SOILS

The soil is the outermost layer of the Earth’s surface and which is essential for plant growth.

The main elements of the soil are:

1. minerals- inorganic- broken pieces of rocks which form the basis of all soils.

2. water- is essential for plant growth.

3. air – gases in the soil such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen

4. living organisms- earthworms, ants, bacteria and fungi

5. humus- comes from decayed plant and animal matter and is usually black in colour.

● Humus gives the soil fertility.

● Humus helps the soil to retain water

● Humus helps to stick sand, silt and clay particles together to give a good crumb structure.

The Soil Profile

The soil profile is the vertical arrangement of the soil from the surface to the under-lying bed
rock. It normally has layers which are called horizons. These layers show differences in colour,
texture, moisture content etc. There are usually four horizons named A, B, C and D (R).

The A horizon is the upper part of the soil and is the layer where most biological activity takes
place. It is usually the most fertile layer. It is composed of the finer material and is usually called
the top-soil. It is also the zone where leaching takes place.

The B horizon is the second layer often referred to as the sub-soil. It is the zone of accumulation.
It is composed of coarser materials. It has fewer plant roots and micro-organisms.

NB: The A and B horizons are referred to as the true soil.

The C-horizon consists of weathered materials. These are broken pieces of parent rock from
which the A and B horizons are formed.

The D-horizon consists of solid bedrock.

QUESTION: What is meant by the following terms:

i) Soil texture: ________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
ii) Soil structure:________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

The Typical Soil Profile

Soil-Forming Processes

There are five major processes involved in the formation of the soil:

i) Weathering. This breaks down solid rocks into small pieces called regolith. This is the basis of
all soils. Weathering also helps to release rock minerals into the soil so that it can be accessed b
plants. Where chemical weathering is dominant, the soils tend to be deeper.

ii) Leaching (Eluviation): This is removal of soluble minerals downwards into the soil. Materials
are often moved from The A horizon and deposited into the B-horizon. If leaching is intense, the
material may be washed completely from the soil.
iii) Capillary Action: This is the upward movement of soluble minerals in the soil. The material
is usually deposited in the A- horizon.

iv) Illuviation: This is the redeposition of moved material into the soil. It can be deposited into
either the A or B horizons. In the lower horizon, it often results in the formation of a hard pan.

v) Organic Decay: This is the process by which litter is broken down to form humus. Decay is
usually faster in the humid, tropical regions.

Factors Affecting Soil Formation

There are five major soil-forming processes:

Parent materials
Soil minerals form the basis of soil. They are produced from rocks (parent material) through the
processes of weathering. The parent material has the least impact on the soil. However, the types
of parent materials and the conditions under which they break down will influence the properties
of the soil formed. The parent material influences the texture of the soil, its depth and
composition. For example, soils formed from granite are often sandy and infertile whereas those
formed under basalt tend to be fertile, clay soils.

Vegetation and Organisms

The vegetation produces litter which is important for the formation of humus. The more litter
produced, the more humus is likely to be produced making the soil more fertile. Soil formation is
influenced by micro-organisms such as bacteria or fungi, burrowing insects and animals. As soil
forms, plants begin to grow in it. The plants mature, die and new ones take their place. Their
leaves and roots are added to the soil. Animals eat plants and their wastes and eventually their
bodies are added to the soil. This begins to change the soil. Bacteria, fungi, worms and other
burrowers break down plant litter and animal wastes and remains, to eventually become organic
matter. This may take the form of peat, humus or charcoal.

Climate
This is the most important factor. Temperature affects the rate of weathering and organic
decomposition. With a colder and drier climate, these processes can be slow but, with heat and
moisture, they are relatively rapid.

Rainfall dissolves some of the soil materials and holds others in suspension. The water carries or
leaches these materials down through the soil. Over time this process can change the soil,
making it less fertile. Less fertile may lead to capillary action.

Topography
The shape and length of a slope affects drainage. These factors change the way soils form. Soil
materials are progressively moved within the natural landscape by the action of water, gravity
and wind (for example, heavy rains erode soils from the hills to lower areas, forming deep soils).
The soils left on steep hills are usually shallower.

Time
Soil properties may vary depending on how long the soil has been weathered. It takes a long
time, usually hundreds to thousands of years for rocks to break down and produce a mature soil.
Most of the soils of the world have taken more than 10, 000 years to form. Minerals from rocks
are further weathered to form materials such as clays and oxides of iron and aluminium.

QUESTIONS:
6) Which of the following organisms will
1. Which is the most fertile soil? not be found in the soil?

a) sand b) silt c) clay d) loam a) Earthworms b) Spring tail

c) Lemurs d) Ants
2. The dark colour in the soil indicates the
presence of ___________________. 7. Which of the following is not a soil
forming process?
a) humus b) clay c) acid d) alkaline
a) humus b) leaching
3. What is a good horizon? c) weathering d) organic decay

a) A factor influencing how soil is formed. 8. Which of the following is the LEAST
b) A layer of soil. effective factor affecting soil formation?
c) An organism found with the soil.
d) A technique used to map soils. a) parent material b) time
c) climate d) vegetation
4. Which three layers are in the soil profile?
9) Which of the following in not true about
a) Air, water and soil. climate in respect to the soil?
b) Minerals, worms, plants
c) Top soil, subsoil, parent material a) It determines the rate and type of
d) silt, clay, sand weathering.
b) It determines the speed of organic decay.
5. Why is organic matter important to the c) It is not affected by time.
soil? d) It affects the depth of the soil.

a) It helps to improve infiltration. 10. What are the different sections in the soil
b) It can break down organic pollutants called?
c) It converts nitrogen to nitrates..
d) It adds to soil fertility. a) horizons b) bedrock
c) top soil d) sub soil