Learning Unit 1 Hardware

1.1 Types of Computers

1.1.1 Microcontrollers

A microcontroller is an integrated circuit that provides a specific operation usually in an embedded

system (a system that is part of a larger system). A typical microcontroller includes a processor,
memory and programmable Input/Output (I/O) pins which can connect to peripherals. The simplest
microcontrollers are found in everyday appliances, such as ovens, refrigerators, televisions and lawn-
watering systems. They are also common in photocopiers, scanners, printers, smart meters, wearable
devices, ATMs, mobile devices and security systems.

Systems On a Chip (SOC) such as Raspberry PI and Arduino board include a microprocessor and have
ports such as USB and Ethernet. The board may provide a SD card slot to store the operating system
and applications.

1.1.2 Servers

A server is a central computer in a network that contains collections of data and programs. They
provide services such as printing, email, connections to the Internet to users. Servers are more
powerful than PCs and typically have dual power supplies, RAID disk systems, multiple CPUs and a
large amount of memory. Examples of servers are print servers, file servers and email servers.

1.2 Mobile Computers

Mobile computing is technology that allows the transmission of data, voice and video via a computer
or any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a physical link.

1.2.1 Types of Mobile Computers

Mobile computers are categorised as follows:

1.2.1.1 Laptops/Notebooks/Netbooks

Laptop computers, notebooks and netbooks are similar in that they use the same basic parts: a
screen and a keyboard connected by hinges. Their main difference is their size. These devices are
battery powered, portable and connect wirelessly to the Internet or provide an Ethernet port to
connect to a network using a cable.

1.2.1.2 Smartphones, Phablets and Tablets

Mobile devices that performs many of the functions of both a phone and a computer, this is called
convergence of functions. Phablets is the name given for large screen smartphones. Smartphone
and tablet devices usually have a touchscreen interface, Internet access, and an operating system
capable of running downloaded apps. Smartphones can also make telephone calls.

1.2.1.3 Wearable Computers

A wearable computer is any small technological device capable of storing and processing data that
can be worn on the body. Examples include:

• • Smart watches e.g. Apple Watch - a wearable device that resembles and functions as a
wristwatch. In addition to telling time, a wearer can make and answer phone calls from a connected
smartphone, read or dictate email and text messages, listen to music and perform other tasks often
handled by a smartphone.

• • Head mounted display e.g. Google glass – a wearable device that resembles a pair of
eyeglasses. These glasses can be operated by voice command; display a map for driving directions;
have a Global Positioning System (GPS); a camera and a microphone. A wearer can connect with
others via video calls, send pictures and video clips, check their email, post to Facebook and Twitter
and more.

• • Fitness trackers e.g. Fitbit - a wearable device that resembles a wristwatch. Sports watches
have GPS to log the distance and time of the wearer’s workout, record the wearer’s heart rate, pace
and calories burned.

• • Sports’ tracking systems e.g. Adidas miCoach Elite System - The sensor is fitted inside the
athlete’s clothing, the series of sensors and GPS tracker the wearer’s heart rate, distance, speed,
power, acceleration and, if required, position on the field. This data is then wirelessly transmitted to
a central computer and sent to an iPad where coaches and trainers can analyze the information.

1.2.2 Generic Features of Mobile Computers

Mobile devices are portable, battery powered, have wireless computing and communication features
that can be used in remote or mobile environments. Their generic features are as follows:

• • Portability: the ability for a user to easily move the device to different environments. This
means that devices are usually lightweight, compact and have a battery that powers the device for
several hours.

• • Connectivity: the ability for the devices to be wirelessly connected.

• • Interactivity: a user can easily share data and collaborate with other users.

• • Individuality: a user can adapt their mobile computing to their individual needs.

1.2.3 Limitations of Mobile Computers

• • Life Cycle: Devices can generally not be upgraded and have a short life cycle before a new
device with better features is available.

• • Power: Mobile devices rely on battery power and the availability of charging points.
Batteries usually have a limited lifecycle are usually expensive to replace.

• • Human interface with device: Small screens and keyboards may make devices hard to use.

• • Security Issues: Device portability makes them easy targets for theft or loss. For example,
they are easier to steal or lose than desktops.

• • Cost: In South Africa devices and data roaming services can be expensive.

• • Connection speed: Internet access is generally slower than direct cable access.

• • Transmission interferences: Weather, geography and some building materials can interfere
with signal reception.

1.3 Small Office / Home Office

A Small Office / Home Office (SOHO) is a term that refers to the small or home office business
environment. SOHO is characterised by:

• • A small size of office space.

• • In some cases, the workspace is designated space in the business owner’s home.

• • Businesses consisting up to 10 people.

1.4 The Computer Motherboard

The motherboard is a large piece of plastic upon which all the components and connections
that make up the computer, are mounted. The motherboard has a little quartz crystal clock
mounted on it which creates a set of regular electrical pulses. The computer uses these
pulses to synchronise all the operations of the components and devices connected to it.

1.5 ROM Chips

Read Only Memory (ROM) chips are used for permanently storing information. It is the memory
containing the instructions that the computer uses when the computer boots up, before the
operating system loads. In a computer, the instructions are read from the program store in the ROM,
called the Basic Input Output System (BIOS).

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The uniquie characteristics of ROM are:

• • Data stored in these chips is non-volatile, which means that the data is not lost even if the
computer

• does not have power.

• • Data stored in these chips either unchangable or requires a special operation to change.

1.5.1 Types of ROM

• • On a standard Read Only Memory (ROM) chip, the data cannot be reprogrammed or
rewritten. If the data needs to be updated, the chip must be removed and replaced with a new one.

• • Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) chips can be bought inexpensively and coded
by with a special tool called a PROM programmer or PROM burner.

• • Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) chips can be reprogrammed many
times. The chip must be removed from the motherboard and all the data must be completely erased
before the new data can be stored on the chip using a special tool called a PROM programmer or
PROM burner.

• • Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) chips do not have to be
removed from the motherboard to be rewritten and the entire chip does not have to be completely
erased to change a specific portion of the data stored on it. Changing the data does not require any
special tools.
1.6 RAM Chips

Random Access Memory (RAM) memory modules are found in desktop and laptop computers;
tablets, smartphones and other devices, such as printers.

The characteristics of RAM are:

• • Data stored in these chips is volatile, which means that the data is only stored while the
device is turned on. When the device is powered down, data stored on RAM is erased.

• • A Dual In-Line Memory Module (DIMM) is a small circuit board that holds RAM memory
chips on the motherboard.

• • In tablets and smartphones, RAM is typically integrated and therefore cannot be removed
and upgraded.

• • The amount of RAM a computer has impacts the speed of the computer’s processing
ability. With more RAM, the less the CPU must read data from slower secondary memory (storage
device), allowing the computer to process instructions faster.

• • RAM capacity is measured in gigabytes (GB) and its speed is measured in Mega Hetz (MHz)
or Giga Hertz (GHz).

• • When a device is restarted, the operating system and applications are loaded into the
RAM, followed by their associated data. For example, the Word Processor application and the user's
document. This explains why restarting a computer can fix problems.

1.6.1 Types of RAM

Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) retains its data as long as there is power. Dynamic Random
Access Memory (DRAM) requires that the memory must be constantly refreshed or it will lose its
contents. DRAM is often referred to as DDR SDRAM:

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• • Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) “synchronizes” the memory speed with CPU clock speed.
SDRAM avoids any delay caused by refreshing the memory, by synchronising the refresh when there
is no request for data.

• • Single Data Rate Synchronous DRAM (SDR SDRAM) processes one read and one write
instruction per clock cycle.

• • Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM (DDR SDRAM) processes two read and two write
instructions per clock cycle. Each upgrade to DDR SDRAM runs at higher clock speeds, has greater
memory capacity and lower power consumption: DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4.

• • Graphics Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM (GDDR SDRAM) is specifically designed for
video graphics rendering. Each upgrade to GDDR SDRAM has improved performance and lower
power consumption: GDDR2 SDRAM, GDDR3 SDRAM, GDDR4 SDRAM, and GDDR5 SDRAM.

SRAM DRAM

Used mostly for cache memory. Used mostly for standard memory.

Uses transistors to store data. Uses capacitors to store data. Capacitors need to
 be refreshed.

Larger in physical size than DRAM. Smaller in physical size than SRAM.

Faster reading and writing to memory than DRAM. Slower reading and writing to memory than SRAM.

More expensive than DRAM. Cheaper than SRAM.

Requires a constant power supply, which means DRAM uses less power.
SRAM.

Products using SRAM: Products using DRAM:

• • CPU cache (e.g. L1, L2, L3) • • System memory

• • Hard drive buffer/cache • • Video graphics memory

• • Digital-to-analogue converters (DACs) on

video cards

1.7 The Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the computer component that is responsible for interpreting
and executing the instructions it receives from hardware and software. The CPU is the “brains” of the
computer. Modern CPU chips contain more than one core. Each core is a separate processor that can
process its own set of instructions and data.

Intel and AMD manufacturer processors for desktops, laptops, and servers; while Apple, NVIDIA, and
Qualcomm manufacture processors for smartphones and tablets.

CPUs are small and square and contain multiple metallic connectors or pins on the underside. The
CPU is inserted directly into the CPU socket, pin side down, on the motherboard.

The speed at which the CPU can execute instructions is known as the processing power or speed of
the CPU and is given in units of gigahertz (GHz)

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1.7.1 Components of the CPU

• • The Control Unit (CU) extracts instructions from memory; decodes and executes
instructions, calling on the ALU when necessary.

• • The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical
operations.

• • The Registers are used by the CPU to store the current instruction. Registers are different
to the RAM of the computer which stores ALL the applications and data that the user has loaded.
Registers are made out of SRAM, which is much faster than RAM, made out of DRAM. Each
instruction (which is part of an application), with its data, sent to the CPU one by one and is stored in
the registers.

• • Cache Memory (L1), also made out of SRAM, is used by the CPU to store the set of
instructions and data that will be needed by the CPU. Instead of the CPU accessing slower RAM, the
CPU can access the faster L1 cache reducing the delay each time instructions and data need to be
fetched from RAM.

1.7.2 The Machine Cycle

The Machine Cycle is the cycle that the CPU follows to process each instruction one by one. The
machine cycle has four steps: fetch; decode; execute and store.

• • FETCH the program instruction: The next instruction is fetched from cache or RAM.

• • DECODE the program instruction: The instruction is decoded by the CU into a form the ALU
can understand.

• • EXECUTE the program instruction: The instruction is carried out by the ALU.

• • STORE the result: The processed data from the executed instruction is stored in the
registers or RAM.

1.7.3 Cache Memory

Cache Memory is high-speed SRAM that is placed between the CPU and RAM.

The characteristics of cache are:

• • Cache memory can be accessed faster than RAM, therefore cache memory increases a
computer's performance.

• • Cache memory is used to store program instructions and data that are used repeatedly in
the operation of programs or information that the CPU is likely to need next.

• • Cache memory has a very small capacity, which is measure in kilobytes (KB) or Megabytes
(MB).

Cache is organized in different levels according to its proximity to the processor core:

• • Level 1 (L1), built into the CPU and runs at the same clock speed as the CPU. It is the most
expensive of cache memory and has a very small capacity (about 32KB). L1 is private cache for each
core. L1 is SRAM.

• • Level 2 (L2), is built into the CPU, although not as close to the core as L1 cache. L2 is less
expensive and has a larger capacity (about 256 KB) that L1 cache. L2 is private cache for each core.

• • Level 3 (L3), a separate chip on the motherboard between the CPU and RAM. L3 cache is
cache that is shared between cores and has a much large capacity (about 2 MB).

The easiest way to consider the different levels of cache is to consider each type as a kind of “half-
way house” for the data on the transfer from RAM to the CPU. The closer to the CPU it is, the faster
and more expensive it is.

The concept of caching is often used in computer, the idea of using a faster device that is faster than
a slower device to speed up access to data is used in disk cache, web cache and browser cache.
1.8 Expansion Ports and Slots

A slot is mounted directly onto the motherboard and allows a user to connect a board or card
(sometimes called a daughter board) directly onto the motherboard. This is classified as an internal
connection. When a user inserts a new card, they must first switch the computer off to avoid causing
any damage.

A port is an external connection and allows a user to connect a device on the outside of the
computer case. This port then connects to the motherboard through either a card mounted in a slot
or built-in circuitry. This is classified as an indirect connection.

1.8.1 SATA Ports

The Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) is a computer communication bus interface that
connects storage devices to the motherboard. A user can connect Hard Disk Drives (HDDs); optical
drives and Solid-State Drives (SSDs) to the ports using SATA cables. SATA devices are hot-swappable,
the device can be removed or installed switching off the computer.

1.8.2 Non-Volatile Memory Express

Non-Volatile Memory Express NVMe is computer communication bus interface that connects SSDs
to the motherboard. The bus allows SSDs to read/write at much high speed than via a SATA
communication bus.

1.8.3 M.2 Format

SSDs and HDDs are both secondary storage that permanently store applications and data. SSDs are
much faster than HDDs, the reason for this will be discussed later.

With the increase in speed of SSDs and the

decrease in size (2.5inches), the SATA interface was
becoming too slow and bulky. The M.2 format is
designed for manufacturers to install a variety of
high speed devices that require very little power, in
small spaces. M.2 cards include Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth radios and SSDs. The M.2 slot can use
any of the following communication buses: SATA
3.0; PCI Express (PCIe) 3.0, USB 3.0 and NVMe.

1.8.4 Graphic Cards

The graphics card translates the information that the computer is working on into images and sends
them to a display. The more powerful the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU), the faster images can be
displayed, and the better the visual experience.

An integrated or onboard GPU does not have its own RAM, it uses the RAM of the computer to store
information it needs to process and is built into the motherboard. Integrated graphic cards are
cheaper and are ideal for watching or editing videos, 2D gaming and general word processing.
Dedicated or discrete GPUs are designed for 3D gaming or for professional graphic designers. A
dedicated GPU has its own video memory such as GDDR SDRAM and does not use the RAM of the
computer.

1.9 The Power Supply Unit (PSU)

The computer Power Supply Unit (PSU) converts electricity, Alternating Current (AC) into low-voltage
Direct Current (DC) power for the components of the computer.

1.10 Input Devices

1.10.1 Scanners

A scanner is a device that captures physical images from photographic prints, posters, magazine
pages and documents; and converts the images into a digital format.

• • Types of scanners include hand-held, feed-in or flatbed.

• • Scanners usually connect to your computer via the USB port.

• • Scanners work together with TWAIN software programs, which imports the data from the
scanner and allows the user to manipulate the image.

• • Some scanning software includes Optical Character Recognition (OCR) which recognises
the scanned text so that it can be edited by word processing software.

1.10.1.1 Advantages

• • Scanners provide high quality resolution for both black and white and colour document.
Resolution for scanners is measure in dots per inch (dpi).

• • Scanners create digital copies of documents and photographs so that the user can store the
files electronically saving paper, energy and physical storage space.

• • Scanned images can be modified by graphics application software.

1.10.1.2 Disadvantages

• • Images files captured by a scanner are usually very large in size.

• • Images lose some quality in the scanning process.

• • The quality of the final image depends on the quality of the original image.

1.10.2 Digital Cameras

A digital camera uses digital optical components to register the intensity and colour of light and
converts it into pixel data. Pixels, which is short for “Picture Elements”, are the small little dots that
make up the images on computer displays.

A digital camera’s memory card works at a certain speed, measured in megabytes per second (MB/s),
this determines how many images it can capture per second and the speed of uploading. The
memory card’s capacity, usually measure in gigabytes (GB), determines how many images can be
stored on the card.
There are four ways to save images taken on a digital camera or smartphone camera:

• • Using a card reader – by connecting a card reader to the computer, a user can transfer the
image files from the memory card onto the computer.

• • Using a USB cable – many cameras have a mini-USB port so that the user can connect the
camera directly to the computer using a USB cable to transfer the images.

• • Connecting via Bluetooth of Wi-Fi – many cameras can be connected to a smartphone or

computer via Bluetooth or Wi-Fi technology, allowing images to be transferred and stored.

• • Uploading files to the Internet – some cameras (including smartphones) can connect
directly to the internet and upload the image files to social media sites or cloud storage.

1.10.2.1 Advantages

The following list describes the advantages of using a digital camera instead of a traditional film
camera.

• • The storage card is much smaller, cheaper, has the capacity for many more images and is
easier to transport than film.

• • Most smart devices have built-in cameras, this means that anyone with a smart device has
access to digital photography.

• • The images can be digitally edited either on the camera itself or if the file is transferred to a
computer then by using editing software, many more effects can be done to the image.

1.10.2.2 Disadvantages

• • A corrupt memory card will result in the photograph files being “lost”.

• • The camera battery can go flat, and the user will be unable to take photographs until the
battery is recharged.

1.10.3 Biometric Input

A biometric input device inputs a person’s biological features or characteristics and stores the
representation digitally in order to identify the user. There two categories of biometric sensors:

Physiological

• • Fingerprint

• • Iris of retina

• • Face

• • DNA
Behavioural

• • Voice

• • Signature

Biometric devices can be used to uniquely identify individuals. They are more reliable than using
passwords to authenticate a user.

1.10.3.1 Fingerprint Scanners

Fingerprint Scanners record an image of a person's fingerprint by mapping the arches, whorls, loops
and furrows of a fingerprint. The scanning of the fingerprint is very reliable, however some people,
particularly the elderly, do not have identifiable fingerprints.

Fingerprint scanners are used to protect access to computer devices and entry through doors.
Cheaper, less advanced fingerprint scanners can easily be bypassed by fake fingerprints.

1.10.3.2 Retina or Iris Scanners

Retina or Iris Scanners identifies a person by scanning the patterns in the ring-shaped colour that
surrounds the pupil of the eye. These scanners are more secure than other biometric devices,
because it is not possible to duplicate the retina or iris. Retina or iris scanners are used to protect
entry to secured rooms and smartphones use the technology to prevent access to the device.

1.10.3.3 Face Scanners

Face scanners identify a person by taking measurements of a person’s face. The device measures
characteristics of a human face, including the distance between a person’s chin, eyes, nose and
mouth. High quality face scanners can distinguish between a picture of a person and a real person,
making them a very secure device.

Social networking web sites like Facebook uses software for face recognition to tag the people in
photographs. Google Photos uses facial recognition to categorise online photo albums according to
the people in the photo collection. It can also recognise, buildings, pets and other animals.

1.10 3.4 Voice Recognition

Voice recognition devices identify a person by converting analogue audio into digital signals. The
device software matches the stored patterns in its digital database to the received signals. These
scanners can improve security, but less advanced voice recognition scanners can be bypassed using a
tape recording. In-home digital assistants from Google (Google Home), Amazon (Amazon Alexa) and
Apple (HomePod) have implemented voice recognition software to interact with users.

1.10.3.5 Advantages

• • Unique, they make it possible to differentiate one individual from another.

• • Universal, biometrics can be found in all individuals.

• • Recordable (with or without consent).

• • Measurable, allowing for future comparison.

1.10.4 Handheld Input Devices

A handheld or mobile input device is a device that can easily be carried by a user, for the purposes
of inputting data into a computer system.

Hand-held input devices include barcode readers and game controllers.

1.10.4.1 Barcode Readers

Barcode readers are devices that are used for

reading bar coded data (data in the form of many
light and dark lines). The barcode reader scans the
image and converts it to an alphanumeric value.
Examples of barcodes include labelling products in
a shop, labelling the books in a library and personal
identification numbers. QR codes have become
more useful than barcodes since they can store
much more data, including URLs of web sites,
geographical coordinates, and text. QR codes can
be read using freely available applications on
mobile devices such as tablets and smartphones.

1.10.4.2 Game Controllers

A game controller, gamepad, joypad or video game controller is a handheld input device designed
to connect a user to a computer or gaming systems. These devices usually have multiple buttons and
one or two mini joysticks. Each button and/or joystick is configured to perform and specific actions in
the gaming system. Examples of gaming system that use game controllers include Xbox, PlayStation
and Nintendo.

1.10.4.3 Virtual Reality (VR) Controllers

Virtual reality (VR) controllers allow users to explore the virtual world environment and pickup or
manipulate virtual objects.

These devices work using the following principles:

• • Head tracking: a user wears a virtual reality (VR) headset, the picture shifts as they look up
down and side to side or angle their heads.

• • Motion tracking: devices track a person’s real-world movement and translates it to

movement in the virtual world. Users can walk, jump, pickup and move virtual objects.

• • Eye tracking: an infrared sensor monitors the user’s eyes inside the headset, so the system
knows where the user’s eyes are looking in virtual reality. For example, if the user’s eyes look at an
object in the distance, the technology blurs the foreground, just like people experience in the real
world.

1.11 Output Devices

1.11.1 Monitor Display

A computer screen or monitor is an output device that displays text and graphic images to the
device user.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors are slim in design, have low power consumption and are used
for desktop computers and mobile computing devices.

• • Resolution refers to the number of individual dots of colour, known as pixels, contained on
a display. Resolution affected by the size of the screen and is measured by identifying the number of
pixels on the horizontal axis (rows) and the number of the vertical axis (columns), for example
1024x768; 1280x1024; 1280x800.

• • Aspect ratio is the width of the display screen in relation to the height, for example 4:3,
16:9.

• • For LCD monitors the screen size is measured in inches, diagonally, from corner to corner
inside the external casing, for example 19”; 24”; 27”.

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• • The contrast ratio is defined as the ratio of the luminance of the brightest colour (white) in
relation to the darkest colour (black) that the display system can produce.

• • The response time is the amount of time a pixel in a display takes to change. It is measured
in milliseconds (ms).

• • A touch screen is any display that a user can interactive with by touching the display. They
function as a combination of an input and output device.

1.11.2 Monitor Ports

External monitors are connected to devices using Video Graphics Array (VGA) or High-Definition
Multimedia Interface (HDMI).

The following table provides a comparison between HDMI

the two port types. VGA

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Signal Type Analog Digital

Maximum Resolution 2048x1536 Up to 8K (7680 × 4320) video

Signal transfer speed (bandwidth) 200+Mbp Up to 48 Gbps

Audio No Yes

Connections Monitor Home Entertainment (TVs, DVD

players, Satellite decoder, gaming
Projector
systems)

Monitor
 Projector

1.11.3 3D Printers

3D printing technology can be used to create anything from prototypes and simple parts to highly
technical final products including eco-friendly building, medical implants, artificial organs and food.

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process where a 3D printer creates three-dimensional

solid objects by depositing materials layer by layer from a 3D digital model. Filaments, made of
different materials, serve as the “ink” for 3D printers.

1.11.3.1 Examples of 3D printer products

• • Eyewear

• • Dental products

• • architectural scale models

• • prosthetics

• • movie props

• • design (lamps, furniture etc)

• • reconstructing fossils in palaeontology

• • replicating ancient artefacts in archaeology

• • reconstructing bones and body parts in forensic pathology

• • reconstructing heavily damaged evidence retrieved from a crime scene

1.11.3.2 Advantages

• • Faster production – 3D printing is quicker that traditional manufacturing, users can design
a prototype and print a sample is a very short time frame.

• • Cost effective – a single user can print many items using from a computer and 3D printer.

• • The user has complete control over the quality of the 3D object printed as opposed to a
bulk manufactured part.

• • Users have unlimited design capacity using a 3D printer.

1.11.3.3 Disadvantages

• • It requires a lot of electricity to print a 3D object.

• • The initial financial layout to purchase and setup a 3D printer is high.

• • The filament needed a 3D printer to print is limited to certain materials.

• • Currently, 3D printers are slow.

• • The 3D printer could be used to 3D print dangerous weapons and devices.

1.12 Devices for Physically Challenged Users

Specially designed devices for physically challenged users have made their activities simpler, allowing
them to interact in the world.

1.12.1 Input Devices for People with Disabilities

If a user has a mild or severe disability, there are special input devices that the user can use to input
data.

• • A microphone can assist physically challenged users, special software converts speech into
text and actions.

• • Joysticks and Trackballs – Joysticks, that are usually associated with playing games, can
help physically challenged people control their computers with their head, chin or non-functioning
hand. Trackballs, which are like the computer mouse, let the user move the cursor by rolling the ball
and click the screen with programmable buttons.

• • An Eye-controlled Mouse gadget uses special software and cameras attached to glasses.
Users “train” the gadget to control the cursor by moving their eyes.

• A Foot Mouse can be used by a user that has limited or no upper arm movement. Most foot
mouses have straps that hold the device in place, users control the cursor with one part of the
device, and the other part is used to click.

• • Special keyboards accommodate for users with different disabilities. Ergonomic keyboards
that are split in the middle assist users with Capel Tunnel Syndrome; for users with poor motor
control there are keyboards that have larger keys; on braille keyboards each key has a set of raised
dots that are felt by the fingertips of the blind user and the pattern of dots can then be recognised by
the user as a specific letter.

• 'Tongue Drive System' - a small magnet is implanted in the users tongue and the user moves
their tongue which then moves the cursor.

• Puff-suck Switch devices enable quadriplegic users to control a computer by breathing. The
technology includes a special wand which allows the user to send signals to the keyboard using air
pressure by inhaling or exhaling in the wand

1.12.2 Output Devices for People with Disabilities

There are special output devices that a user with disabilities can use to output information that has
been process by a computer.
• • Speakers can assist visually impaired users, special software converts text into speech,
which is broadcast in sound format.

• • An extra-large screen hardware screen magnifier can assist visually impaired users by
magnifying the screen display.

• A braille printer prints by embossing raised braille dots onto braille paper. Pins are pressed
into the one side of the paper in order to create raised dots on the other side of the paper.

1.13 Storage Devices

1.13.1 Secure Digital (SD) Cards

• • A common type of memory card, Secure Digital (SD) cards are used in multiple electronic

• devices, including digital cameras and smartphones.

• • SD cards are non-volatile solid-state storage devices which use NAND flash memories to
store data (millions of transistors).

• • Cards are rectangular in design with one side "chipped off" to prevent the card from being
inserted into the device the wrong way.

• • There are a variety of sizes: Standard SD, miniSD and microSD. An SD adapter can be used if
your SD card is not of the correct size.

• • The storage capacity of the SD card also varies;

• increasing in cost as the capacity increases.

1.13.2 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

• • Hard disk drives are non-volatile magnetic storage devices.

• • Hard disk drives can store 160 gigabytes (GB) to 2 terabytes (TB) of data.

• • Internal hard disk drives can be plugged directly onto the motherboard (SATA) or a portable
external hard disk drive can be connected via a USB or SATA port.

• • A hard disk drive has moving parts.

• • A hard disk drive needs to be defragments as files can be stored nonconsecutively slowing
down the read and write process.

1.13.3 Solid State Drives (SSD)

A solid state drive is purely electrical but is non-volatile meaning it can store data permanently. They
are smaller than HDDS, use less power and can load and store data much faster than HDDs. An SSD
can be installed inside the computer replacing the HDD or an additional external portable drive
providing the user with extra storage space.
• • Internal solid-state drives can be plugged directly onto the motherboard (SATA or PCIe/PCIe
m.2) or a portable external solid-state drive can be connected via a USB or SATA port.

• • Solid-state drives have a capacity of 64 gigabytes (GB) – 30 terabytes (TB).

• • Solid-state drives have extremely fast read/write speeds and no moving parts.

1.13.4 Network Attached Storage (NAS)

Network Attached Storage (NAS) is a device that plugs directly into a network without a computer to
provide local storage space to users on a network.

• • The hardware device has multiple storage drives, processors and RAM.

• • A NAS device can store any type of data, such as audio, video, websites, text files and
Microsoft Office documents.

• • A NAS device is like having a private cloud. With a NAS, authenticated users can access the
NAS remotely from anywhere in the world.

• The device can be used to backup data from computers and mobile devices on the
network. • Personal cloud storage – uses a on-premises storage device (NAS) that allows users to
stored personal data.

• Private cloud storage – uses company owned on-premises storage servers that allows
users to stored company data.

• Public cloud storage – storage is available to users from third-party companies as a service,
for example Google Drive, Apple iCloud, Microsoft OneDrive and Dropbox.

1.14 Online Cloud storage

Cloud storage involves storing data on hardware in a remote physical location, which can be accessed
from any device via the internet. Storage is available to users from third-party companies as a
service, for example Google Drive, Apple iCloud, Microsoft OneDrive and Dropbox.

Cloud backup, online backup or remote backup, is a strategy for sending a copy of stored data to an
off-site location, using an Internet or network connection.

1.14.1 Types of Cloud Storage

1.14.2 Advantages

• • Cloud storage can save costs as individuals and companies do not need to purchase
expensive infrastructure for storing data.

• • Cloud storage data can be accessed anywhere the user has Internet access.

• • Should the computer/storage media be damaged or stolen the cloud storage data is not
lost.

• • Potentially the user saves storage space on their devices.

• • The cloud storage service provides synchronisation of data between devices.

• • Cloud storage allows for easily sharing of data, especially large data files.

• • Data redundancy is included in the service, cloud storage companies keep multiple copies
or the user’s stored data.

• • Cloud storage companies have advanced security features to protect against threats such
as ransomware or malware.

1.14.3 Disadvantages

• • Cloud storage requires a reliable Internet connection.

• • Uploading (coping) and downloading (retrieving) data to and from the cloud may be slower
as Internet bandwidth and cloud storage speed may be limited compared to local device and
network access.

• • Accessing cloud storage may affect the user’s other Internet related activities.

1.15 The Boot Process

When you boot (switch on) a computer:

• • The CPU executes a Power-On Self-Test (POST), which checks that all the connected
hardware is functioning correctly. The list of connected hardware is stored in the Complementary
Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor (CMOS) chip. If there is a problem during POST, the user is alerted by
beep codes or error messages are displayed on the computer monitor.

• • The BIOS, store in ROM, checks for the location of the operating system according to the
sequence of storage devices defined in the BIOS, this is known as the boot sequence. If the boot
device is not found, an error message is displayed on the computer monitor and the system fails to
start.

• • The boot loader loads the operating system kernel from the storage device into system
memory (RAM). The kernel is the core program of an operating system; it loads the device drivers
and the user interface.

1.16 Troubleshooting Basic Hardware Problems

Troubleshooting a system for possible errors is not always easy, a simple troubleshooting strategy will
help the user find and fix the problem.

There are different problems that could impact Possible Solution(s)

users and for each problem listed in the following
table a step by step solution (algorithm) is provided:
Possible Problem(s)

A beeping noise comes from the computer when it

is switched on and the computer does not boot up.
• • The computer BIOS POST test has picked
up a fault with the HDD, RAM, keyboard, etc. A
 technician would have to check the motherboard
and all components to see which one is faulty.

Screen Error: Non-System Disk or Hard Drive not

found.
• • Check if there is a CD/DVD in one of the
drives which is not a bootable disk.

• • Check if there is a USB flash drive or

external hard drive plugged into a USB port.

• • Check the BIOS has the correct start-up

device or restore BIOS defaults.

• • Check if the BIOS still has its stored

information, as the motherboard battery may not
have charge.

• • Check the connection cable to the main

storage device from the motherboard is secure.

• • Check if the Hard drive is damaged or

corrupt by plugging it into a working computer a
check the file structure is readable.

Screen Error: Corrupted Hard Disk (Hard Disk #(XXX)

Error).
• • Perform a Hard Drive diagnostic test in the
BIOS.

The screen is blank.

• • Check if the computer is in Hibernate or

Sleep mode. Click the mouse or press any key on the
keyboard to wake it.

• • Check the monitor is plugged into power

and is turned on.

• • Check the computer is plugged into power

and turned on.

• • If you're using a desktop computer, make

sure the monitor cable is properly connected to the
computer tower and the monitor.

• • Check graphics card has power and is

seated in the slot correctly.

• • Check if the monitor’s display cable is

 properly connected to the computer.

• • Check if the device driver has not been

corrupted.

• • Check if the display brightness is not

turned down.

Possible Problem(s) Possible Solution(s)

The mouse or keyboard has stopped working.

• • Check, if it is a wired mouse or keyboard,

that it is correctly plugged into the computer.
• • Check, if it is a wireless mouse or
keyboard, that the batteries have charge and the
device is turned on.
• • Update the device driver in Device
Manager.
• • If you installed a new driver, which caused
the device to stop working, Rollback the driver to
the previous version.
• • Perform a System Restore in Windows.

Printer is not responding or printing the file.

• • Check the printer is plugged in to power

and switched on.
• • Check that the cable connecting the
computer and printer is plugged in securely.
• • Check that the printer is installed with the
correct device drivers.
• • Check that there is the correct paper in
the printer tray.
• • Check that the ink/toner cartridge(s) is/are
not empty.

The computer fails to switch on.

• • Check the power cord to ensure it is

plugged in to the device and the power plug.
• • Check if the power has tripped or the
hardware has been a burning smell, which could
have been caused by a power surge.
• • Check for a power failure by turning on a
light.
• • Check for hardware damage: Open the
computer case while there is power to the computer
(but do not touch anything inside the chassis). Look
for a light on the motherboard. If the light is on,
then the motherboard is receiving power, this
means there is a problem with motherboard.
• • Check for hardware damage: Sometimes a
power supply’s fan spins but the power supply unit
(PSU) does not have enough power to run all the
components of the computer. Try an emergency
power supply from outside, just to check if your
current power supply is faulty.