their shape when loaded. Figure 4.20 shows a deficient frame.
A frame is said to be redundant if the number of members in it is more than required in a perfect
frame. A redundant frame is statically indeterminate.
The analysis of frames under concentrated loads involves isolating a member and constructing a
free body diagram and applying equations of static equilibrium.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.6 Forces in Frameworks 49
Figure 4.20:
Figure 4.21:
4.6.2 Assumptions
• Members are pin-jointed, hence they carry only axial forces and these forces may be deter-
mined by considering the equilibrium of various parts of the structure as free bodies.
• The frame is loaded only at the joints.
• The frame is perfect, that is, the frame has got just enough members to ensure that it
remains in equilibrium and doesn’t distort when loaded.
• The weight of the frame members is negligible unless otherwise stated.
• The frame is assumed to be plane, that is, it lies in a xy plane,
In real life, the members are connected by bolting, riveting or welding. However, experiments
have shown that assuming pin-jointed members is satisfactory since the members are slender.
4.6.3 Nature of Forces in Members
The members of a frame are subjected to either tensile or compressive forces.
Consider frame ABCDE shown in Figure 4.22,
The member BC is subjected to a compressive force as shown.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.6 Forces in Frameworks 50
Figure 4.22:
The effect of this force on joint B or C is equal and opposite to the force FBC as shown.
Member AE is subjected to tensile force FAE . In the analysis of frames, we mark the forces at the
joints as shown in Figure 4.24 instead of forces in the members.
(a) Question 1(a) (b) Question 1(b)
Figure 4.23:
Figure 4.24:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.6 Forces in Frameworks 51
Methods of analysis of frames include:
1. Method of joints
2. Method of sections
3. Graphical method
4.6.4 Method of Joints
This involves isolating each joint of the frame in the form of free body diagram and then by
considering equilibrium equations in each of these joints, the axial forces in the members of the
frame are determined.
When applying this method, it is assumed initially that all the members are in tension. The sign
convention for the frame members is as shown below,
Figure 4.25: Sign convention
Procedure:
1. Obtain the reactions at the supports by treating the frame as a rigid body.
2. Begin analysis with any joint where at least one load is known and where not more than
two forces is unknown.
3. The next joint is selected for analysis where there are now two unknown forces.
4. The analysis proceeds from joint to joint to find the forces in all the members.
Example 4.6.1. For the pin-jointed frame ABCD shown in Figure 27(a), determine the magni-
tude and nature of forces in the various members.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.6 Forces in Frameworks 52
Figure 4.26:
Solution
Draw the free body diagram (Figure 4.27(a)) of the frame and determine the reactions at the
supports.
(a) Question 1(a) (b) Question 1(b)
Figure 4.27:
X
MB = 0 ⇒ Rc × 2 − 10 × 1 − 8 × 2 = 0
10 + 16
Rc = = 13 kN
X 2
Fy = 0 ⇒ RBy − 8 − 10 = 0
RBy = 18 kN
X
Fx = 0 ⇒ RBx + Rc =
RBx = −13 kN
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.6 Forces in Frameworks 53
Assume initially that all the members are in tension as shown in figure 27(b).
Joint A
Figure 4.28: Joint A
X
Fy = 0 ⇒ 8 + FAD sin 45 = 0
−8
FAD = = −11.31 kN (compressive)
sin 45
X
Fx = 0 ⇒ FAD cos 45 + FAB = 0
−11.31 cos 45 + FAB = 0
FAB = 8 kN (tensile)
Joint B
Figure 4.29: Joint B
X
Fx = 0 ⇒ FBD cos 45 + FAB − 13 = 0
13 − 8
FBD = = 7.07 kN (tensile)
cos 45
X
Fy = 0 ⇒ FBC + FBD sin 45 − 18 = 0
FBC = 18 − 7.07 sin 45 = 13 kN (tensile)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.6 Forces in Frameworks 54
Figure 4.30: Joint C
Joint C
X
Fy = 0 ⇒ FCD cos 45 + FBC = 0
−13
FCD = = −18.38 kN (compressive)
cos 45
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.7 Static Forces in Mechanisms 55
4.7 Static Forces in Mechanisms
A mechanism is a device that transforms motion and in so doing transmits power by means of
forces and torques in its elements.
The knowledge of forces acting on a machine member is very important. These forces must be
within the working limit of the material of the member to which they are acting. For example
if the force acting on a piston in an internal combustion engine is too high, it might cause the
gudgeon pin to shear. Also if the force operating on a journal bearing is too high, it will squeeze
the oil film and cause metal to metal contact, and hence overheating and rapid failure of the
bearing.
Therefore a designer of a mechanism should ensure that all the elements of the mechanism have
been properly designed so that they will not fail during service. Hence the study of forces acting
on a mechanism is of paramount importance in design of mechanisms.
In this section, we shall investigate the static forces and torques in mechanisms
In order to calculate the forces and torques in any mechanism, it is necessary to isolate each
element of the mechanism as a free body and then apply the equilibrium conditions.
Example 4.7.1. The figure below shows a slider-crank mechanism whose crank is 65mm and con-
necting rod 200mm long. At the instant when θ2 = 450 , the force on the slider is 500N . Calculate
the torque T which must be exerted on the crank Ao A in order to maintain static equilibrium.
Calculate also the corresponding forces in all the members. Neglect friction and inertia forces.
T
θ2 P
B
Ao
Solution:
Draw free body diagrams for all the joints in the mechanism,
Apply static equilibrium to each member.
At the slider,
X
Fx = 0
P − RBx = 0
RBx = P = 500N
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.8 Tutorial 2b 56
R Ay
R Ax
A
A
R Ax
R Ay
T R Ao y RBy
φ
θ2 RBx RBx P
B B
Ao RAo x RBy
Fb
At the connecting rod,
X
MA = 0
RBx AB sin φ + RBy AB cos φ = 0
−RBx sin φ 500 sin 13.290
RBy = = = −118.1N
cos φ cos 13.290
X
Fx = 0
RAx − RBx = 0
RAx = RBx = 500N
X
Fy = 0
RAy − RBy = 0
RAy = RBy = −118.1N
At the crank,
X
MAo = 0
T = RAx Ao A sin θ2 − RAy Ao A cos θ2
= 500 × 0.065 sin 45 − (−118.1) × 0.065 cos 450 = 28.4N m
4.8 Tutorial 2b
1. For the double crank-slider mechanism shown in figure 4.31, calculate the force F on slider
A, necessary to maintain static equilibrium at the instant shown. The dimension of the links
are: AB = 152mm, Co B = CD = 127mm and BC = 42mm.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.8 Tutorial 2b 57
F P = 7000 N
A
D
50mm
0
60 Co
Figure 4.31:
2. For the quick-return mechanism shown in figure 4.32, calculate the torque T required to
overcome a load P = 200N and the corresponding forces in all the members at the instant
shown. The dimensions of the links are: Ao B = 62.5mm, Bo C = 400mm and DC = 200mm.
Neglect the inertia effects and the friction at the joints except at the slider D where coefficient
of friction is µ = 0.3.
D
P
250mm
T Ao
45 0
150mm
Bo
Figure 4.32:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.8 Tutorial 2b 58
3. Figure 4.33 shows a dockside crane. Neglecting the mass of each member, calculate the static
torque T required to overcome a load W of 300kN when θ = 600 and 1350 , corresponding to
initial and final positions. The link dimensions are: AB = 14.7m, BD = 6.5m, DE = 19.3m,
BC = 22.3m and CD = 16m.
C
D
W
T
θ
A
5.3m
6.4m
Figure 4.33:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.9 Tutorial 2a 59
4.9 Tutorial 2a
Q1 For the pin-jointed frame ABCDE shown in Fig. 4.34, determine the magnitude and nature
of forces in the various members.
Figure 4.34:
[Ans: RAV =8kN, RAH =-10.39kN, RD =10.39kN, FAB =12kN (T), FAE =2kN (T), FEB =4kN
(C), FED =6.93kN (C), FBD =4kN (T), FDC =6.93kN (C), FBC =8kN (T) ]
Q2 Fig. 5.9 shows the support frame of a marine crane used for hoisting containers. Determine
the magnitude and nature of forces in the various members.
Figure 4.35:
[Ans: RD =-1600kN, RBH = 1600kN, RBV =800kN, FAE =-1131.4kN, FAB =800kN, FBE =0,
FBC =800kN, FCE =1131.4kN, FCD =0, FED =-1600kN.]
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.9 Tutorial 2a 60
Q3 Compute the forces in each member of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 4.36.
Figure 4.36:
[Ans: RA =3.5kN, RC =2.5kN, FAE =4.04kN (C), FAB =2.02kN (T), FBC =1.44kN (T), FDC =2.88kN
(C), FBE =0.58kN (C), FBD =0.58kN (T), FED =1.73kN (C)]
Q4 Fig. 5.11 shows a frame support in a material handling section of factory. Determine the
magnitude and nature of forces in the various members.
Figure 4.37:
[Ans: RA =12kN, RC =10kN, FAB =6.92kN (T), FAE =13.85kN (C), FBC =17.32kN (T), FCD =20kN
(C), FBD =10.4kN (T), FEB =10.4kN (C), FED =14kN (T).]
Q5 The framework shown in the figure below is used to support a steel car body weighing 200Kg.
When the car body is suspended in (a) air and (b) totally immersed in a plating bath con-
taining a liquid of density 1000Kg/m3 , calculate the support reactions and the internal forces
in all the members using the method of force resolution at the joints. Density of steel is
7.8 × 103 Kg/m2 .
Q6 Fig. 6.14 shows a simply supported beam, Determine the support reactions at A and B.
[Ans: RA = 8.846KN , αA = 63.116o %, RB = 3.112KN ]
Q7 The portable floor crane is supporting a 100kg engine as shown in Figure 4.39. The mass of
the lifting arm CBF 75kg with its center of mass located at B. Neglecting friction at joints,
determine;
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.9 Tutorial 2a 61
A 3m B 3m C 3m D
6m E
Figure 4.38:
(a) The oil pressure the 80mm diameter piston of the hydraulic cylinder AB. (Ans: P=0.956MPa)
(b) The magnitude of the force supported by the pin at C. (Ans: Fc = 3.17kN )
(c) The reactions on the crane at the wheels D and E when its supporting the 100kg engine
given that the total mass of the unloaded crane is 500kg with the center of mass located
at G. (Ans: RD = 3.16kN , RE = 2.73kN )
Figure 4.39:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.9 Tutorial 2a 62
Q8 The power unit A of the trailer-scraper has a mass of 400kg with the center of mass at G1 . The
fully loaded trailer-scraper has a mass of 24000kg with the center of mass at G2 . Positioning
of the scraper is controlled by two hydraulic cylinders EF one on each side of the machine.
The wheels are free to turn such that there are no horizontal components of force under the
wheels.
Figure 4.40:
Neglecting friction, determine;
(a) Reaction force at each of the two rear wheels C. (Ans: RC = 89.9kN )
(b) Reaction force at each of the two front wheels D. (Ans: RD = 47.4kN )
(c) The force in each of the hydraulic cylinder EF. (Ans:132kN)
(d) The magnitude of force supported by the pin at H.(Ans:114kN)
Q9 In the mechanism shown in Figure 4.41, a force of 2000N is applied to the sliding block at B.
The friction and the masses of the members can be neglected.
Figure 4.41:
(a) Determine the force P which must be applied at A as shown to maintain the system in
static equilibrium. (Ans: P=467N)
(b) Determine the reactions at joint C and D on the mechanism. (Ans: RC = 2.04kN ,
RD = 1.15kN )
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.10 Shear Force and Bending Moment in Beams 63
4.10 Shear Force and Bending Moment in Beams
When a beam is loaded by forces or couples, stresses and strains are created throughout the
interior of the beam. To determine these stresses, and strains, we must first find the internal
forces and internal couples that act on cross-sections of the beam.
Example
Consider a cantilever beam carrying a point load at the free end. Cut through the beam at a
cross-section aa, a distance x from the free end.
Figure 4.42:
The free body diagram is held in equilibrium by the force P and by the stresses that act over the
cut cross-section. These stresses represent the action of the right hand part of the beam on the
left hand part. The resultant of these stresses acting on the cross-section can be reduced to a
shear force V and a bending moment M .
For a statically determinate beam, these stress resultants can be calculated from equations of
static equilibrium:
X
FV = 0 ⇒ P −V =0 or V =P (4.14)
X
M = 0 ⇒ M − Px = 0 or M = Px (4.15)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.10 Shear Force and Bending Moment in Beams 64
4.10.1 Sign Conventions
Shear Force
A shear force having an upward direction to the left hand side of a section or downward to the
right hand side of the section will be taken as positive.
A negative shear force will be one that has a downward direction to the left of the section or
upward direction to the right of the section.
Figure 4.43:
Bending Moment
A bending moment causing concavity upwards will be taken as positive and called sagging bending
moment. A bending moment causing convexity upwards will be taken as negative and called a
hogging bending moment
Figure 4.44:
4.10.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
In the design of beams, it is important to know how the shear forces and bending moments vary
thought the length of the beam. Graphs in which the shear force and bending moment are plotted
as ordinates and the distance x along the beam is plotted as the abscissae are called shear force
and bending moment diagrams respectively. These diagrams assist in the design of beams based
on bending stress which is maximum at the x-section where the bending moment is maximum.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.10 Shear Force and Bending Moment in Beams 65
Figure 4.45:
Cantilever Beam with concentrated Load
At section xx,
X
FV = 0 ⇒ V +P =0 (4.16)
∴ V = −P (4.17)
at x = 0, V = −P (4.18)
at x = l, V = −P (4.19)
Mx + P x = 0 ⇒ Mx = −P x (4.20)
at x = 0, Mx = 0 (4.21)
at x = l, Mx = −P l (4.22)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.10 Shear Force and Bending Moment in Beams 66
Simply Supported beam with Concentrated Load
Obtain the reactions at the supports.
X Pb
MB = 0, ⇒ P b − RA l = 0 ∴ RA = (4.23)
l
X Pa
MA = 0, ⇒ P a − RB l = 0 ∴ RB = (4.24)
l
At 0 < x < a, (4.25)
Pb
V − RA = 0, ⇒ V = RA = (4.26)
l
X Pb
Mx = 0 ⇒ M − RA x = 0, M = RA x = x (4.27)
l
At a < x < l, (4.28)
Pb P Pa
V + P − RA = 0, ⇒ V = −P + = − (l − b) = − (4.29)
X l l l
Mx = 0 ⇒ M − RA x + P (x − a) = 0, (4.30)
Pb
M = RA x − P (x − a) = x − Px + Pa (4.31)
l
(l − x)
M = P x − Px + Pa (4.32)
l
Pa
= Px − x − Px + Pa (4.33)
l
Pa
= (l − x) (4.34)
l
EMG 2203/EME2201: 4.10 Shear Force and Bending Moment in Beams 67
Figure 4.46:
Chapter 5
Area Properties
5.1 Centroid
The centroid is a point which defines the geometric centre of an object. It can also be defined as a
point where the property of the figure being evaluated appears to be concentrated. Classification
of centroids:
1. centroid of lines
2. centroid of areas
3. centroid of volumes
5.1.1 Centroid of lines
If the geometry of an object such as a thin rod or a wire takes the form of a line, its centroid can
be found by taking the moment of of line elements about a reference axis.
R
xdl
x̄ = RL (5.1)
L
dl
R
ydl
ȳ = RL (5.2)
L
dl
R
zdl
z̄ = RL (5.3)
L
dl
Example 5.1.1. Locate the centroid of the rod bend into the shape of a parabolic arc as shown in
figure 5.2
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.1 Centroid 69
Figure 5.1:
x = y2
Figure 5.2:
Solution
express dl in terms of dx and dy;
p
dl = dx2 + dy 2 (5.4)
since x = y 2 (5.5)
dx
= 2y ⇒ dx = 2ydy (5.6)
dy
p
∴ dl = dy (2y)2 + 1 (5.7)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.1 Centroid 70
R R1 p
l
xdl x 4y 2 + 1dy
x̄ = R = R0 1 p (5.8)
l
dl 4y 2 + 1dy
0
R 1 2p
y 4y 2 + 1dy x = y2
= R0 1 p (5.9)
0
4y 2 + 1dy
= 0.504m (5.10)
R R1 p
ydl y 4y 2 + 1dy
x̄ = Rl = R0 1 p (5.11)
l
dl 4y 2 + 1dy
0
R1 p
y 4y 2 + 1dy
= R0 1 p (5.12)
0
4y 2 + 1dy
= 0.573m (5.13)
Example 5.1.2. Locate the centroid of a circular wire segment shown in figure 5.3
Figure 5.3:
Solution
Since the arc is circular, polar coordinates can be used to solve this problem.
The differential element dl = Rdθ is located at x = R cos θ and y = R sin θ.
R Rπ 2
l
xdl 2
R cos θdθ
x̄ = R = 0 Rπ (5.14)
l
dl 2
Rdθ
0
π
R2 [sin θ]02
= π (5.15)
R[θ] 2 0
2R
= (5.16)
π
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.1 Centroid 71
R Rπ 2
ydl 2
R sin θdθ
ȳ = Rl = 0Rπ (5.17)
l
dl 2
Rdθ
0
π
R2 [−cosθ]02
= π (5.18)
R[θ] 2 0
2R
= (5.19)
π
5.1.2 Centroid of Areas
The centroid of the area of an object can be found by subdividing the area into differential elements
and computing the the moments of these area elements about the coordinate axis.
First Moment of Area
First moment of area of element dA about:
z-axis = ydA
y-axis = zdA
(a) First moment of area (b) Centroid
Figure 5.4: Area properties
Total first moment of area for the whole area:
Z X
z-axis = ydA or y∆A for discrete areas
ZA
y-axis = zdA
A
Location of the centroid (point where the area appears to be concentrated or geometrical centre
of the planar area)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.1 Centroid 72
R
ydA
Z
Aȳ =x = y 2ydA ⇒ ȳ = A
A A
R
zdA
Z
Az̄ = zdA ⇒ z̄ = A
A A
Centroid will always lie along an axis of symmetry.
Location of centroids using the above equations may be considered as finding the centroid from
first principles.
5.1.3 Centroid of Simple (plain) Geometrical figures
i. Triangle Centroid w.r.t. x-axis
Figure 5.5:
Area of elemental strip = xdy
For similar triangles,
b
x =(h − y) (5.20)
h
b
dA = (h − y)dy (5.21)
h
1st moment of area about the x-axis:
Z h Z h
b
ydA = y (h − y)dy (5.22)
0 0 h
b h h h hy 2 h3
Z
2
Aȳ = (hy − y )dy = − (5.23)
h 0 h 2 3
3
bh
= (5.24)
6
bh
Area of triangle A = 2
.
bh2 2 h
ȳ = · = (5.25)
2 bh 3
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.1 Centroid 73
ii. Quarter Circle
Consider an elemental strip as shown in figure 5.6
Figure 5.6:
Elemental area dA = rdθ · dr
location of elemental area y = rsinθ and x = rcosθ
Z RZ π
Aȳ =
2
r2 sin θdθdr (5.26) x
0 0
R3 4 4R
ȳ = · = (5.27)
3 πR2 3π
π
Z R Z
2
Ax̄ = r2 cos θdθdr (5.28)
0 0
3
R 4 4R
x̄ = · 2
= (5.29)
3 πR 3π
5.1.4 Location of Centroid of Composite Sections
To locate the centroid of complicated shapes and figures, we proceed as follows:
1. Centroid of an area must lie on the axis of symmetry if it exists.
2. Break up the complex figure into a number of plain geometrical figures.
3. Obtain the area of each constituent of the broken up figure.
4. Choose suitable axes of reference w.r.t. the position to which the centroid of the given
complex figure is to be determined.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.1 Centroid 74
5. Find the distance of centroids of each constituent geometrical figure from the axis of refer-
ence.
6. Take the moment of area of each constituent figure about the axis of reference.
7. Obtain the algebraic sum of all the moment of areas found in 6 and divide this sum by the
total area of the figure to obtain the distance required centroid from the axis of reference.
Example 5.1.3. Locate the centroids of the angle section shown in figure 5.9(a).
Figure 5.7:
Solution
Break up the figure into two rectangles
Table 5.1:
part Ai xi My = Ai xi yi Mx = Ai yi
1 40 1 40 10 400
2
P 20 7 140 1 20
60 180 420
P
My 180
x̄ = P = = 3cm (5.30)
Ai 60
P
Mx 420
ȳ = P = = 7cm (5.31)
Ai 60
Example 5.1.4. Locate the coordinate of the centroid of the shaded plane area shown in figure
5.8.
Solution
Break up the figure into 3 plain figures:
i. rectangle 1, 200 × 150
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 75
Figure 5.8:
ii. circle, 2, φ100
iii. triangle, 3, 100 × 75
Table 5.2:
part A xi My = Axi yi Mx = Ayi
1 200 × 150 = 30, 000 100 3,000,000 75 2,250,000
π1002
2 4
= −7, 854 100 -785,400 75 -589,050
100×75
3
P 2
= −3, 750 100 + 100 × 23 = 166.67 -625,000 75 + 75 × 23 = 125 -468,750
18,396 1,589,600 1,192,200
P
My 1, 589, 600
x̄ = = = 86.41mm (5.32)
A 18, 396
P
Mx 1, 192, 200
ȳ = = = 64.81mm (5.33)
A 18, 396
Exercise
Locate the centroid of the given I section:
5.2 Second Moment of Area
If each element of an area is multiplied by the square of its distance from an axis, the summation
of these quantities for the whole area is termed as the second moment of area about the axis and
is denoted by I.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 76
Figure 5.9: [Ans: x̄ = 10cm, ȳ = 10.19cm]
x dA
r
y
X X
Figure 5.10:
Z
IXX = y 2 dA
Z
IY Y = x2 dA
R
IZZ = r2 dA is the second moment of area about the axis ZZ perpendicular to the paper, and is
termed as the polar second moment of area (J).
The bending stresses and shear stresses in a beam for a given loading condition are proportional to
the second moment of area of the cross-section about an axis through the centroid perpendicular
to the plane of bending.
5.2.1 Rectangular Section - 2nd Moment of Area about the Centroid
Consider an elemental strip of height dy and width b.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 77
Figure 5.11:
The elemental 2nd Moment of area about the axis through the centroid, x-x will be given by:
dI = dA × y 2 = b · dy · y 2 (5.34)
Integrating within the height limits gives the 2nd moment of area of the section.
Z h
2
Ixx = b y 2 dy
−h
2
h y 3 i h2
= b
3 − h2
h h3 h3 i
= b +
24 24
bh3
=
12
5.2.2 Circular Section
Find the 2nd moment of area of a circular section about the centroidal axis.
Area of elemental strip,
dA = 2R · cosθ · dy (5.35)
y = Rsinθ (5.36)
dy
∴ = Rcosθ ⇒ dy = Rcosθ · dθ (5.37)
dθ
dI = y 2 dA = y 2 (2Rcosθ)(Rcosθ)dθ (5.38)
= R2 sin2 θ · 2R2 cos2 θdθ (5.39)
= 2R4 sin2 θcos2 θdθ (5.40)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 78
Figure 5.12:
Integrating, π
Z
2
4
Ixx = R 2sin2 θcos2 dθ (5.41)
− π2
From trigonometry,
sin2 2θ 1 1 − cos4θ
2sin2 θcos2 = = (5.42)
2 2 2
π
1 − cos4θ
Z
2
4
Ixx = R dθ (5.43)
− π2 4
R4 h sin4θ i π2
= θ− (5.44)
4 4 − π2
R4 h π π i
= −0 − − −0 (5.45)
4 2 2
πR4 πd4
= = (5.46)
4 64
5.2.3 Polar Second Moment of Area
The 2nd moment of area about an axis perpendicular to to the plane of an area is termed as the
Polar 2nd Moment of Area
It is an essential property in the analysis of shear stresses in torsion of circular sections.
Consider a circular area shown in the figure 5.13. It consists of an infinite number of concentric
circular rings each of thickness dr. Area of elemental ring,
dA = π(r + dr)2 − πr2 (5.47)
= πr2 + 2πrdr − π(dr)2 − πr2 (5.48)
= 2πrdr − π(dr)2 (5.49)
Ignoring products of small quantities,
dA = 2πrdr (5.50)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 79
Figure 5.13:
Therefore,
Z R
Izz = 2πr · r2 dr (5.51)
0
h r4 iR
= 2π (5.52)
4 0
πR4 πd4
= = (5.53)
2 32
5.2.4 Moment of Area Theorems
Parallel Axis Theorem
The second moment of area of a plane about any axis is equal to the second moment about a
parallel axis through the centroid, plus the product of the area and the square of the distance
between the axis.
dA
y
C
X X
h
O O
Figure 5.14:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 80
The second moment of area of an element of area dA about axis OO is,
dIOO = (y + h)2 dA = y 2 dA + 2yhdA + h2 dA
Therefore for the whole area,
Z Z Z
2 2
IOO = y dA + h dA + 2h ydA
Z
2
= IXX + h A + 2h ydA
R
Since XX passes through the centroid, the total first moment of area about XX is ydA = 0,
therefore,
IOO = IXX + Ah2 (5.54)
which is the parallel axes theorem.
5.2.5 Perpendicular Axis Theorem
Consider figure 5.15.
r y
X X
Figure 5.15:
Let the second moments of area of the element about axes XX, Y Y and ZZ be dIXX , dIY Y and
dJ respectively, then,
dIXX + dIY Y = y 2 dA + x2 dA = (y 2 + x2 )dA = r2 dA = dJ
Therefore for the whole area,
IXX + IY Y = IZZ = J (5.55)
which is the perpendicular axes theorem.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 81
5.2.6 2nd Moment of Area of Composite Sections
The moment of inertia of complex figures about an axis can be found by the following steps:
1. Divide the given figure into a number of simple figures
2. Locate the centroid of each simple figure by inspection or using standard expressions
3. Find the 2nd moment of area of each simple figure about its centroidal axis. Use the parallel
axis theorem to determine the total 2nd moment of area about the reference axis.
4. Sum up the 2nd moment of area of all the simple figures to get the 2nd moment of area of
the composite figure.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 82
Example 5.2.1. Determine the 2nd moment of area of the T-section shown about the centroidal
x-axis
Figure 5.16:
Solution
1. Locate the centroid
A1 = (100 × 15) = 1500mm2 , y1 = 100 + 7.5 = 107.5mm (5.56)
100
A2 = (100 × 15) = 1500mm2 , y2 = = 50mm (5.57)
X 2
A·y = A1 y1 + A2 y2 = 1500 × 107.5 + 1500 × 50 (5.58)
P
A·y (1500 × 107.5) + (1500 × 50)
ȳ = = (5.59)
A 1500 + 1500
ȳ = 78.75 (5.60)
2. Determine the 2nd Moment of Area
Apply the parallel axis theorem
h bd3 i h bd3 i
2 2
I = Ix1 + Ix2 = + Ah + + Ah (5.61)
12 1 12 2
h 100(15)3 i h 15(100)3 i
= + 1500(28.75)2 + + 1500(28.75)2 (5.62)
12 1 12 2
−6 4
= 3.758 × 10 m (5.63)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 83
Exercise
An I-section girder is 200mm wide by 300mm deep with a flange and web thickness of 20mm.
Determine the 2nd moment of area of the section about the horizontal centroidal axis.
Figure 5.17: Ans: [1.864 × 10−4 m4 ]
5.2.7 Product of inertia
Parallel axes theorem for product of inertia
Consider figure 5.18 below.
Y'
Y
Area ( A)
a G
X
X'
Figure 5.18:
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 84
When the product of inertia of a plane area is known about its centroidal axes XY , then the
product of inertia of the plane about any other axes, say X 0 Y 0 parallel to centroidal axes XY , is
given as,
IX 0 Y 0 = IXY + A × a × b (5.64)
Example ??. 3
Find the product of inertia for the section shown in figure below about axes XX and Y Y , and
hence find the product of inertia about a parallel axis X1 X1 and Y1 Y1 passing through the centroid.
All units are in mm.
200
X Y Y1 X
_
y (1) 20
_
x
120
G X1
100
( 2)
20
Y
Procedure: Divide the figure into two simple areas, that is 200 × 20 and 20 × 100.
Portion Area ( Ai ) Centroida Centroida Ai xi y i Ai xi Ai y i
(i) l distance l distance
( mm 2 ) mm 4 ( mm 3 ) ( mm 3 )
along x- along y-
axis ( xi ) axis ( y i )
1 200 × 20 100 -10 4000 × 100 × −10
= 4000 = −4000000 4000 × 100 4000 × −10
. = 400000 . = −40000
2 20 × 100 10 -70 2000 × 10 × −70 2000 × −70
= 2000 = −1400000 2000 × 10 . = −140000
. = 20000
∑ 6000 -5400000 420000 -180000
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.2 Second Moment of Area 85
The product of inertia about XY axis is,
X
IXY = Ai xi yi = −540 × 104 mm4
The position of the centroid is,
P
Ai xi 420000
x = P = = 70mm
Ai 6000
P
Ai yi −180000
y = P = = −30mm
Ai 6000
Using parallel axis theorem of product of inertias to determine IX1 Y1 . NOTE:X1 Y1 axis is the
centroidal axis.
IX1 Y1 = IXY + A × a × b
IXY = IX1 Y1 − A × a × b = −540 × 104 − (6000 × 70 × −30) = 720 × 104 mm4
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.3 Centre of Gravity 86
5.2.8 Centroid of a volume
Figure 5.19:
If an object is subdivided into volume elements dV2 , the location of the centroid C(x̄, ȳ, z̄) for the
x=y
volume of the object can be determined by computing the moments of the elements about the
coordinate axes. The resulting formulas are:
R R R
v
xdV v
ydV zdV
x̄ = R ȳ = R z̄ = Rv (5.65)
v
dV v
dV v
dV
The centroid of volume must lie on a plane of symmetry if it exists.
In general,
• In cases where a shape has an axis of symmetry, the centroid will lie along that axis.
• In cases where a shape has two or three axis of symmetry, it follows that the centroid lies
at the intersection of these axes.
5.3 Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity can be defined as the point through which the resultant force of gravity
(weight) acts. Consider a rigid body having a total weight W as shown in figure 5.20. The body
can be broken down into particles of differential weight dW . To determine the location of the
centre of gravity, we take the sum of the moments of the differential weights about the coordinate
axes and divide by the total weight of the body. Since the body is continuous, the integration is
used rather than discrete summation. The resulting equations are:
R R R
xdW ydW zdW
x̄ = Rw ȳ = Rw z̄ = Rw (5.66)
w
dW w
dW w
dW
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.3 Centre of Gravity 87
Figure 5.20:
The differential weight dW is normally expressed in terms of its associated volume dV . If γ
represents the specific weight of the body, measured as weight per unit volume, then dW = γdV
and therefore,
R R R
v
xγdV v
yγdV zγdV
x̄ = R ȳ = R z̄ = Rv (5.67)
v
γdV v
γdV v
γdV
The density ρ (mass per unit volume) is related to γ by the equation γ = ρg, where g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Substituting this relationship into equation 5.68 yields equations
which can be used to determine the center of mass of the body.
R R R
xρdV yρdV zρdV
x̄ = Rv ȳ = Rv z̄ = Rv (5.68)
v
ρdV v
ρdV v
ρdV
If a material is of uniform specific weight and hence uniform density, the center of gravity and
center of mass coincides with the centroid of volume of the body.
Example 5.3.1. Locate the center of mass of the two-block assembly shown in figure 5.21. The
specific weights of materials A and B are γA = 15kN/m3 and γB = 40kN/m3 , respectively.
Solution
The weight moments of individual parts can be computed using table 5.3.
Table 5.3:
part W x Wx y Wy z Wz
(0.6×0.6) 0.6 0.6
A 2
× 0.2 × 15 = 0.54 0.2 + 3 = 0.4 0.216 0.1 0.054 3
= 0.2 0.108
B
P 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.2 × 40 = 2.88 0.1 0.288 0.3 0.864 0.3 0.864
3.42 0.504 0.918 0.972
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.3 Centre of Gravity 88
0.6
0.6
0.6 0.2
0.2
Figure 5.21:
P
Wx 0.504
x̄ = = = 0.147m (5.69)
PW 3.42
Wy 0.918
ȳ = = = 0.268m (5.70)
PW 3.42
Wz 0.972
z̄ = = = 0.284m (5.71)
W 3.42
Example 5.3.2. Determine the coordinates of the center of mass of the bracket shown in Figure
22(a), which is constructed from sheet metal of uniform density and thickness.
Solution
Divide the bracket into 4 plain parts as shown in Figure ??
Table 5.4:
Part mi = ρVi xi yi zi mi xi mi yi mi zi
1 10000ρt 50 50 0 500 × 103 ρt 500 × 103 ρt 0
2 7500ρt 50 100 -37.5 375 × 103 ρt 750 × 103 ρt -281.25 × 103 ρt
3 3927ρt 50 100 -96.2 196.35 × 103 ρt 392.7 × 103 ρt -377.78 × 103 ρt
4 -1963.5ρt 50 100 -75 −98.175 × 103 ρt -196.35 × 103 ρt 147.26 × 103 ρt
19.463×103 ρt 973.17 × 106 3ρt 1.446 × 106 ρt −511.77 × 103 ρt
P
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.4 Tutorial 3 89
(a) Sheet metal bracket (b) Plain parts
Figure 5.22: Centre of mass
973.17 × 103 ρt
P
mi xi
x̄ = = = 50.0 mm
Σm 19.463 × 103 ρt
P i
mi y i 1.446 × 106 ρt
ȳ = = = 74.3 mm
Σm 19.463 × 103 ρt
P i
mi y i −511.77 × 103 ρt
z̄ = = = −26.3 mm
Σmi 19.463 × 103 ρt
5.4 Tutorial 3
Q1 The composite area shown in Figure 5.23 has a hollow circle of radius 20 mm. Locate the
centroid of the composite area.
[Ans: x̄ = 92.7mm, ȳ = 63.8mm]
Q2 Locate the centroid of the plate area shown in Figure 5.24:
[Ans:x̄ = −0.348m, ȳ = 1.22m]
Q3 Figure 5.25 shows the plane area of a sheet metal plate with a circular hole. Determine the
coordinates x̄ and ȳ of the center of the hole so that this point will be the centroid of the
remaining shaded area.
[Ans: ȳ=67.86 mm, x̄=109.52 mm]
Q4 The cross-section of a beam is shown in Figure 5.26. Determine the geometrical properties:
Ixx , Iyy and Izz .
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.4 Tutorial 3 90
Figure 5.23: Question 1
Figure 5.24: Question 2
Figure 5.25: Question 3
[Ans: Ixx =1.15668×1010 mm4 , Iyy =8.75729×109 mm4 , Izz =2.032406×1010 mm4 ]
Q5 Determine the second moment of area of the I-section shown in Figure 5.27 about the hori-
zontal centroidal axis.
[Ans: ȳ=87.38mm, Ixx = 59.57×106 mm4 ]
Q6 Locate the center of gravity of the two-block assembly shown in Figure 5.28. The specific
weights of materials A and B are γA =15kN/m3 and γB =40kN/m3 , respectively.
[Ans: x̄=0.151m, ȳ=0.258m, z̄=0.283m]
EMG 2203/EME2201: 5.4 Tutorial 3 91
Figure 5.26: Question 4
Figure 5.27: Question 5
Figure 5.28: Question 6
P M1 P
M1
RA RB
Chapter 6
P M1 P
M1
Distributed Load
RA RB
A large surface may be subjected to distributed loading such as wind, fluid, or weight of material
on a surface.
When the load is spread along the axis of a beam, it is represented as a distributed load.
Distributed loads are measured by their intensity, which is expressed in units of force per unit
distance (e.g Newtons per metre).
There are two commonly found distributed loads;
1. Uniformly distributed load which has a constant intensity q per unit distance.
Figure 6.1: Uniformly distributed load
2. A varying load has an intensity that changes with distance along the axis of the beam e.g.
linearly varying load with an intensity that varies linearly from q1 to q2
Figure 6.2: Varying distributed load
93
P M1 P
M1
Figure 6.3: Distributed load RB
RA
The resultant of a distributed load is equal to the area of the loading diagram and has its line of
action through the centroid of the loading diagram.
Z x2
Q = q(x)dx
Rxx12
x1
xq(x)dx
x̄ =
Q
A uniformly distributed load has a constant intensity q per unit distance.
Figure 6.4: Uniformly distributed load
Z l
Q = qdx = q[x]l0 = ql
0
Rl
qxdx
0 q h x il l
x̄ = = =
ql ql 2 0 2
A varying load has an intensity that changes with distance along the axis of the beam e.g. linearly
varying load with an intensity that varies linearly from q1 to q2
Triangular load is a linearly varying load that varies from zero at one end to a value say q at the
other end.
q
q(x) = x
l
Z l
q q h x2 il ql
Q = xdx = =
l l 2 0 2
R0 q 2
x dx 3
l 2q x l
h i 2
x̄ = ql
= 2 = l
2
l 3 0 3
94
Figure 6.5: Varying distributed load
Figure 6.6: Triangular load M1
Example 6.0.1. Obtain the reactions at the supports of the simply supported beam beam shown
in figure 6.7. P1 = 500N , P2 = 1KN , q = 200N/m, l = 4m, a = 1m
Figure 6.7:
Solution
Draw the free body diagram and apply equations of static equilibrium.
For horizontal equilibrium,
X
FH = 0 ⇒ RAH − P1 cos60o = 0 (6.1)
RAH = P1 cos60o = 500cos60o (6.2)
RAH = 250N (6.3)
95
Figure 6.8:
To find the vertical and horizontal reactions, we write equations of moment equilibrium about
points A and B.
X l M a
MB = 0 ⇒ RAV l − (P1 sin60o )(l − a) − P2 − qa = 0
1 (6.4)
2 2
o 2
P1 sin60 (l − a) P2 l qa
RAV = + + (6.5)
l 2l 2l
500sin60o (4 − 1) 1000 × 4 200 × 12
= + + (6.6)
4 2×4 2×4
RAV = 849.76N (6.7)
X l a
MB = 0 ⇒ −RB l + (P1 sin60o )(a) + P2 − qa(l − ) = 0 (6.8)
2 2
o a
P1 sin60 (a) P2 l l− 2
RB = + + qa (6.9)
l 2l l
500sin60o (1) 1000 × 4 200 × (1)(7)
= + + (6.10)
4 2×4 2×4
RAV = 783.25N (6.11)
Example 6.0.2. Obtain the moment reaction and the force reaction for the cantilever beam shown
in figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9:
Solution
Draw the free body diagram and apply equations of static equilibrium.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 6.1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams for Beams with
Distributed Loads 96
Figure 6.10:
To obtain the reaction force at support, apply vertical equilibrium equation:
X l
FV = 0 ⇒ RA − q (6.12)
4
ql
RA = (6.13)
4
To obtain the moment reaction at the support A, use the equation of equilibrium of moments:
X ql l
MA = 0 ⇒ MA − l− (6.14)
4 6
5ql2
M1 = (6.15)
24
6.1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams for Beams
with Distributed Loads
6.1.1 Cantilever Beam with Uniformly Distributed Load
At section xx,
V = −qx (6.16)
at x = 0, V = 0 (6.17)
at x = l, V = ql (6.18)
x x2
M = −qx = −q (6.19)
2 2
at x = 0, M = 0 (6.20)
2
l
at x = l, M = −q (6.21)
2
EMG 2203/EME2201: 6.1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams for Beams with
Distributed Loads 97
Figure 6.11:
6.1.2 Simply Supported Beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load
At section xx,
X l
MB = 0, ⇒ RA − ql = 0 (6.22)
2
ql
RA = (6.23)
2
X l
MA = 0, ⇒ RB − ql = 0 (6.24)
2
ql
RB = (6.25)
2
X
Fv = 0 ⇒ RA − qx − v = 0 (6.26)
V = RA − qx (6.27)
l
V = q −x (6.28)
2
X x
Mx = 0 ⇒ M − RA x + qx (6.29)
2
qx2
M = RA − (6.30)
2
q
M = (lx − x2 ) (6.31)
2
The shape of the S.F. and B.M. diagram is parabolic and is symmetrical about the midpoint.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 6.1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams for Beams with
Distributed Loads 98
Figure 6.12:
6.1.3 Combined Loading on an overhang Beam
Sketch the SF and BM diagram for the simply supported overhang beam shown indicating the
principle values.
For 0 < x < 1,
X
Fv = 0 ⇒ V − 2 = 0 (6.32)
V = 2KN (6.33)
X
Mx = 0 ⇒ M − 2x = 0 (6.34)
M = 2x (6.35)
atx = 0, M = 0; at x = 1, M = 2KN m (6.36)
EMG 2203/EME2201: 6.1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams for Beams with
Distributed Loads 99
Figure 6.13:
For 1 < x < 5
X
Fv = 0 ⇒ V + 5 − 2 = 0 (6.37)
V = −3KN (6.38)
X
Mx = 0 ⇒ 2x − 5(x − 1) = 0 (6.39)
M = 5 − 3x (6.40)
at x = 5, M = −10KN m (6.41)
5
f or m = 0, x = m (6.42)
3
EMG 2203/EME2201: 6.1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams for Beams with
Distributed Loads 100
For 5 < x < 7,
X
Fv = 0 ⇒ V − 2 + 5 − 13 + 5(x − 5) = 0 (6.43)
V = 35 − 5x (6.44)
X (x − 5)
Mx = 0, ⇒ M − 2x + 5(x − 1) − 13(x − 5) + 5(x − 5) =0 (6.45)
2
M = 35x − 2.5x2 − 122.5 (6.46)
at x = 7, M = 0 (6.47)
Highlights
1. For point loads on beams, the SF diagram shows horizontal straight lines and BM diagrams
show inclined straight lines.
2. For UDL on beams, the SF diagram shows inclined straight lines l while BM diagrams show
parabolic curves.
3. The bending moment is maximum when
dM
= 0 (6.48)
dx
or V = 0 (6.49)
Assignment
1) A 6m long beam is simply supported at the ends as shown in Figure 6.14. The beam carries a
distributed load varying linearly in magnitude from zero to 5KN/m over a span of 3m and a
point load of 15KN/m located 1m from the right hand support.
(a) Calculate the reactions at the supports.
(b) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams
(c) Determine the location and magnitude of the maximum bending moment in the diagram.
Figure 6.14:
Chapter 7
Virtual Work
7.1 Introduction
The principle of virtual work and the method of potential energy can be used to determine the
equilibrium position of a series of interconnected rigid bodies.
A force F does work only when it undergoes a displacement in the direction of the force. That is,
work of a force is defined as the force times the distance moved by the force along the direction of
the force. Work is a scalar quantity and its unit is joule (J) which is equivalent to the work done
by a force of 1N which moves 1m in the direction of the force (1J=1N-m)
Force and displacement are both vector quantities and they are combined using the dot product
to evaluate the mechanical work, that is,
U = F~ .d~ = F d cos θ
where θ is the angle between the force and the displacement vectors.
If the force moves differentially by ds in the direction of the force then the work done by the force
becomes;
~ = F ds cos θ
dU = F~ .ds
The two forces of a couple do work when the body rotates about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the couple. The work done by a couple of magnitude F which causes the body to rotate
differentially by dθ about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the couple, is given as;
dU = M dθ
where M is the moment of the couple, that is M = F r. If the body rotates in space, the work
done by a couple is defined by the dot product;
~ =
~ .dθ
dU = M
EMG 2203/EME2201: 7.2 Virtual Work 102
7.2 Virtual Work
The work of a force and a couple have been defined in terms of actual movements expressed by
differential displacements having magnitudes of ds and dθ.
Consider now an imaginary or virtual movements of forces, that is a displacement or rotation that
is assumed and does not really exist. These virtual movements will be denoted by symbols δs and
δθ.
Therefore;
(a) The virtual work done by a force undergoing a virtual displacement δs is;
δU = F cos θδs
(b) The virtual work done by a couple undergoing a virtual rotation δθ is;
δU = M δθ
7.2.1 Principle of Virtual Work
Principle of Virtual Work for a Particle
If a particle in static equilibrium undergoes an imaginary or virtual displacement in the x, y
and z direction, the virtual work δU done by the force system must be equal to zero, since the
P P P
components Fx = 0, Fy = 0 and Fz = 0. This may be expressed mathematically as;
δU = 0
For example, if the particle under the action of several forces in space is given a virtual displacement
δx, only the x-components of these forces acting on the particle do work. no work is done by the
y and z components, since they are perpendicular to the displacement (cos 900 = 0). The virtual
work equation is therefore;
δU = 0
F1x δx + F2x δx + F3x δx + ......FN x δx = 0
(F1x + F2x + F3x + ......FN x )δx = 0
P
Since δx 6= 0, then this equation is satisfied if Fx = 0.
The other two virtual work equations can be written by assuming virtual displacements δy and
δz in the y and z directions respectively.
Solving a particle or a rigid body problem using the principle of virtual work has no added
advantage, because each application of the virtual work equation, the virtual displacement factors
out leaving an equation that could have been obtained directly by applying equations of static
equilibrium.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 7.2 Virtual Work 103
Principle of Virtual Work for a System of Connected Rigid Bodies
The method of principle of virtual work is most appropriate for solving equilibrium problems that
involve a system of several connected rigid bodies, such as multi-body mechanical systems (e.g.,
slider-crank mechanism)
The principle of virtual work for a system of rigid bodies whose connections are frictionless states
as follows: A system of connected rigid bodies is in equilibrium provided that the virtual work done
by all the external forces and couples acting on the system is zero for each independent virtual
displacement of the system. Mathematically, this may be expressed as;
δU = 0
where δU represents the virtual work of all the external forces and couples acting on the system
during any independent virtual displacement.
This principle is applied as follows; Draw the free body diagram of the entire system of con-
nected bodies, determine the virtual displacements and then obtain the virtual work equations by
assuming that all the position coordinates undergo positive virtual displacements.
Example 7.2.1. Using the principle of virtual work, determine the angle θ for the linkage shown
in Figure 7.1. Each link uniform and has a mass of 10kg
Figure 7.1:
Solution
The free body diagram can be drawn as shown in Figure 7.2.
When the independent coordinate θ undergoes a clockwise virtual displacement δθ, only the active
forces (external) forces do work, that is F=25N, and the two W=98.1N
The origin of the coordinate system is established at the fixed pin support D, and the location
of forces W and F are specified by the position coordinates yw and xB . respectively as shown.
In order to determine the work done by the forces, each position coordinate is parallel to the
associated force.
EMG 2203/EME2201: 7.2 Virtual Work 104
Figure 7.2:
The position coordinates can be represented in terms of the independent coordinate θ as;
xB = 2 × (1cosθ) = 2 cos θ
yw = 0.5 sin θ
Taking the derivatives of these position coordinates we have;
δxB = −2 sin θδθ
δyw = 0.5 cos θδθ
Therefore, the virtual work done by these three forces is;
δU = 0
W δyw + W δyw + F δxB = 0
98.1 × (0.5 cos θδθ) + 98.1 × (0.5 cos θδθ) + 25(−2 sin θδθ) = 0
98.1 cos θ − 50 sin θ = 0
h 98.1 i
θ = tan−1 = 63.00
50
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