Code No: D61EA

R 22
B V R A J U I N S T I T U T E O F T E C H N O L O G Y , N A RS A P U R
(UGC - AUTONOMOUS)
I M.Tech I Semester Supplementary Examinations, Aug/Sep 2023
DIGITAL SYSTEM DESIGN WITH FPGAs
(Common to Embedded Systems and VLSI System Design)
Time: 3 Hours Max Marks: 60
Note: This Question Paper contains two Parts A and B
Part A is compulsory which carries 10 marks. Ten questions from five units. Answer all questions in Part A at
one place only.
Part-B consists of 5 Questions (numbered from 2 to 6) carrying 10 marks each. Each of these questions is from
one unit and may contain a, b, c as sub-questions. For each question there will be an either/or choice (that means
there will be two questions from each unit and the student should answer only one question).
PART – A (10x1 = 10 Marks)
1. Marks Bloom Level CO
a What are Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)? 1 1 1
b What are some of the advanced features found in the XC4000 1 1 1
series of FPGAs?
c What are the guidelines for constructing state graphs for 1 1 1
sequential circuits?
d Why are multi-clock sequential circuits needed? 1 2 1
e What is a comparator in sequential circuit design? 1 1 2
f How can issues related to pipelining and resource sharing be 1 1 2
addressed in the design process?
g What is the KOHAVI algorithm? 1 1 3
h How signature analysis is used in testing digital circuits? 2 3
i How state identification is used in fault detection experiments for 1 2 4
sequential circuits?
j How can machine identification be used to improve fault 1 2 4
diagnosis in sequential circuits?
PART – B (5x10 = 50 Marks)
Marks Bloom Level CO
2 .a (a) How does a Complex programmable logic device (CPLD)differ from an 5 2 1
SPLD?
(b) What are Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and howdo they 5 2 1
differ from other types of PLDs?
OR
2.b (a) What is the Virtex family of FPGAs from Xilinx and what aresome of its 4 2 1
key features?
(b) What are the differences between the XC2000, XC3000 andXC 4000 6 2 1
families of FPGAs from Xilinx?
***
3.a (a) Explain the process of analyzing clocked sequential circuits using signal 5 4 1
tracing and timing charts. Use a sequence detector asan example to illustrate
your answer. 1
(b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using state tablesand state 5 4
graphs in the analysis of sequential circuits.
OR
3.b (a) Explain the need for and design strategies for multi-clock 5 2
sequential circuits.
(b) Design a multi-clock sequential circuit that can perform a 2
specific function, such as counting or data transfer. Use state 4
graphs and tables to illustrate your design.
***
4.a (a) What is the design procedure for sequential circuits, and what are the key 5 2 2
steps involved in it?
(b) Describe the design of iterative circuits in sequential circuit design, and 5 3
discuss how they can be used to perform repetitive operations efficiently. 4

OR
4.b Explain the concept of a code converter in sequential circuitdesign, and 10 2 2
provide an example of how it can be implemented
using flip-flops and logic gates.
***
5.a (a) What is a logic fault model, and how is it used in fault modeling and test 5 2 3
pattern generation for digital circuits?
(b) How can redundancy be used to detect and correct faults in digital circuits, 5 3
and what are some of the limitations of this approach? 2

OR
5.b (a) What is the bridging fault model, and how does it impact fault diagnosis 5 2 4
and test pattern generation for digital circuits?
(b) What are the conventional methods for fault diagnosis of combinational 5 4
circuits, and how do they compare to more advanced techniques? 2

***
6.a What is the circuit test approach for fault diagnosis in sequential 10 2 5
circuits, and how does it differ from other approaches?
OR
6.b (a) How does the transition check approach improve fault diagnosis in 8 3 5
sequential circuits, and what are some of its limitations?
(b) What is state identification in fault detection experiments for sequential
circuits? 2 2 5

***
 Part-A
1.a What are Field Programmable Arrays?
Ans.Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are integrated circuits that are designed to be highly
configurable and can be programmed or configured by users after manufacturing to perform specific tasks or
functions. Unlike traditional application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) that are designed for a single, fixed
purpose, FPGAs provide flexibility because their functionality can be altered through programming.
[1M]
1.b What are some of the advanced features found in the XC 4000 series of FPGAs?
Ans.
a. High Density
b. Fast Global Clock Distribution
c. Multiple Input and output Pins
d. More Efficient and Reliable
e. Low power Consumption. [1M]

1.c What are the guidelines for constructing state graphs for sequential circuits?
Ans.To create effective state graphs, start by identifying all possible states and clearly defining inputs and
outputs. Represent states as nodes and transitions as arrows with labelled conditions. Distinguish between inputs
and outputs on transitions and include any associated actions or outputs. Ensure that the state graph covers all
possible input combinations and consider including a reset or initialization state for clarity.
[1M]
1.d Why are multi- Clock sequential circuits needed?
Ans.Multi-clock sequential circuits are essential in digital design because they enable the efficient and reliable
operation of complex systems that involve multiple clock domains.
1. To increase Power Efficiency
2. Clock Domain Isolation
3. Interface with External Systems
4. Fault Tolerance and Redundancy [1M]

1.e What is a comparator in sequential circuit design?

Ans.A comparator in sequential circuit design is a digital circuit component or building block used to compare
two binary values or signals and determine their relationship, typically in terms of greater-than, less-than, or
equal-to. Comparators are essential for various functions in digital systems, such as decision-making, control
logic, and state transitions. [1M]
1.f How can issues related to pipelining and resource sharing be addressed in the design process?
Ans.Pipelining introduces potential issues like data hazards, control hazards, and imbalanced stages, which can
degrade performance and require hazard detection and resolution mechanisms. Additionally, resource sharing
poses complexities in allocating hardware components efficiently, addressing contentions, and managing shared
resources to avoid bottlenecks and ensure optimal utilization.
[1M]
1.g What is the KOHAVI algorithm?
Ans.The Kohavi algorithm is based on a process known as "backtrace," where it traces the evolution of state
values in a sequential circuit while considering different input vectors. It identifies and eliminates redundant test
vectors by identifying and collapsing equivalent states and transitions in the state space.
[1M]
1.h How signature analysis is used in testing digital circuits?
Ans Signature analysis is a widely used technique in testing digital circuits to detect faults and ensure the
reliability of electronic systems.Signature analysis can be used iteratively with different test patterns to achieve
comprehensive fault coverage. By analysing which test patterns fail to produce matching signatures, testers can
pinpoint the location and nature of faults within the circuit. [1M]
1.i How state identification is used in fault detection experiments for sequential circuits?
Ans.State identification is a critical aspect of fault detection experiments for sequential circuits, especially in the
context of testing and identifying faults in digital systems. In fault detection experiments, state identification is
employed to determine the current state of the sequential circuit under test as it processes a sequence of inputs.
[1M]
1.j How can machine identification be used to improve fault diagnosis in sequential circuits?
Ans.Machine identification techniques can significantly enhance fault diagnosis in sequential circuits by
leveraging the power of data-driven analysis and pattern recognition.These faults may include stuck-at faults,
bridging faults, or other common fault types. Test patterns are applied to the faulty circuit, and its responses are
recorded, creating a labeled dataset of faulty behavior. [1M]
 Part-B

2.a (a) How does a CPLD differ from an SPLD?

Ans.

[3M]
Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs) and Simple Programmable Logic Devices (SPLDs) are both
integral components of digital electronics, yet they serve distinct purposes and vary significantly in terms of
complexity, capacity, and functionality.

CPLDs are the more sophisticated of the two. They encompass an array of programmable logic elements,
versatile interconnects, and auxiliary components like flip-flops and input/output pins. This complexity
empowers CPLDs to handle intricate logic functions and accommodate larger, more intricate designs. They are
best suited for applications demanding a higher level of complexity and customization, such as advanced control
systems, signal processing, and data path logic.
In contrast, SPLDs are simpler devices tailored for less complex tasks. They are characterized by a fixed number
of logic gates and a lack of extensive programmable interconnectivity found in CPLDs. These limitations make
SPLDs suitable for straightforward logic functions and smaller-scale projects where cost-efficiency and lower
power consumption are paramount. Examples of SPLD applications include basic combinatorial logic tasks and
minimal-scale digital circuits.Moreover, CPLDs offer greater capacity and resources in terms of logic gates,
flip-flops, and input/output pins. They are engineered to accommodate medium to complex digital designs
effectively. SPLDs, on the other hand, have limited capacity, rendering them ideal for simpler applications
where the emphasis is on cost-effectiveness and resource efficiency.
In conclusion, the choice between CPLDs and SPLDs hinges on the specific requirements and complexity of a
project. CPLDs, with their complexity and versatility, are the go-to choose for intricate digital designs, while
SPLDs, with their simplicity and cost-effectiveness, are more appropriate for smaller-scale, basic logic
functions. Understanding these differences is crucial when selecting the right programmable logic device for a
particular application. [2M]

2.a (b)What are FPGAs and how do they differ from other types of PLDs?
Ans.

[3M]
Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are a type of programmable logic device (PLD) used in digital
circuit design. They offer a unique combination of flexibility and performance. FPGAs consist of an array of
configurable logic blocks (CLBs), interconnects, and I/O pins that can be programmed to implement custom
digital logic functions. What sets FPGAs apart from other types of PLDs, like Complex Programmable Logic
Devices (CPLDs) or Programmable Array Logic (PAL) devices, is their extensive logic capacity and fine-
grained reconfigurability.
Unlike CPLDs and PALs, which are best suited for relatively simple combinational logic and small-scale
sequential circuits, FPGAs excel at handling complex and large-scale digital designs. They provide a higher
degree of flexibility because they allow designers to specify the functionality of individual logic gates and
connections. This granularity enables the implementation of diverse and intricate digital systems, including
microprocessors, signal processors, and custom hardware accelerators for tasks like cryptography, image
processing, and machine learning.
Another distinguishing feature of FPGAs is their reprogram ability. While CPLDs and PALs are typically
programmed once during the design phase and remain static, FPGAs can be reprogrammed multiple times. This
makes them ideal for iterative design, prototyping, and field updates, allowing designers to refine and adapt their
circuits without the need for physical hardware changes.
In summary, FPGAs are a versatile class of PLDs that provide a high level of customization and performance
for complex digital designs. Their fine-grained reconfigurability and suitability for large-scale circuits set them
apart from other PLDs like CPLDs and PALs, which are better suited for simpler and more static applications.
[2M]
2.b.(a) What is the Virtex family of FPGAs from Xilinx and what are some of its key features?
Ans. The Virtex family of FPGAs from Xilinx is a well-known and highly versatile series of programmable
logic devices designed to meet the demands of a wide range of applications, from telecommunications and data
centers to aerospace and automotive systems. Virtex FPGAs are known for their advanced features and high-
performance capabilities. Some of the key features of the Virtex FPGA family include:
[2M]
1. High Logic Capacity:Virtex FPGAs offer a substantial number of configurable logic cells, look-up
tables (LUTs), and flip-flops, making them suitable for implementing complex and computationally
intensive digital designs.

2. Configurability: These FPGAs provide a fine-grained level of configurability, allowing designers to

specify the functionality of individual logic cells and interconnections.

3. High-Speed Transceivers: Many Virtex devices come equipped with high-speed transceivers that
support various communication standards, such as PCIe, Ethernet, and HDMI.

4. Built-in DSP Blocks:Virtex FPGAs include dedicated digital signal processing (DSP) blocks that are
optimized for performing mathematical operations commonly used in signal processing, such as
multiply-accumulate (MAC) operations.

5. High-Speed Interfaces:Virtex devices support high-speed interfaces, including gigabit serial I/O
(GTH/GTY) and integrated memory controllers (e.g., DDR4/DDR5), which enhance memory
bandwidth and data transfer rates.

6. Partial Reconfiguration: Some Virtex FPGAs support partial reconfiguration, allowing specific
regions of the device to be reprogrammed while the rest of the circuit remains operational.

7. Security Features:Virtex FPGAs include security features like bitstream encryption and authentication
to protect intellectual property and sensitive data in the device [2M]

Overall, the Virtex family of FPGAs is highly regarded for its performance, configurability, and rich feature set,
making it a preferred choice for demanding applications that require custom hardware acceleration, high-speed
data processing, and reliable performance in various industries.

2.b.(b) What are the differences between the XC 2000, XC 3000 and XC 4000 families of FPGAs from
Xilinx?
Ans.The Logic Cell Array (LCA) is a high-density CMOS integrated circuit. Its user-programmable array
architecture is made up of three types of configurable elements: Input/Output Blocks, logic blocks and
Interconnect. The designer can define individual I/O blocks for interface to external circuitry, define logic
blocks to implement logic functions and define interconnection networks to compose larger scale logic
functions. The XACT Development System provides interactive graphic design capture and automatic routing.
Both logic simulation and in-circuit emulation are available for design verification.The XC2000 family operates
with a nominal 5.0 V supply. The XC2000L family operates with nominal 3.3 V supply. The LCA logic
functions and interconnections are determined by data stored in internal static-memory cells. The program data
can reside in an EEPROM, EPROM or ROM on the circuit board or on a floppy disk or hard disk. The program
can be loaded in several modes to accommodate various system requirements.
[2M]
The CMOS XC3000 Class of Logic Cell Array (LCA) families provide a group of high-performance, high-
density, digital integrated circuits. Their regular, extendable, flexible, user-programmable array architecture is
composed of a configuration program store plus three types of configurable elements: a perimeter of I/O Blocks
(IOBs), a core array of Configurable Logic Bocks (CLBs) and resources for interconnection.The perimeter of
configurable IOBs provides a programmable interface between the internal logic array and the device package
pins. The array of CLBs performs user-specified logic functions. The interconnect resources are programmed to
form networks, carrying logic signals among blocks, analogous to printed circuit board traces connecting
MSI/SSI packages. [2M]
The XC4000 families of Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) provide the benefits of custom CMOS
VLSI, while avoiding the initial cost, time delay, and inherent risk of a conventional masked gate array. The
XC4000 families provide a regular, flexible, programmable architecture of Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs),
interconnected by a powerful hierarchy of versatile routing resources, and surrounded by a perimeter of
programmable Input/Output Blocks (IOBs). XC4000-family devices have generous routing resources to
accommodate the most complex interconnect patterns. XC4000A devices have reduced sets of routing
resources. The devices are customized by loading configuration data into the internal memory cells. The FPGA
can either actively read its configuration data out of external serial or byte parallel PROM (master modes), or
the configuration data can be written into the FPGA.
[2M]
3.a (a) Explain the process of analyzing clocked sequential circuits using signal tracing and timing charts.
Use a sequence detector as an example to illustrate your answer?
Ans.Analyzing clocked sequential circuits using signal tracing and timing charts is a common practice in digital
design and verification. To illustrate this process, let's use a simple example of a sequence detector. A sequence
detector is a type of sequential circuit that detects a specific pattern or sequence of inputs. In this case, we'll
design a 3-bit sequence detector to detect the sequence "110."
Here's a step-by-step process of analyzing this sequential circuit:
Design the State Diagram: Start by designing the state diagram for the sequence detector. In this case, you'll
have four states: S0, S1, S2, and S3. Each state represents the current input history.
Define Flip-Flop Inputs:Determine which flip-flops will represent each state. In this example, you'll need two
flip-flops (FF1 and FF0) since you have four states (2^2 = 4). FF1 represents the most significant bit of the state,
and FF0 represents the least significant bit. [3M]

Create Timing Diagrams for Flip-Flops:

Create timing diagrams for each flip-flop (FF1 and FF0) to show how their inputs (D for data and CLK for
clock) change with time. For simplicity, we'll assume a rising-edge-triggered clock.
For FF1:
D1: Synchronous input from FF0 (Q0)
CLK: Clock signal
For FF0:
D0: Synchronous input from FF1 (Q1)
CLK: Clock signal
Trace the Signal Transitions:
Starting with an initial state (let's assume S0), follow the state transitions based on the input sequence. Trace the
changes in D1 and D0 inputs to FF1 and FF0, respectively, with each clock cycle.
Assume the input sequence is: 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1.
Initialize the circuit at S0. [2M]
3.a (b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using state tablesand state graphs in analysis of
sequential circuits?
Ans. Using state tables and state graphs are common methods for analyzing and designing sequential circuits in
digital electronics. Each approach has its own set of advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages of State Tables:
1. Clarity and Precision: State tables provide a structured and organized representation of sequential
circuit behaviour. They are highly detailed and explicit, making it easy to document the transition
conditions and outputs for each state.
 2. Ease of Implementation: State tables can serve as a direct blueprint for circuit implementation, as they
clearly specify the next-state and output equations. This simplifies the design process and aids in
debugging.

3. Ease of Analysis: When dealing with complex sequential circuits, state tables can help ensure that all
possible input sequences are considered, making them valuable for thorough analysis and verification.

Disadvantages of State Tables:

1. Complexity: For larger circuits with many states and inputs, state tables can become unwieldy and
difficult to manage. They can grow quickly, leading to potential errors in manual construction and
analysis.

2. Limited Visualization: State tables do not provide a visual representation of the circuit's behaviour,
making it challenging to grasp the overall system dynamics at a glance. [3M]

Advantages of State Graphs:

1. Visual Clarity: State graphs, also known as state diagrams, offer a graphical representation of the
circuit's behaviour. This visual format makes it easier to understand the overall flow and transitions
between states.

2. Compactness: State graphs can be more compact than equivalent state tables, particularly for circuits
with numerous states and inputs. They provide a concise overview of the system's behaviour.

Disadvantages of State Graphs:

1. Limited Detail: While state graphs offer a high-level overview of the circuit, they may not capture all
the intricacies and details found in state tables. This can be a drawback when detailed analysis is
required.

2. Implementation Challenges: Translating a state graph directly into hardware can be less
straightforward than using a state table. The process may involve additional steps to derive equations
for the flip-flops and combinational logic.

State graphs provide a more visual and compact representation but may lack the fine-grained detail required for
in-depth analysis. Often, a combination of both methods is used, with state graphs providing an initial high-level
understanding and state tables being employed for detailed design and verification.
[2M]
3.b (a) Explain the need for and design strategies for multi-clock sequential circuits?
Ans. Multi-clock sequential circuits are digital circuits that have multiple clock signals controlling different
portions of the circuit. These circuits are used in various applications where different parts of the system need to
operate at different clock frequencies or in different clock domains. The need for and design strategies for multi-
clock sequential circuits can be explained as follows: [1M]
1. Clock Domain Crossing (CDC) Issues:
 One of the primary reasons for multi-clock circuits is the need to handle clock domain crossing issues.
In a digital system, different parts of the design might operate with their own clock signals, and data
needs to be transferred between these domains.

2. Power Efficiency:
 Multi-clock circuits can be designed to optimize power consumption. In some cases, it may not be
necessary for all parts of the system to run at the same high clock frequency. By using multiple clocks,
you can lower the clock frequency in certain areas of the circuit, reducing power consumption.

3. Performance Optimization:
 Different parts of a complex system may have varying performance requirements. By using multiple
clocks, you can design each section to operate at its optimal clock frequency to meet performance
goals.

4. Clock Gating:
 In multi-clock designs, clock gating can be employed to disable clocks in sections of the circuit when
they are not actively processing data. This technique reduces dynamic power consumption.
[4M]
3.b (b) Design a multi-clock Sequential circuit that can perform a specific function such as counting or
data transfer. Use state graphs and tables to illustrate your design?
Ans. Designing a multi-clock sequential circuit for a specific function, such as counting, involves several steps.
In this example, I'll design a simple 4-bit binary counter using two clock domains, CLK_A and CLK_B. The
counter will increment on CLK_A and transfer the count value to an output register on CLK_B. We will use
state graphs and tables to illustrate the design.
State Graph: We'll start with a state graph to visualize the different states of the counter and the transitions
between them.
State Table: Next, we'll create a state table to represent the states, inputs, and outputs of the counter.
Current State Next State (Increment) Next State (Transfer) Output (Q3Q2Q1Q0)
Start C0 Start 0000
C0 C1 Start 0001
C1 C2 Start 0010
C2 C3 Start 0011
C3 Start Start 0100
State Assignment: Assign binary values to each state:
 Start: 00

 C0: 01

 C1: 10

 C2: 11

 C3: 00 (Note that we wrap back to Start after C3) [3M]

State Transition Logic: Now, let's design the state transition logic for both clock domains (CLK_A and
CLK_B).
For CLK_A (Increment):
 Current State: Q3Q2Q1Q0

 Next State: Q3'Q2'Q1Q0 + Q3Q2'Q1'Q0 + Q3'Q2Q1'Q0' + Q3'Q2Q1Q0' + Q3Q2'Q1Q0' (Wrap back to

Start)

 This logic ensures that the counter increments by 1.

For CLK_B (Transfer):

 Current State: Q3Q2Q1Q0

 Next State: Q3Q2Q1Q0 (No state change in CLK_B)

 Output (Q3Q2Q1Q0) is simply the current state value.

Designing the Circuit:

 Use flip-flops to store the state (Q3Q2Q1Q0) of the counter.

 Implement the state transition logic for CLK_A and CLK_B using logic gates (AND, OR, NOT).

 Use multiplexers to select between the current state and the output (Q3Q2Q1Q0) for CLK_B.

The counter will increment on CLK_A, and its value will be transferred to the output register on CLK_B. You
can implement this design using hardware description languages like VHDL or Verilog and then synthesize it
for a specific FPGA or ASIC platform. [2M]
4.a (a) What is the design procedure for sequential circuits, and what are the key steps involved in it?
Ans.The design procedure for sequential circuits is a systematic process that involves several key steps to ensure
the correct functionality and performance of digital circuits with memory elements, such as flip-flops.
Sequential circuits are used in various applications like counters, state machines, and memory storage. Here are
the essential steps involved in designing sequential circuits. First and foremost, the design process begins with
specifying the requirements and functionality of the sequential circuit. It's crucial to have a clear understanding
of what the circuit is supposed to do, including its input requirements, expected outputs, and any timing
constraints.
Once the requirements are established, the next step is to create a state diagram or state table that visually
represents the desired behaviour of the sequential circuit. This diagram or table outlines all possible states the
circuit can be in, the transitions between these states, and the associated inputs and outputs for each state. After
defining the states, it's essential to assign binary codes to each state in the state diagram or table. This state
assignment is necessary for encoding the current state of the circuit, enabling it to transition correctly between
states based on inputs.
The choice of flip-flops is the next consideration. Select the appropriate type of flip-flops, such as D flip-flops
or JK flip-flops, based on factors like clocking requirements, ease of implementation, and power consumption.
With the design decisions made, you proceed to implement the circuit using the chosen flip-flops for state
storage and combinational logic for the next-state and output logic. This often involves drawing a schematic or
using hardware description languages like VHDL or Verilog.
Lastly, be prepared for maintenance and debugging, as issues may arise during testing or deployment that
require adjustments or fixes to ensure the circuit operates as intended.
The design procedure for sequential circuits can be intricate, requiring attention to detail, iterative refinement,
and optimization to meet performance, area, and power constraints. Digital design tools and hardware
description languages play a crucial role in facilitating the design and simulation process.
Any 5 steps [5x1M=5M]

4.a (b) Describe the design of iterative circuits in sequential circuit design and discuss how they can be
used to perform repetitive operations efficiently?
Ans.Iterative circuits, also known as iterative state machines or counters, are a common type of sequential
circuit design used to perform repetitive operations efficiently. These circuits are designed to generate a
sequence of states or count through a predefined sequence in a repetitive manner. Iterative circuits are widely
used in various applications, including digital counters, timers, and control systems. Here's an overview of the
design of iterative circuits and how they enable efficient repetitive operations:
1. State Diagram or State Table:
 The design process for an iterative circuit typically begins with the creation of a state diagram or state
table. This diagram or table represents the sequence of states that the circuit will go through during its
operation.

2. State Assignment:
 Binary codes are assigned to each state in the state diagram or table. This state assignment is essential
for encoding the current state of the circuit, allowing it to transition correctly from one state to another
in the sequence.

3. Next-State Logic:
 The next-state logic determines how the circuit transitions from one state to the next. In an iterative
circuit, this logic is often straightforward, as it typically involves counting up or down based on a clock
signal or an external trigger.

4. Flip-Flops:
 Flip-flops are used to store the current state of the circuit. The number of flip-flops required depends on
the number of states in the sequence. Common flip-flops used in iterative circuits include D flip-flops
and JK flip-flops.

5. Clocking and Reset:

 Iterative circuits are typically clocked, meaning they advance from one state to another on each clock
cycle. Additionally, a reset mechanism may be included to initialize the circuit to a specific state,
allowing the sequence to start from the beginning when required.

6. Counters and Applications:

 Iterative circuits are often used as counters. They can count up or down, and the count sequence can be
adjusted to meet the requirements of the application. For example, a binary counter counts in binary,
while a BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) counter counts in decimal.

[3M]
Advantages of Iterative Circuits for Repetitive Operations:
1. Efficiency: Iterative circuits are highly efficient for repetitive tasks. They can perform the same
sequence of operations repeatedly without the need for complex control logic.

2. Simplicity: The design of iterative circuits is often straightforward and less complex compared to other
types of sequential circuits, making them easy to implement and troubleshoot.

3. Predictability: Since iterative circuits follow a predefined sequence, their behavior is highly
predictable, making them suitable for applications where precise timing and sequencing are essential.

4. Speed: Iterative circuits can operate at high speeds because they rely on clocked transitions, making
them suitable for applications with stringent timing requirements.

5. Versatility: They can be adapted to various applications by adjusting the sequence, count direction,
and output logic as needed.
Iterative circuits are a fundamental part of sequential circuit design, offering an efficient and predictable way to
perform repetitive operations. Their simplicity, speed, and versatility make them valuable components in digital
systems. [2M]
4.b Explain the concept of a code converter in sequential circuit design, and provide an example of how it
can be implemented using flip flops and logic gates?
Ans. A code converter in sequential circuit design is a digital circuit that transforms one binary code into
another. It essentially performs a mapping or translation of the input code to produce an output code, which can
be in a different binary format. Code converters are used in various applications, such as data format
conversions, arithmetic operations, and addressing memory locations.
One common example of a code converter is a Binary to Gray code converter. Gray code is a binary numeral
system in which two consecutive values differ in only one bit. This property can be useful in applications like
rotary encoders, where it reduces the chance of errors during transitions. Let's see how you can implement a
Binary to Gray code converter using flip-flops and logic gates: [2M]
Binary to Gray Code Converter Implementation:
In a Binary to Gray code converter, you have a binary input (n-bit) and an output (n-bit), where each output bit
represents the corresponding bit in Gray code. Here's how you can implement it:
Inputs:
 Binary input bits: B[n-1], B[n-2], ..., B[1], B[0]

Outputs:
 Gray code output bits: G[n-1], G[n-2], ..., G[1], G[0] [2M]

Implementation Steps:
1. D Flip-Flops: Start by using D flip-flops to store the current state of each input bit (B[n-1] to B[0]).

2. Exclusive OR (XOR) Gates: For each pair of adjacent flip-flops, use XOR gates to calculate the Gray
code bits (G[n-1] to G[0]). The connections are as follows:

 G[n-1] = B[n-1]

 G[i] = B[i] XOR B[i-1] for i = n-2 down to 0

Here's a simplified example with 3-bit inputs:

 B[2], B[1], B[0] are the binary input bits.

 G[2], G[1], G[0] are the Gray code output bits.

Implementation using D flip-flops and XOR gates:

In this example:
 G[2] is directly connected to B[2] as it is the most significant bit.

 G[1] is calculated by XORing B[1] and B[2].

 G[0] is calculated by XORing B[0] and B[1].

This implementation ensures that the Gray code representation follows the property where two consecutive
values differ in only one bit.
Code converters are essential in various digital systems, enabling the conversion between different binary
representations to suit specific applications and requirements. [6M]
5.a (a) What is a logic fault model, and how is it used in fault modelling and test pattern generation for
digital circuits?
Ans. A logic fault model is a theoretical framework used in the field of digital circuit design and testing to
describe and analyze potential faults or errors that can occur in a digital circuit. It helps in understanding and
characterizing the behavior of a faulty circuit by modeling various types of defects or faults that may arise
during manufacturing, operation, or over time. These models are crucial for fault detection, diagnosis, and test
pattern generation in digital circuits. [2M]
A logic fault model is a conceptual framework used in the realm of digital circuit design and testing to represent
and analyze potential abnormalities or defects that can occur within a digital circuit. It serves as a crucial tool for
comprehending and categorizing the behavior of a faulty circuit by modeling various types of faults that may
emerge during manufacturing, operation, or with the passage of time. These models are vital for the purpose of
fault detection, diagnosis, and test pattern generation in digital circuits.
Logic fault models are used in fault modeling and test pattern generation by categorizing faults into different
types, such as stuck-at faults, bridging faults, or transition faults, based on their distinct impact on the circuit's
operation. These fault models then guide the creation of test patterns—input sequences designed to uncover and
diagnose faults during testing. Test patterns are devised to provoke observable discrepancies between expected
and actual circuit responses, pinpointing the presence of a fault. Logic fault models also play a key role in
diagnosing and localizing faults, aiding in repair and maintenance efforts. Furthermore, they influence the
design phase, as engineers design digital circuits with testability in mind, incorporating features like scan chains
and built-in self-test capabilities to enhance the efficiency of fault detection and testing procedures. In essence,
logic fault models are essential in ensuring the reliability and robustness of digital circuits, allowing for fault
identification and mitigation.
In the stuck-at fault model, each wire in the circuit can be stuck at logic 0 (SA-0) or logic 1 (SA-1). To
generate test patterns for this model, testers create input sequences that will detect these stuck-at faults.
For example, to detect a stuck-at-0 fault on a particular wire, a test pattern that forces that wire to logic
1 and observes if it remains at logic 0 can be used. Similarly, to detect a stuck-at-1 fault, a test pattern
that forces the wire to logic 0 and checks if it remains at logic 1 can be employed. [3M]

5.a (b) How can redundancy be used to detect and correct faults in digital circuits, and what are some of
the limitations of this approach?
Ans. Redundancy is a technique employed in digital circuit design to both detect and potentially correct faults or
errors that can arise during circuit operation. It involves the inclusion of duplicate components or information
within the circuit to provide an extra layer of error-checking and fault tolerance. Redundancy can be used as
follows:
Error Detection: Redundancy is frequently utilized for error detection. By duplicating critical components or
data paths within the circuit, the system can compare the outputs of redundant elements. If discrepancies
between these outputs occur, it signals the presence of a fault. Common methods for error detection include
using parity bits, checksums, or comparing the outputs of redundant logic gates.
Error Correction: In certain cases, redundancy goes beyond error detection to enable error correction. For
instance, in memory systems, error-correcting codes (ECC) are employed. ECC adds extra bits to the stored
data, which allow the system to not only identify but also rectify single or multiple bit errors in the data.
Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR): TMR is a well-known redundancy technique employed in critical
systems like aerospace and safety-critical applications. In TMR, three identical copies of a circuit module
operate in parallel, and a voting mechanism is used to determine the correct output. If one module produces an
incorrect output due to a fault, the other two modules can outvote it to provide the correct result.
[2M]
Limitations of Redundancy:
1. Area Overhead: Redundancy typically requires additional hardware components, which can lead to
increased chip area and power consumption. This can be a limitation in terms of cost and space,
especially for complex circuits.

2. Complexity: Managing redundancy, especially for error correction, can add complexity to the design
and increase verification and testing efforts.

3. Latency: Redundant elements may introduce additional latency due to the need for comparisons or
voting mechanisms. In real-time applications or high-speed systems, this added delay may not be
acceptable.
 4. Limited Fault Coverage: Redundancy primarily detects and corrects certain types of faults, such as
single-point faults. It may not be effective against certain complex or systemic faults.

5. Cost: Implementing redundancy can increase the cost of manufacturing, which may not be justifiable
for all applications.

6. Maintenance: Redundancy adds complexity to the circuit, making it more challenging to maintain and
repair in the field. [3M]

5.b.(a) What is the bridging fault model, and how does it impact fault diagnosis and test pattern
generation for digital circuits?
Ans.The bridging fault model is a commonly used fault model in digital circuit testing and fault diagnosis. It
involves a fault condition where two or more wires in a digital circuit unintentionally connect (bridge) together,
causing a short circuit. This can result from various manufacturing defects, such as dust particles, metal traces
crossing, or other physical issues on the integrated circuit.
The impact of the bridging fault model on fault diagnosis and test pattern generation for digital circuits is
significant: [2M]
1. *Fault Detection*: Bridging faults can lead to incorrect circuit behavior, potentially causing logic errors or
malfunctions. Detecting these faults is crucial to ensure the reliability of the circuit.
2. *Test Pattern Generation*: Designing test patterns to detect bridging faults is a complex task. Test pattern
generators need to create test vectors (input sequences) that can activate and propagate signals through the
circuit in a way that exposes bridging faults. This requires sophisticated algorithms and tools.
3. *Fault Diagnosis*: When a fault is detected in a circuit, it's essential to identify its location and nature.
Bridging faults can be particularly challenging to diagnose because multiple nets may be affected. Fault
diagnosis tools analyze the test response to pinpoint the fault's location accurately.
4. *Coverage Analysis*: Assessing the effectiveness of test patterns in detecting bridging faults is critical.
Coverage analysis measures how well a set of test patterns can identify these faults. Low coverage indicates a
need for additional test patterns or design improvements.
5. *Design for Testability (DFT)*: To make it easier to detect bridging faults, designers often incorporate DFT
techniques during the circuit's design phase. This involves adding extra circuitry, such as scan chains or built-in
self-test (BIST) structures, to facilitate testing.
6. *Manufacturing Yield*: Bridging faults can impact the manufacturing yield, leading to a higher number of
defective chips. Efficient fault detection and diagnosis are essential to minimize the yield loss.
The bridging fault model is a critical consideration in the testing and diagnosis of digital circuits. It affects how
test patterns are generated, how faults are diagnosed, and how design for testability techniques is implemented
to ensure the reliability of integrated circuits. [3M]

5.b(b). What are the conventional methods for fault diagnosis of combinational circuits, and how do they
compare to more advanced techniques?
Ans. Conventional methods for fault diagnosis of combinational circuits primarily involve manual or rule-based
approaches. These methods have been used historically and are still relevant today, but they have limitations
compared to more advanced automated techniques. Here's a comparison:
*Conventional Fault Diagnosis Methods:*
1. *Simulation-Based Diagnosis:* This approach involves simulating the circuit with different test patterns and
comparing the observed behavior (output) with the expected behavior. By identifying discrepancies, engineers
can manually infer the fault's location. However, this process can be time-consuming and may not be suitable
for complex circuits.

2. *Signal Probability Analysis:* Engineers may analyze the probabilities of signals transitioning from one logic
value to another under fault-free and faulty conditions. Significant deviations in these probabilities can indicate
potential fault locations. This method is limited to specific types of faults and may not be comprehensive.
3. *Backward Tracing:* Starting from the fault output, engineers trace the fault effect backward through the
circuit, identifying the critical inputs and gates that contributed to the fault. This method can be effective for
single-fault scenarios but becomes complex for multiple faults. [2M]

*Advanced Fault Diagnosis Techniques:*

1. *Automated Test Pattern Generation (ATPG) with Diagnosis:* Modern ATPG tools can not only generate
test patterns but also analyze the test responses to pinpoint fault locations automatically. They use various
algorithms, such as the Boolean difference method or Boolean satisfiability (SAT), to perform this task
efficiently.
2. *Model-Based Diagnosis:* Advanced diagnostic tools use detailed fault models and fault simulation to
predict faulty behavior and compare it with actual test responses. These models capture a wide range of fault
types, making them more effective for complex circuits.
3. *Machine Learning-Based Diagnosis:* Machine learning techniques, such as neural networks or decision
trees, can be trained on historical data to learn fault patterns. They can then diagnose faults based on the circuit's
response to test patterns. Machine learning-based approaches can handle large and complex circuits but require
sufficient training data.

*Comparison:*
- *Accuracy:* Advanced techniques tend to be more accurate as they use sophisticated algorithms and models.
Conventional methods may miss subtle faults or provide less precise fault localization.
- *Efficiency:* Automated and machine learning-based techniques are generally faster and more efficient,
especially for complex circuits, compared to manual methods.
- *Coverage:* Advanced techniques offer broader fault coverage, including multiple faults and difficult-to-
detect faults. Conventional methods may struggle with comprehensive coverage.
- *Complexity:* Conventional methods are often simpler to implement but may not handle intricate circuits or
large-scale designs effectively. Advanced techniques require specialized tools and expertise.

In summary, while conventional fault diagnosis methods are still used, advanced techniques leveraging
automation, detailed models, and machine learning have become increasingly essential due to their higher
accuracy and efficiency, making them preferable for modern and complex combinational circuits.
[3M]

6(a). What is the circuit test approach for fault diagnosis in sequential circuits, and how does it differ
from other approaches?
Ans. The circuit test approach for fault diagnosis in sequential circuits differs from fault diagnosis in
combinational circuits due to the dynamic behavior and memory elements present in sequential circuits. Here's
an overview of the approach for sequential circuits and how it differs from other methods:
[2M]
*Circuit Test Approach for Fault Diagnosis in Sequential Circuits:*
1. *Test Vector Generation:* The process starts with generating test vectors (input sequences) that are applied to
the sequential circuit. These test vectors are designed to activate specific transitions and states within the circuit
to observe its behavior comprehensively.
2. *Fault Simulation:* The circuit is then simulated with these test vectors, considering various fault models,
including stuck-at faults (similar to combinational circuits) and additional sequential fault models like transition
faults or state transition faults. Fault simulation evaluates the circuit's response under fault-free and faulty
conditions.
3. *Fault Localization:* Fault localization in sequential circuits involves identifying the faulty circuit
components (gates, flip-flops, etc.) and the time steps (clock cycles) at which the faults manifest. This requires
analyzing differences between the observed behavior and the expected behavior.
4. *Diagnostic Analysis:* Once the faults are localized, diagnostic analysis techniques are applied to pinpoint
the exact fault locations within the identified components. This often involves a backward tracing process,
where the fault effect is traced back through the circuit. [4M]

*Differences from Combinational Circuit Diagnosis:*

1. *Statefulness:* Sequential circuits have memory elements (flip-flops), and their behavior depends not only on
the current inputs but also on the past states. This introduces complexities in fault modeling and diagnosis that
are not present in combinational circuits.
2. *Test Vector Generation:* In sequential circuit diagnosis, test vectors must consider not only the
combinational logic but also the clock signals and the sequential behavior. This requires careful design of test
sequences to activate and observe the circuit's state transitions.
3. *Fault Models:* While many fault models (e.g., stuck-at faults) are shared with combinational circuits,
sequential circuits have unique fault models like state transition faults or hold-time faults, which are specific to
their sequential nature.
4. *Timing Constraints:* Timing constraints, such as clock cycles and setup/hold times, play a crucial role in
sequential circuit diagnosis. Faults may manifest only during specific clock cycles, making accurate timing
analysis essential.
5. *Complexity:* Diagnosing faults in sequential circuits is generally more complex and computationally
intensive due to the dynamic behavior and state transitions involved. Advanced algorithms and tools are often
required. [4M]
6.b. (a)How does the transition check approach improve fault diagnosis in sequential circuits, and what
are some of its limitations?
Ans. The transition check approach is a specialized fault diagnosis technique used to improve fault diagnosis in
sequential circuits. It focuses on detecting and diagnosing faults related to state transitions and dynamic
behavior within sequential circuits. Here's how it works and some of its limitations:
*Transition Check Approach Improves Fault Diagnosis:*
1. *Emphasis on State Transitions:* The transition check approach places a particular emphasis on the
identification and diagnosis of faults related to state transitions. In sequential circuits, many faults manifest
during state changes when flip-flops transition from one state to another. By targeting these transitions, the
approach can efficiently detect and diagnose such faults.
2. *Timing Analysis:* Transition check methods often involve detailed timing analysis to ensure that state
transitions occur correctly. This includes checking that flip-flops capture the correct values during clock cycles
and that setup and hold time constraints are met. This can help identify timing-related faults.
3. *Comprehensive Fault Coverage:* By focusing on state transitions and considering both combinational logic
and sequential elements, the transition check approach can provide comprehensive fault coverage, ensuring that
a wide range of faults are detected and diagnosed accurately.
[3M]

*Limitations of the Transition Check Approach:*

1. *Complexity:* Transition check techniques can be computationally complex and may require extensive
simulation and analysis. This complexity increases with larger and more complex sequential circuits.
2. *Test Pattern Generation:* Generating test vectors to trigger specific state transitions can be challenging,
especially for circuits with numerous states. Designing these vectors to cover all possible state transitions can be
a non-trivial task.
3. *Resource Intensive:* The detailed timing analysis involved in transition checking can be resource-intensive
in terms of computation time and memory usage, making it less suitable for real-time or on-chip diagnosis in
some cases.
4. *Limited to State Transition Faults:* While the transition check approach excels at detecting and diagnosing
state transition-related faults, it may not be as effective for other types of faults, such as stuck-at faults or
bridging faults in combinational logic.
5. *Dependent on Accurate Models:* Effective transition checking relies on accurate models of the circuit's
behavior, including flip-flop characteristics, propagation delays, and timing constraints. Inaccurate models can
lead to incorrect diagnoses. [2M]

6.b.(b) What is state identification in fault detection experiments for sequential circuits?
Ans.State identification in fault detection experiments for sequential circuits is the process of determining the
current state of the circuit under test during testing or fault detection procedures. It's a crucial step when working
with sequential circuits because their behavior depends on the current state and the inputs.
[2M]
state identification works in fault detection experiments:
1. *Initial State:* At the beginning of testing or fault detection, the circuit is assumed to be in a known initial
state, often referred to as the "reset state." This state is typically defined and set to a specific value to ensure a
consistent starting point for the experiment.
2. *Observation of Outputs:* Test patterns are applied to the circuit's inputs, and the circuit's outputs are
observed. The behavior of the circuit depends not only on the inputs but also on its current state.
3. *State Tracking:* To determine the circuit's current state, state identification mechanisms are employed.
These mechanisms can be implemented in various ways, such as by adding state registers to the circuit to
capture and store the current state, or by using techniques like built-in self-test (BIST) that have state-tracking
capabilities.
4. *Comparison:* The observed outputs are compared with the expected outputs based on the inputs and the
known current state. Any discrepancies between the observed and expected outputs can indicate the presence of
faults.
5. *State Transition Analysis:* As the test patterns are applied sequentially, the circuit transitions from one state
to another based on its internal logic and the inputs. The ability to correctly identify these state transitions is
critical for fault detection, especially in cases where a fault might manifest during a state transition.
6. *Fault Detection:* Faults can be detected when the observed outputs deviate from the expected outputs for a
given input and state. These deviations indicate that the circuit's behavior is different from what is expected,
suggesting a fault may be present. [3M]