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Bridge Course - Basic Physics Review Innovations

The document outlines a bridge course in basic physics focusing on flexural and shear stress in structural elements. It includes problems related to bending stress, allowable stress, and the moment of inertia for various beam types. Additionally, it provides formulas and principles for calculating stresses and designing beams to ensure safety and structural integrity.

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Rivera Angelo

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

10 views62 pages

Bridge Course - Basic Physics Review Innovations

Uploaded by

Rivera Angelo

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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BRIDGE COURSE – BASIC PHYSICS REVIEW INNOVATIONS

BRIDGE COURSE – BASIC PHYSICS REVIEW INNOVATIONS
Review Innovations Bridge Course for April 2025 – Flexure
Allowable stress PROBLEM 1:
- the maximum safe stress that a structural element is A beam is subjected to a couple having a moment, M, as shown
designed to resist. This stress is intended to be lower than below.
the failure stress to account for accuracy of certain factors
(e.g., loads, material strength, durability, etc.) and is given
by the following formula:

Where:

Design principle:
1. Determine the bending stress at point A (in MPa) and
indicate the type.
Flexural Stress 2. Determine the bending stress at point B (in MPa) and
Flexure formula: indicate the type.
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 3. If the allowable stress is 100 MPa, find the maximum value
𝐼𝐼 of the moment of an additional couple (in kN-m) that may
Where:
be applied to the beam.
fb = flexural stress or bending stress
M = bending moment at section
PROBLEM 2:
y = distance from the neutral axis (NA) to the
The rod shown below has an allowable bending stress of 158
point where fb is being computed
MPa. Determine the required diameter, in mm, considering
I = moment of inertia of the section
bending.

Note: For the maximum bending stress, y = c (the

distance from the NA to the extreme fiber of the section).

PROBLEM 3:
The beam shown in the following figure is made of two boards.
Determine the maximum shear stress in the glue that is
necessary to hold the boards together along the seam where
they are joined.

∗ − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

For sections composed of several shapes, the moment of
inertia can be calculated using the following formula:
𝐼𝐼 = 𝛴𝛴𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐.𝑔𝑔. + Σ(𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑2 )

PROBLEM 4:
For the cantilever beam shown in the following figure,

Flexural Shear Stress 1. determine the maximum bending stress and its type
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 2. determine the maximum shear stress
𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

Cross-section
Manila FB: @ReviewInnovationsOfficial Davao FB: Review Innovations Davao Branch
 (02) 8735-9161 0919-227-9194  (082) 221-1121 0930-256-0998
29/11/2024

• FLEXURAL STRESS
• FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS

Allowable stress, Fallow (normal and shear)

- the maximum safe stress, considering service loads, that a structural element is designed to
resist. This stress is intended to be lower than the failure stress to account for accuracy of certain
factors (e.g., loads, material strength, durability, etc.) and is given by the following formula:

𝐹
𝐹 =
𝐹. 𝑆.
Where:
𝐹 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐹. 𝑆. = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 > 1.0

Design principle:
𝐹 ≥𝐹

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29/11/2024

Beams
- members that support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their longitudinal axis.
long'l axis
Concentrated load and moment

Uniformly distributed load

Uniformly varying loads

Fig. 1 - Types of beams Fig. 2 – Simply supported beam

with uniformly distributed load
3

Wood specimen that has failed due to bending.

Top fibers have been crushed due to compression
and bottom fibers torn apart due to tension.

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29/11/2024

𝑂 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒: 1 = 𝑀
𝜌 𝐸𝐼
𝜃
𝑓𝑏 = 𝐸 𝑦 𝑀
𝜌 𝐸𝐼
(–) 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑀 𝑦
𝑦 𝜃 𝐼
𝑦 𝐿 𝑀𝑐
𝑁𝐴 𝑓( )=
𝑁𝐴 𝐼
𝐿

𝑦𝜃 δ (+)
𝜀= δ = 𝑓𝑏 = 𝐸 𝑦
𝐿 𝜌𝜃 𝜌
𝑓𝑏 𝐿
𝑦 𝑓 𝐸𝑐
𝜎 ( )=
= 𝜌 Note: This is just an alternate derivation.
𝜌 𝐸
5

𝑂
𝑦 𝐿
𝜃
𝑁. 𝑆.
𝐿
𝑀 𝑀
(–)
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒:
𝑦𝜃
𝜀= δ = 𝑁. 𝑆. 1 𝑀
𝐿 𝜌𝜃 =
𝜌 𝐸𝐼
𝑓𝑏
𝑦
=
𝜎 𝑓𝑏 = 𝐸 𝑦 𝑀
𝜌 𝐸 𝐸𝐼

𝑓𝑏 = 𝐸 𝑦 (𝜌 − 𝑦)𝜃 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑀 𝑦
𝜌 𝐼
𝐸𝑐 𝜌𝜃 𝑓 𝑀𝑐
𝑓 ( )= ( )=
𝜌 δ = 𝜌𝜃 − (𝜌 − 𝑦)𝜃 = 𝑦𝜃 𝐼

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29/11/2024

General flexural stress formula Positive moment:

𝑀𝑦 +𝑀 +𝑀
𝑓 =
𝐼
Negative moment:
Where:
𝑓 = normal stress due to bending −𝑀 −𝑀
𝑀 = bending moment at the section being considered
𝑓 ,
𝑦 = distance from the neutral axis (NA) to the
point where 𝑓 is being computed
𝐼 = moment of inertia of the section 𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝑦
Maximum flexural stress formula 𝑁𝐴
𝑀𝑐
𝑓( ) = 𝑐𝑏𝑜𝑡.
𝐼 𝑀
Where: 𝑓 ,
𝑐 = distance from NA to the extreme fiber of the section

Moment of Inertia
Shape/Section
About the centroidal axis* About the base
𝑏ℎ 𝑏ℎ
Rectangular
12 3
𝑏ℎ 𝑏ℎ
Triangular
36 12
𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑑
Circular 𝑜𝑟 -
4 64
𝜋 8 𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑑
Semi-circular − 𝑟 ≅ 0.11𝑟 𝑜𝑟
8 9𝜋 8 128
∗ − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
For sections composed of several shapes, where the centroidal axis of a shape does not coincide with the
centroidal axis of the entire section, the moment of inertia can be calculated using the following formula:
𝐼 = Σ𝐼 . . + Σ(𝐴𝑑 )
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐼 . . = 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎
𝐴𝑑 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎

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29/11/2024

PROBLEM 1
Abeamissubjectedtoacouplehavingamoment,M,asshownbelow.
1. DeterminethebendingstressatpointA(inMPa)andindicatethetype.
2. Determine the bending stress at point B (in MPa) and indicate the type.
3. If the allowable stress is 100 MPa, find the maximum value of the moment of an additional couple (in kN-m) that
may be applied to the beam.

PROBLEM 1
Solution:
1. Bending stress at point A and its type
𝑀𝑦
𝑓 =
𝐼
80
80(120 ) 40(80 )
𝐼= − = 9.813𝑥10 𝑚𝑚
12 12
(15𝑥10 )(40)
𝑓 = = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝑪)
9.813𝑥10

2. Bending stress at point B and its type 40

120
𝑀𝑐 (15𝑥10 )(60)
𝑓( ) = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝑻)
𝐼 9.813𝑥10 60 ∆𝑀
3. Additional couple if allowable stress is 100 MPa
𝑓 ( ≥𝑓(
) )
𝑀𝑐
𝑓( ) = ; 𝑓 ( ) = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼
[ 15 + ∆𝑀 𝑥10 ](60)
100 =
9.813𝑥10
∆𝑀 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎

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29/11/2024

PROBLEM 2
The rod shown below has an allowable bending stress of 158 MPa. Determine the required diameter, in mm, considering
bending. 𝑥
12 𝑘𝑁/𝑚

𝑑
c=r

𝐴 𝐵
c=r

x/2

3𝑚 1.5 𝑚
𝑅𝐴 = 16.5 𝑘𝑁

𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟:

1
Σ𝑀 𝐵 = 0] + 𝑅𝐴(3)−12(3)(1.5)+ (1.5)(12)(0.5) = 0 𝑓 ( ) ≥𝑓( )
2
𝑅𝐴 =16.5 𝑘𝑁 𝑀𝑐
𝑓( ) =
𝐼
Σ𝐹 ( ) = 0]+ 16.5 − 12(𝑥) = 0
(11.344 𝑥 10 )(0.5𝑑)
𝑥 = 1.375 𝑚 158 =
𝜋
1.375 (𝑑 )
𝑀 = 16.5(1.375) −12 =11.344 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚 64
2 𝑑 = 𝟗𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒎
1
𝑀 = − (1.5)(12)(0.5) = −4.5 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚
2
∴ 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =11.344 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚

Wooden beam that has failed due to flexural

shear. The beam has almost been split in two
along its approximate center.

6
29/11/2024

Flexural shear stress formula

𝑉𝑄
𝑓 =
𝐼𝑏
Where:
fv = flexural shear stress or shear stress due to bending
V = shear force at the section being considered
Q = A’y’ is the first moment of area about the NA of the area A’ 𝑁. 𝐴.

A’ = partial area of the cross section above (or below) a line

drawn through the point at which the shearing stress is
desired
y’ = distance from N.A. to centroid of area, A’
I = moment of inertia of the entire cross section of the beam
b = width of beam at the level the shearing stress is desired

PROBLEM 3
The beam shown below is made of two boards. Determine the maximum shear stress in the glue that is necessary to
holdtheboardstogetheralongtheseamwheretheyarejoined.

𝑦 = 120 𝑚𝑚; 𝐼 = 27 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑚

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29/11/2024

PROBLEM 3
Solution: 26 𝑘𝑁
𝑉𝑄 2.0 𝑚
𝑓 =
𝐼𝑏
6.5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟,𝑉
𝐴 𝐵
Σ𝑀𝐵 = 0] +
4.0 𝑚 4.0 𝑚
𝑅𝐴 (8) − 26(2) = 0
𝑅𝐴 = 6.5 𝑘𝑁 𝑅 = 6.5 𝑘𝑁 𝑅 = 19.5 𝑘𝑁

6.5 6.5
Σ𝐹𝑣 = 0] +
𝑆. 𝐷.
6.5 − 26 + 𝑅 = 0
𝑅 = 19.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟,𝑉 = 19.5 𝑘𝑁 −19.5

PROBLEM 3
Solution:
150
𝑉𝑄
𝑓 =
𝐼𝑏 30
𝑁. 𝐴. 𝑦′ = 45
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟, 𝑉 = 19.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑦′ = (150)(30)(45) = 202,500 𝑚𝑚 150
120
𝑏 = 30 𝑚𝑚
(19.5 𝑥 10 )(202,500) 30
𝑓 =
(27 𝑥 10 )(30) 𝐼 = 27 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑚
= 𝟒. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂

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PROBLEM 4
Forthecantileverbeamshownbelow,
1. determinethemaximumbendingstressandindicateitstype and
2. determine the maximum shear stress
250
2.40 𝑘𝑁
20
𝑁. 𝐴.
200
2.0 𝑚

15 15

PROBLEM 4
Solution: 2.4 𝑘𝑁
1. Maximumbendingstressanditstype 𝑀
𝑀𝑐
𝑓( ) =
𝐼
2.0 𝑚
Σ𝑀𝑅 = 0] + 𝑉
250
𝑀 = −2.4(2.0) = −4.8 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚 10
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑁. 𝐴. : 𝑎 20
𝐴𝑦 = Σ(𝑎𝑦) − 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑦
100 𝑁. 𝐴.
𝑎 = 250(20) = 5,000 𝑚𝑚
𝑎 = 15(200) = 3,000 𝑚𝑚 200 𝑎 𝑎
200 − 𝑦
𝐴 = 5,000 + 2(3,000) = 11,000 𝑚𝑚

11,000𝑦 = 5,000(10) + 2(3,000)( 100)

𝑦 = 59.09 𝑚𝑚 15 15

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29/11/2024

PROBLEM 4
Solution: 2.4 𝑘𝑁 𝑀 = 4.8 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎, 𝐼:
𝐼 = Σ𝐼 . . + Σ(𝐴𝑑 )
250(203)
= [ + 5,000(49.092)] 2.0 𝑚
12 250 𝑉
15(2003) 10
+ 2[ + 3,000(40.912)]
12 𝑎 20
= 42.26 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑚 59.09 49.09
100 𝑁. 𝐴.
(4.8 𝑥 10 )(140.91) 40.91
𝑓 ( ) = 200 𝑎 𝑎
42.26 𝑥 10
140.91
= 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝑪)

15 15

PROBLEM 4
Solution: 2.4 𝑘𝑁 𝑀 = 4.8 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚
2. Maximumshearingstress
𝑉𝑄 VQ
𝑓 = Ib
𝐼𝑏
2.0 𝑚
Σ𝐹𝑣 = 0] + 250 𝑉 = 2.4 𝑘𝑁

−2.4 + 𝑉 = 0
20
𝑉 = 2.4 𝑘𝑁 59.09
140.91 𝑁. 𝐴.
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑦′ = 2(15)(140.91)
2 140.91
200 𝑦′ =
= 297,834.42 𝑚𝑚 2
𝑏 = 30 𝑚𝑚 140.91
(2.4 𝑥 10 )(297,834.42)
𝑓( ) =
(42.26 𝑥 10 )(30)
15 15
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟒 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝐼 = 42.26 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑚
20

10
Review Innovations CE Review for April 2025 – Bridge Course for Engineering Mechanics
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions bodily contact or by gravitational or magnetic
attraction.
Engineering Mechanics
This may be defined as the science which considers the
effects of forces on rigid bodies. This may be divided
into two parts: statics and dynamics:

a. Statics
This is defined as the part of mechanics which
consider the effects and distribution of forces on
rigid bodies which are and remain at rest.

b. Dynamics
This is defined as the part of mechanics which
consider the motion of rigid bodies caused by the
forces acting upon them.

Rigid Body
This is defined as a definite amount of matter the parts
of which are fixed in a position relative to each other.

Force
This may be defined as that which changes or tends to
change the state of motion of a body. The
characteristics of a force are: PROBLEMS:

a. its magnitude Problem 1: Resolve the 500-N force into:

b. the position of its line of action, and
c. the direction (or sense) in which the force acts
on its line of action

Axioms of Mechanics
1. Action and reaction forces are equal but oppositely
directed.
2. The parallelogram law which states that the
resultant of two forces is the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed on the vectors of these forces.
Then, analyze using triangle law. 1. x- and y- components
3. The two forces are in equilibrium only when equal 2. x- and y’-components
in magnitude, opposite in direction, and collinear in
action. Equilibrium forces are characterized as: Problem 2: The 300-lb force is to be resolved into
a. static or at rest components along lines a-a’ and b-b’.
b. SF = 0
c. If dynamic, acceleration is zero.

Equilibrium of Force Systems

Equilibrium is the term used to designate the condition

where the resultant of a system is zero. Its physical
meanung, as applied to a body, is that the body is either
at rest or is moving in a straight line with a constant
velocity.

ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣM = 0 1. Determine the angle α knowing that the component

along line a-a’ is 240-lb.
2. What is the corresponding value of the component
Free-body Diagram (FBD) is an isolated view of a body
along b-b’?
which shows only the external forces exerted on the
body. These external forces are either caused by direct
This review material is exclusively for the personal use, viewing and downloading of Review Innovations’ reviewees. Unauthorized
reproduction, use, or dissemination is strictly prohibited and shall be prosecuted to the full extent of the law.
Review Innovations CE Review for April 2025 – Bridge Course for Engineering Mechanics
Problem 3: The magnitudes of the three forces applied
to the eye bolt shown are T1 = 550 N, T2 = 200 N, and T3
= 750 N. Replace these forces with a single equivalent
force R.

1. Determine the reaction at A.

2. Determine the reaction at the wall at point D.
3. Determine the reaction at the surface at point G.
Problem 4: Determine P and θ so that the three forces
shown are equivalent to the single force R = 85i + 20j
kN. Problem 7: A load of 6 kN is supported as shown in the
figure. The weight of the pulley is 2 kN. Neglect the
weight of the bars.

1. Determine the reaction at D.

Problem 5: Determine the magnitude T of the tension 2. Determine the vertical reaction at C.
in the supporting cable and the magnitude of the force 3. Determine the horizontal reaction at C.
on the pin at A for the jib crane shown. The beam AB is
a standard 0.5-m I-beam with a mass of 95 kg per meter
of length.

Problem 6: A bin holds three cylinders as shown. Each

cylinder weighs 800 N and has a diameter of 600 mm.
The width of the bin is 1.2 m. Neglect friction.

Differentiation of Algebraic Functions Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions

d d du / dx
1. (c) = 0 1. (loga u) =
dx dx u ln a
d
2. (x) = 1 d du / dx
dx 2. (ln u) = ;u 0
dx u
d du
3. (u) = d M ( du / dx )
dx dx 3. (log u) =
dx u
d du dv
4. (u + v) = + where M = log e = 1 / ln 10 = 0.43429
dx dx dx
where M = modulus of common logarithm
d du
5. (un) = nun – 1
dx dx
Differentiation of Exponential Functions
d du / dx d u du
6. ( u) = 1. (a ) = au ln a
dx 2 u dx dx
d dv du d u du
7. (uv) = u +v 2. (e ) = eu
dx dx dx dx dx
d dw dv du d du dv
8. (uvw) = uv + uw + vw 3. (uv) = v uv – 1 + uv ln u
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
d dv
9. (cv) = c
dx dx
d u v ( du / dx ) − u ( dv / dx )
10.   =
v
dx   v2
d c −c ( dv / dx )
11.   =
dx  v  v2
dy dy du dy / du 1
12. =  = =
dx du dx dx / du dx / dy

Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

d du
1. (sin u) = cos u
dx dx
d du
2. (cos u) = –sin u
dx dx
d du
3. (tan u) = sec2 u
dx dx
d du
4. (cot u) = –csc2 u
dx dx
d du
5. (sec u) = sec u tan u
dx dx
d du
6. (csc u) = –csc u cot u
dx dx

 sec u tan u du = sec u + C

5. Find
dy
, if y 3 − 4y 2 = x3 + 3x 4
dx
 cot u du = ln sin u + C

 csc u cot u du = -csc u + C

Find the integral of the following functions:
 sec u du = ln(sec u + tan u) + C 6.  (x
3
+ x 2 − x ) dx

 csc u du = ln(csc u – cot u) + C

A.
3x 4 + 4 x 3 − 6 x 2
+C C.
3x 4 − 4 x 3 + 6 x 2
+C
12 12
Integration of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 4 x 4 + 3x 3 − 2 x 2 4 x 4 − 3x 3 + 2 x 2
B. +C D. +C
du u 12 12
 = arcsin + C
a2 − u2
du 1
a
u
7.  sin 2x cos 2x dx
 2
a +u 2
= arctan + C
a a A.
cos2 2 x
+C C.
sin 2 2 x
+C
1 u 4 2
du
 2
u u −a 2
= arcsec + C
a a B.
sin 2 2 x
+C D.
cos2 2 x
+C
4 2

2
arcsin u du = u arcsin u + 1 − u + C 1
8. x 2
x 2 − 16
dx

2
arctan u du = u arctan u - ln 1 + u
x 2 − 16 x 2 − 16
A. +C C. +C
Integration by Parts x 16x

 udv = uv -  v du
B.
x 2 − 16
+C D.
x 2 + 16
+C
16x 2 x2

x e
Trigonometric Substitution 2 x
dx
9.
When a2 – u2 is involved, try u = a sin .
When a2 + u2 is involved, try u = a tan . 2 x x x
A. x e + xe − e + C
When u2 – a2 is involved, try u = a sec . 2 x x x
B. x e + 2xe − 2e + C
The substitution may be represented geometrically by 2 x x x
constructing a right triangle. C. x e − xe + e + C
2 x x x
D. x e − 2xe + 2 e + C

2 2y
10. Evaluate 
1 0
( x 2 + y 2 ) dx dy .

Surveying has to do with the determination of the relative a. What is the value of HI in the 2nd setup?
spatial location of the points on or near the surface of the b. Find the elevation of TP5.
earth. It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical c. Determine the elevation of BM2.
distances between objects, of measuring angles between lines,
of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing
points by predetermined angular and linear measurement. Practice Problems:
Situation 1:
Leveling is the operation of measuring vertical distance, either In five trials of walking along a 90 m course on fairly level
directly or indirectly, to determine the difference in elevation. ground, a pacer for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5
Methods of Leveling: and 51.5 strides respectively. He then started walking an
•Direct or Spirit Leveling, by measuring vertical distances unknown distance XY in four trials which were recorded as
directly. Direct leveling is the most precise method of follows: 88.5, 89, 88 and 87 strides. Determine the following:
determining elevations and is the one commonly used.
•Indirect or Trigonometric Leveling, by measuring vertical 1. Pace factor of the pacer.
angles and horizontal or slope distances. A. 1.737 m/pace C. 0.869 m/pace
B. 0.217 m/pace D. 0.434 m/pace
Types of Leveling:
•Differential Leveling - is the operation of determining 2. Length of line XY.
differences in elevation of points some distance apart or of A. 306.15 m C. 153.16 m
establishing bench marks. Usually, differential leveling is B. 38.25 m D. 76.49 m
accomplished by direct leveling. Precise leveling is the
precise form of differential leveling. 3. Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped
•Profile Leveling - is the operation (usually by direct length of XY is 150.5 meters.
leveling) of determining elevations of points at short A. 1.74% C. 3.54%
measured intervals along a definitely located line, such as B. 3.48% D. 1.77%
the center line for a highway or a sewer.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS: 4. The following notes were taken during a differential leveling.
Problem 1: What is the difference in elevation between BM1 and BM2?
Line AB 100 m long was paced by a surveyor four times with STA ELEVATION
BS FS
the following data: 244, 245, 243, and 246. Another line CD
BM1 7.11 751.05
was paced for four times again with the following results: 793,
792, 794, and 795. 1 8.83 1.24
a. Find the pace factor of the surveyor.
b. Determine the actual length of line CD. 2 11.72 1.11
c. If line CD was at elevation of 470 m above the sea level and BM2 10.21
the radius of the earth is 6400 km, determine the reduced
distance of line CD along the sea level. A. 14.3 m C. 16.5 m
B. 13.7 m D. 15.1 m
Problem 2:
A compass instrument was used to determine the interior 5. The observed interior angles of a quadrilateral and their
angles of a triangle and their corresponding number of times
corresponding number of observation are as follows:
measured are as follows.
CORNER ANGLE NO. OF
STATION ANGLES NO. OF
OBSERVATIONS
MEASUREMENTS
1 670 5
A 410 5
2 1320 6
B 770 6
3 960 3
C 630 2
4 680 4
a. Find the correct value of angle A.
Determine the correct angle at corner 3.
b. Find the correct value of angle B.
c. Find the correct value of angle C. A. 94.950 C. 94.590
B. 95.500 D. 95.050

Problem 3:
From the given data of differential leveling shown,
6. TP1 has an elevation of 115.15m and the foresight taken at
STA BS HI FS ELEV the point is 0.30m. If the BS taken at BM is 1.42m, what is the
BM1 1.256 98.5 elevation of BM?
TP1 1.116 1.886
TP2 1.228 1.527 A. 114.03 m C. 113.98 m
TP3 1.189 2.246 B. 115.21 m D. 113.82 m
TP4 1.070 2.017
TP5 1.831 2.656
TP6 1.489 2.723
BM2 2.548

The measurement of dimensional

relationships among points, lines,
and physical features on or near
the Earth's surface.
INTRODUCTION TO
SURVEYING

Line AB 100 m long was paced by a surveyor four times

with the following data: 244, 245, 243, 246. Another line
Surveying is divided into the
CD was paced for four times again with the following
categories: results: 793, 792, 794, 795.
a. Find the pace factor of the surveyor.
plane surveying (mapping small areas)
b. Determine the actual length of line CD.
c. If line CD was at elevation of 470 m above the sea
geodetic surveying (mapping large
level and the radius of the earth is 6400 km,
areas of the globe).
determine the reduced distance of line CD along the
sea level.
11/29/2024

Distance Average No. 244 + 245 + 243 + 246

PF = =
Ave. No. of Paces of Paces 4
Line AB 100 m long was paced by a surveyor four times
244 Average No. of Paces = 244.50 paces
with the following data: 244, 245, 243, 246. Another line
245
100 m CD was paced for four times again with the following
243 Pace Factor = Pace Factor: 0.409 m/pace
244.50 paces results: 793, 792, 794, 795.
246
a. Find the pace factor of the surveyor.
b. Determine the actual length of line CD.
c. If line CD was at elevation of 470 m above the sea
A 100 m B level and the radius of the earth is 6400 km,
determine the reduced distance of line CD along the
sea level.

Distance Average No. 793 + 792 + 794 + 795

PF = =
Ave. No. of Paces of Paces 4
Line AB 100 m long was paced by a surveyor four times
793 Average No. of Paces = 793.5 paces
with the following data: 244, 245, 243, 246. Another line
792
DistanceCD CD was paced for four times again with the following
794 0.409 m/pace = DistanceCD = 324.54 m
793.5 paces results: 793, 792, 794, 795.
795
a. Find the pace factor of the surveyor.
b. Determine the actual length of line CD.
c. If line CD was at elevation of 470 m above the sea
C Distance = ??? D level and the radius of the earth is 6400 km,
determine the reduced distance of line CD along the
sea level.
11/29/2024

c. If line CD was at elevation of 470 m above the sea level and the radius
of the earth is 6400 km, determine the reduced distance of line CD along
the sea level.
A compass instrument was used to determine the interior angles of a
L’ L or R triangle and their corresponding number of times measured are as follows.
= L’ = L ( )
R R+h R+h
L = 324.54 m STATION ANGLES NO. OF
C L = actual distance
MEASUREMENTS *Angles with more number
D A 41° 5
R = radius of the earth of measurements will receive
L’
B 77° 6 less error correction.
m.s.l. h = altitude/elevation
h = 470 m L’ = reduced distance/sea level distance
C 63° 2
Sum = 181°
L’ 324.54 m Sumangles = 180°
= a. Find the correct value of angle A.
R 6400 x 103 m 6400 x 103 m + 470 m Error = 181° - 180°
b. Find the correct value of angle B.
L’ = 324.52 m c. Find the correct value of angle C. Error = 1°

STATION ANGLES NO. OF WEIGHT CORRECTION

MEASUREMENTS LEVELING
A 41° 5 1/5
1/5 1° x = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑°
13/15
B 77° 6 1/6
1/6 1° x = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗°
13/15
C 63° 2 1/2
1/2 1° x = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖°
13/15
Sum = 181° Total = 13 / 15

Sumangles = 180° Angle A = 41° − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑° = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟕𝟕°

Errortotal = 181° - 180° Angle B = 77° − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗° = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟖𝟏°
Errortotal = 1°
Angle C = 63° − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖° = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟐°
*Angles with more number of measurements
will receive less error correction. 180° (ok!)
11/29/2024

Leveling is the operation of measuring vertical distance, either • Differential Leveling is the operation of determining
directly or indirectly, to determine the difference in elevation. differences in elevation of points some distance apart or of
establishing bench marks. Usually, differential leveling is
Methods accomplished by direct leveling. Precise leveling is the
The difference in elevation may be measured by the following precise form of differential leveling.
methods:

Direct or Spirit Leveling, by measuring vertical distances

directly. Direct leveling is the most precise method of
determining elevations and is the one commonly used.

Indirect or Trigonometric Leveling, by measuring vertical

angles and horizontal or slope distances.

3
• Profile Leveling is the operation – usually by direct leveling – of From the given data of differential leveling shown,
determining elevations of points at short measured intervals STA BS HI FS ELEV
along a definitely located line, such as the center line for a BM1 1.256 98.500
highway or a sewer. TP1 1.116 1.886
TP2 1.228 1.527
TP3 1.189 2.246
TP4 1.070 2.017
TP5 1.831 2.656
TP6 1.489 2.723
BM2 2.548
a. What is the value of HI in the 2nd setup.
b. Find the elevation of TP5.
c. Determine the elevation of BM2.
11/29/2024

TP1 2
3
BS From the given data of differential leveling shown,
BM1
Elev. 100 STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM1 1.256 98.500
FS FS
IFS TP1 1.116 1.886
BS TP2 1.228 1.527
TP3 1.189 2.246
TP4 1.070 2.017
TP2 TP5 1.831 2.656
IFS TP6 1.489 2.723
BM2 2.548
BM1 → TP1 First Setup
3 a. What is the value of HI in the 2nd setup.
1 TP1 → TP2 Second Setup
b. Find the elevation of TP5.
c. Determine the elevation of BM2.

STA BS HI FS ELEV
*HI = Elevation + Back Sight Reading
BM1 1.256 98.500
HI = 98.500 + 1.256 TP1 1.116 1.886
HI = 99.756 TP2 1.228 1.527
*TP 1 = HI – Foresight Reading TP3 1.189 2.246
STA BS HI FS ELEV
TP4 1.070 2.017 +
TP 1 = 99.756 – 1.886 BM1 1.256 98.500
TP5 1.831 2.656 99.756 - HI TP1 = 97.870 + 1.116
TP 1 = 97.870 TP6 1.489 2.723
TP1 1.116 98.986 1.886 97.870
BM2 2.548 HI TP1 = 98.986
TP2 1.228 98.687 1.527 97.459
1.256 1.886 TP3 1.189 97.630 2.246 96.441
TP4 1.070 96.683 2.017 95.613
Elevation BM1 95.858 94.027
BM 1 TP5 1.831 2.656
Elev: 98.500m
HI Elevation TP1
TP6 1.489 94.624 2.723 93.135
TP 1
BM2 2.548 92.076
datum (mean sea level) Elev. 0
11/29/2024

ΔElev. = ΣBS - ΣFS ΔElev. = ΣBS - ΣFS

Elev. of TP 5 = Elev. of BM 1 + ΔElev. Elev. of BM 2 = Elev. of TP 5 + ΔElev.
STA BS HI FS ELEV Find the elevation of TP 5. STA BS HI FS ELEV Find the elevation of BM 2.
BM1 1.256 98.500 BM1 1.256 98.500
Δ Elev. = Δ Elev. =
TP1 1.116 98.986 1.886 (1.256 + 1.116 + 1.228 + 1.189 + 1.070) TP1 1.116 98.986 1.886 (1.831 + 1.489) – (2.723 + 2.548) = - 1.951
TP2 1.228 1.527 – (1.886 + 1.527 + 2.246 +2.017 +2.656) TP2 1.228 1.527
Elev. BM 2 = 94.027 + (- 1.951) = 92.076
TP3 1.189 2.246 Δ Elev. = - 4.473 TP3 1.189 2.246
TP4 1.070 2.017 TP4 1.070 2.017
Elev. of TP 5 = 98.500 + (- 4.473) = 94.027
TP5 1.831 2.656 94.027 TP5 1.831 2.656 94.027
TP6 1.489 2.723 TP6 1.489 2.723
BM2 2.548 BM2 2.548 92.076
Review Innovations CE Review April 2025 – Trigonometry 2

PERIOD, AMPLITUDE & FREQUENCY

Period (T) = interval over which the graph of a function repeats.
Amplitude (A) = greatest distance of any point on the graph from
a horizontal line which passes halfway between the maximum
and minimum values of the function.
Frequency (ω) = number of repetitions/cycles per unit of time or
1/T.
FUNCTION PERIOD AMPLITUDE
y = A sin (Bx + C) + D 2π/B A
y = A cos (Bx + C) + D 2π/B A
y = A tan (Bx + C) + D π/B - 2
ba = √bcs(s − a)
b+c
2
MEDIANS OF A TRIANGLE bb = √acs(s − b)
The median of a triangle is the line drawn from one vertex to the a+c
midpoint of its opposite side. The medians of a triangle intersect at 2
a common point called the centroid of the triangle. bc = √abs(s − c)
a+b

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Great Circle - circle on the surface of a sphere, whose plane
passes through the center of the sphere.
2. Small Circle - circle constructed by a plane crossing the sphere
not in its center.
3. Spherical Angle - an angle formed by the intersection of two
1 great circles.
ma = √2b 2 + 2c 2 − a2
2 4. Spherical Triangle - a triangle on the surface of the sphere
1 formed by the intersection of three great circles.
mb = √2a2 + 2c 2 − b 2 5. Polar Distance – least distance on a sphere from a point on the
2
circle to its pole.
1 6. Latitude – angular distance of the point from the equator ranges
mc = √2a2 + 2b 2 − c 2
2 from 00 to 900 at the poles.
7. Longitude – angular distance between the prime meridian and
ALTITUDES OF A TRIANGLE the meridian through the point ranges from 00 at the prime
The altitude of a triangle is the line drawn from one vertex meridian to 1800 eastward and -1800 westward.
perpendicular to its opposite side. The altitudes of a triangle
intersect at a point called the orthocenter of the triangle. PROPERTIES OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLE:
Spherical Excess,
E = A + B + C - 1800
Spherical Defect,
D = 3600 – (a + b + c)
- The greater side has the greater angle opposite to it.
- The sum on any two sides is greater than the third side.
-The sum of the sides of a spherical triangle is less than 360 0.
- The sum of any two angles is less than 180 0 plus the third angle.
-The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is greater than 180 0 and
less than 5400.
2AT
ha =
a RIGHT SPHERICAL TRIANGLE:
- is one with right angle.
2AT
hb =
b
2AT
hc =
c

ANGLE BISECTORS OF A TRIANGLE

The angle bisector of a triangle is the line drawn from one vertex
to the opposite side bisecting the included angle between the co = complement of
other two sides. The angle bisectors of a triangle intersect at a Note:
point called the incenter of the triangle. sin co-A = cos A
cos co-A = sin A
tan co-A = cot A

Napier’s Rule: 4. In the previous problem, how far from the vertex B will the
Rule 1: (Sin-Ta-Ad Rule) bisector of angle A intersect BC?
The sine of any middle part is equal to the product of the tangents
of its adjacent parts. 5. Solve the unknown angles and side of the spherical triangle
Rule 2: (Sin-Co-Op Rule) whose given parts are:
The sine of any middle part is equal to the product of the cosines a = 720 27’ b = 610 49’ C = 900
of its opposite parts.
6. Solve the triangle whose given parts are:
Important Rules: A = B = 640 37’, and b = 810 14’
1. In a right spherical triangle, an oblique angle and the side
opposite are of the same quadrant. 7. The parts of a spherical triangle are the following: 𝐵 = 120°, 𝐶 =
2. When the hypotenuse of a right spherical triangle is less than 150°, and 𝑎 = 136°. If the radius of the sphere is 20 meters, find
900, the two legs are of the same quadrant and conversely.
the area of the spherical triangle.
3. When the hypotenuse of a right spherical triangle is greater than
900, one leg is of the first quadrant and the other of the second and a. 1593 m2 c. 1633 m2
2
conversely. b. 1653 m d. 1613 m2

OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE: 8. A plane left Manila (140 36’N, 1210 5’E) and flew in the direction
- Has none of its angles equal to 900 of S 320 E. At what longitude will it cross the equator?

Law of Sine 9. Find the time it would take an airplane flying at a speed of 1200
sin a sin b sin c kph to fly along a great circle route from Manila (14038’N, 12105’E)
= = to Moscow (55045’N, 37037’E). Find its course if it flew from
sin A sin B sin C
Manila and from Moscow.
Law of Cosine for Sides
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A
cos b = cos a cos c + sin a sin c cos B Problems for Practice:
cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C 1. Determine the amplitude, period and phase shift of the
function: y = 4sin(2x+/2)
Law of Cosine for Angles
cos A = - cos B cos C + sin B sin C cos a *Amplitude = 4; Period = ; Phase Shift = -/4
cos B = - cos A cos C + sin A sin C cos b
cos C = - cos A cos B + sin A sin B cos c 2. In triangle ABC, side BC = 40m, side AB = 50m and Angle A =
530. Determine the length of the median drawn from vertex A to
AREA OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLE: the side BC.
r = radius/radius of sphere
πr 2 E *37.1 cm
A= E = spherical excess
1800 = sum of angles - 1800
= A + B + C - 1800 Situation 1: Triangle ABC has the following sides: AB = 40 cm, BC
= 60 cm and angle B = 460. Determine the ff:
1 1 1 1 1 3. Distance from A to the other end of the bisector of angle B.
tan = √tan s tan (s − a) tan (s − b) tan (s − c) 4. Length of the bisector of angle B.
4 2 2 2 2
s = (a + b + c)/2 *17.28 cm; 44.18 cm

Note: 5. A spherical triangle ABC has an angle C = 900 and sides a = 500
Bi-rectangular spherical triangle and c = 800. Find the angle of side b in degrees.
- 2 angles are right angles
Tri-rectangular spherical triangle *74.330
- 3 right angles
6. Solve the spherical triangle whose given parts are:
Terrestrial Sphere Problems: b = 72038’; A = 1150 51’; and C = 900
Note:
1 minute of arc = 1 nautical mile *a = 1160 55’, c = 970 46’, B = 740 25’
1 nautical mile = 6080 ft
1 statute mile = 5280 ft Situation 2: An airplane flew from Manila (140 36’ N, 1210 05’ E)
1 nautical mile = 1.1516 statute mile on a course S 300 W and maintaining a uniform altitude.
1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour 7. At what point will the plane cross the equator?
8. What will be its course at that point?
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Find the amplitude & period of *1120 48’ E; S 280 56’ W
y = sin x cos x
Situation 3: An airplane flew from Manila (140 36’ N, 1210 05’ E) at
2. Two sides of a triangle are 10 cm and 25 cm respectively. an average speed of 600 kph on a course S 32 E.
0

Compute the probable perimeter of the triangle. 9. How long will it take to reach the equator?
A. 72 cm C. 39 cm 10. At what point will it cross the equator?
B. 69 cm D. 50 cm 11. What is the course of the airplane at the equator?

3. A triangle ABC having sides a = 6 cm, b = 8 cm, and c = 9 cm. *3.17 hours; 1300 2’ E; S 300 51’ E
Find the length of the median drawn from the vertex A to side BC.

1
q AB = (Area)AB
EI

A B A B
qAB (+) tB/A (+)

qAB (-) tB/A (-)

A B B
A

Theorem 2: The deviation at any point B relative to a tangent

drawn to the elastic curve at any other point A, in
direction perpendicular to the original position of the
beam, is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the
moment of area about B of that part of the moment
diagram between points A & B.

1
tB/A = (Area)AB × xB
EI
Sign Convention (CBM)
For a positive curvature diagram, where there is a
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS positive ordinate of the M/EI diagram, the load in the
conjugate should point in the positive y direction
Elastic Curve Neutral Axis
(upward) and vice versa.

A
qA qB
B REAL BEAM CONJUGATE BEAM
dC C
tC/A tB/A SLOPE SHEAR / EI
RA tC/B qAB RB
Tange
nt thro
DEFLECTION MOMENT/ EI
tA/B B ug h A
gh
rou
t th
gen
Tan Situation 2. A cantilever beam ABC is fixed at A. Segment AB
is 2m long and BC is 3m long. Segment BC is loaded with a
xC
triangular load ranging from 0 at B to 40 kN/m at C. Use
L
CBM.

Rotation at A
1. Calculate the maximum slope of the beam.
tB/A tC /A + dC 2. Compute the maximum deflection.
y 'A = q A = =
L xC

Rotation at B Situation 3. A propped cantilever beam having a span of 30

t A/B tC /B + dC m carries a triangular load which varies from 15 kN/m at
y 'B = qB = = the fixed end to zero at the other support. Use CBM.
L L - xC
1. Calculate the reaction at the propped end.
2. Compute the moment at the fixed support.
Situation 1. A simple beam of length 40 ft is loaded with 60
kips applied at the first quarter point of the beam from
left and a 40 kips/ft uniform load that starts at the PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
second quarter point from left and terminates at the
right end. Consider E = 1,800 ksi and I = 46,000 in! . Situation 1. A propped cantilever beam having a span of 20 m
carries a triangular load which varies from 10 kN/m at the
fixed end to zero at the other support.
1. Determine the deflection (inches) at midpoint using
AMM.
1. Determine the reaction at the simply supported end.
2. Determine the rotation or slope of the tangent at left (20 kN)
support measured from horizontal axis of the beam. 2. Find the distance of the point of maximum deflection
from the simply supported end. (8.94)
3. Find the maximum deflection. (3816.22/EI)

Situation 2. A simply supported beam is loaded as shown.

4. Determine the rotation at A. (2530.67/EI)

5. Find the distance of the point of maximum deflection
from left support (7.46)
6. Find the maximum deflection. (11981.29/EI)

Situation 3. A simply supported beam is loaded as shown.

7. Determine the rotation at B. (0.0514 rad)

8. Determine the rotation at C (0.0771 rad)
9. Determine the deflection at B (180 mm)
10. Determine the deflection at C (373 mm)

SOLID GEOMETRY SPHERE

– a round solid figure with every point on its surface equidistant
POLYHEDRONS from its center (3D equivalent of circle)
– solids whose faces are plane polygons (3D equivalent of
polygon)
Regular Polyhedrons are those solids with all its faces identical
regular polygons. There are only five known regular
polyhedrons: tetrahedron, hexahedron (cube), octahedron,
dodecahedron, and icosahedron.

Volume of a Sphere
4
V = πr 3
3
Surface Area of a Sphere
SA = 4πr 2
CYLINDER
– can be thought of as a prism with two circular bases
SPHERICAL COMPONENTS
Spherical segment – the solid defined by cutting a sphere or a ball
with a pair of parallel planes

Volume of a Cylinder
V = AB h = πr 2 h
Surface Area of a Cylinder
TSA = 2πr 2 + 2πrh
Volume of a Spherical segment of one base
CONE 𝜋ℎ2
– formed by a set of line segments connecting the apex, to all the 𝑉 = (3𝑅 − ℎ)
3
points on the circumference of the circular base that is in a plane
Volume of a Spherical segment of two bases
that does not contain the apex
𝜋ℎ
𝑉= (3𝑎2 + 3𝑏 2 + ℎ2 )
6
Spherical zone – a portion of the surface of a sphere included
between two parallel planes. It may be thought of as the lateral
area of a spherical segment.

Volume of a Cone
1 1
V= A h = πr 2 h
3 B 3
Surface Area of a Cone
TSA = πr 2 + πrl Area of a Spherical zone
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅ℎ

Spherical cone – a solid generated by rotating a sector of a circle

about an axis which passes through the center of the circle, but
which contains no points inside the sector

Volume of a Frustum
ℎ
𝑉= (𝐴 + 𝐴2 + √𝐴1 𝐴2 )
3 1
Surface Area of a Frustum
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐿𝑆𝐴

Volume of a Spherical cone

1 2
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅 = 𝜋𝑅2 ℎ
3 3 SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A closed cylindrical tank is 8 ft long and 3 ft in diameter. When
Spherical Lune – a portion of the surface of a sphere bounded by lying in a horizontal position, the water is 2 ft deep. If the tank is in
the vertical position, the depth of water in the tank is _________.
two half great circles and an included arc
A. 5.67 m C. 5.82 ft
B. 5.82 m D. 5.67 ft

2. Find the volume of a regular tetrahedron if all edges measure 9

cm.
A. 85.9 cm3 C. 87.9 cm3
3
B. 83.9 cm D. 81.9 cm3

3. A right circular cone is to be made from a circular sector of

radius 36 cm and central angle 200°. Find the volume of the cone
thus formed.
A. 13582 cm3 C. 12538 cm3
B. 12385 cm3 D. 13825 cm3
Area of a Spherical lune
𝜋𝑟 2 θ 4. From the previous problem, what is the lateral area of the cone
𝐴= formed?
90°
Spherical wedge – solid bounded by two half great circles and an 5. A mixture compound of equal parts of two liquids, one white
included arc and the other black, was placed in a hemispherical bowl. The total
depth of the two liquids is 6 in. After standing for a short time, the
mixture separated; the white liquid settling below the black. If
the thickness of the black liquid is 2 in, find the radius of the bowl.

6. A salad bowl is in the form of a spherical segment with two

bases. The upper base is a great circle of radius 5”. The altitude of
the bowl is 2”. Find its capacity.

7. A sphere of radius 5 cm and a right circular cone of base radius

5 cm and altitude of 10 cm stand on the same horizontal plane.
How far from this plane is the plane, parallel to the former, which
will cut the two solids into two equal circular sections?
Volume of a Spherical wedge A. 1.5 cm C. 1 cm
B. 2.0 cm D. 2.5 cm
𝜋𝑟 3 θ
𝑉=
270° 8. The diameter of the lower base and upper base of a frustum of a
cone are 24 ft and 14 ft, respectively. If its slant height is 13 ft, find
the volume of the frustum.
FRUSTUM
A. 3531 ft 3 C. 3431 ft 3
– the remaining portion obtained after removing the top portion B. 3581 ft 3 D. 3481 ft 3
when a pyramid or a cone is cut by a cutting plane parallel to its
base 9. The lateral edge of a frustum of a regular pyramid is 4 m long.
The upper and lower bases are squares with sides of length 3 m
and 5 m, respectively. Determine the volume of this frustum.
A. 61.1 m3 C. 55.1 m3
3
B. 58.1 m D. 64.1 m3

Problems for Practice:

1. The volume of two spheres are in the ratio 27:343 and the sum
of their radii is 10. Find the ratio of the surface area of the bigger
sphere to the smaller sphere.

2. The ratio of the volume to the lateral area of the right circular
cone is 2:1. If the altitude is 15cm, what is the ratio of the slant
height to the radius?

3. The ratio of the surface area of sphere A to the surface area of

sphere B is 4. The ratio of the volume of sphere B to the volume
of sphere C is 3. Find the ratio of the volume of sphere A to the
volume of sphere C.

4. If the volume of the sphere is increased by 20%, by how many

percent will its surface area increase?

5. A sphere of diameter 40 cm is cut by two horizontal planes. One

plane is 8 cm below the center of the sphere and the other is 14
cm above the center of the sphere. Determine the volume of the
segment formed between the cutting planes.

6. The sum of the radii of the bases of a frustum of a cone is 7 cm.

If it has an altitude of 6 cm and a volume of 232.48 cm3, compute
the radius of the smaller base.

7. A hole 10 cm in diameter is to be punched out from a right

circular cone (base on top) having a diameter of 16 cm and a
height of 24 cm. Determine the total volume punched out.

8. How many bricks are contained in a chimney in the shape of a

frustum of a cone whose height is 18.30 m, whose outer
diameters are 1.20 m and 2.40 m, respectively, and whose inner
diameters are 1.0 m and 2.20 m respectively. There are 530
bricks to a cubic meter of chimney.

9. Two equal spheres overlap such that the surface of one sphere
passes the centroid of the other sphere. If the radius of each sphere
is 2 m, find the volume common to both spheres.

10. The lateral edge of a frustum of a regular pyramid is 1.8 m long.

Its upper base is a square, 1 m x 1 m, while its lower base, also a
square, 2.4 m x 2.4 m. What is the volume of this frustum?
Answers:
11. Find the volume of a frustum of a regular hexagonal pyramid 1. 5.44
with base edges of 6 cm and 8 cm. Its altitude is 12 cm. 2. 5/2
3. 24
12. A spherical wedge has a radius of 2 m and a central angle of 4. 12.93%
70°. Find the ratio of the volume of spherical wedge to its surface 5. 24,236.34 cm3
area. 6. 3 cm
7. 1099.56 cc
13. A spherical wooden ball 15 cm in diameter sinks to a depth of 8. 5179.95 ≈ 5180 pieces
12 cm in a certain liquid. Compute the area exposed above the 9. 10.47 m3
liquid. 10. 4.61 m3
11. 1538.06 cm3
14. An ice cream cone is filled with ice cream and more ice cream 12. 2/3
in the form of a hemisphere is placed on top. The diameter of the 13. 141.37 cm2
hemisphere is equal to the diameter of the cone. If the 14. 31.27 cm3
hemispherical surface is equal to lateral area of the cone, find the 15. 4
total volume of ice cream if the radius of the hemisphere is 2 cm.

15. One edge of a regular hexahedron is 24 cm long. Find the ratio

of the volume to the surface area.

SOME THEOREMS ON CIRCLE: ESCRIBED CIRCLE (EX-CIRCLE)

1. Every tangent line of a circle is perpendicular to the radius of the
circle drawn through the point of tangency.
2. The measure of a central angle is equal to the angular measure of
its intercepted arc.
3. The measure of an inscribed angle is equal to one-half the
measure of its intercepted arc.

AT = r(s − a)
a+b+c
s=
2
where:
r = radius of escribed circle
a = side where the escribed circle is tangent

SOLID GEOMETRY

Cyclic Quadrilateral - is a quadrilateral whose vertices lie on the PRISM

circumference of a circle. – a polyhedron with two faces (bases) parallel and congruent and
•Ptolemy’s Theorem - “For any cyclic quadrilateral, the product of whose remaining faces (lateral faces) are parallelograms. Every
the diagonals equals the sum of the product of the opposite side.” section parallel to the base has the same area as the base.
d1d2 = ac + bd

CIRCLE INSCRIBED IN A TRIANGLE (IN-CIRCLE)

Volume of a Prism
V = AB h
Surface Area of a Prism
Incenter – It is the point of intersection of the angle bisectors of the
TSA = 2AB + LSA
triangle. It is also the center of the inscribed circle.
Right prism – a prism which has its lateral faces, thus its axis,
In-circle – It is the largest circle that can fit inside the triangle and
perpendicular to the base
touch all three sides. Its center is always inside the triangle.
Oblique prism – a prism in which the lateral faces are not
perpendicular to the base
AT = rs
Note that prisms are named according to their base.
a+b+c
s= TRUNCATED PRISM
2
– a portion of a prism formed by passing a plane not parallel to the
CIRCLE CIRCUMSCRIBING A TRIANGLE (CIRCUM-CIRCLE) base and intersecting all the lateral edges. This solid has two non-
parallel bases which are both polygons of the same number of edges.

Circumcenter – It is the point of intersection of the perpendicular

bisectors of the triangle. It is also the center of the circumscribed
circle. Volume of a Truncated prism
Circum-circle – It is the circle that passes through all the vertices of
the triangle. Its center can be inside or outside the triangle. 𝑉 = 𝐴𝐵 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
Surface Area of a Truncated prism
abc
AT = 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐿𝑆𝐴
4R

PYRAMID cut by a plane parallel to its base so that the two solids of equal weight
– a polyhedron that contains triangular lateral faces with a common will be formed?
vertex and a polygonal base. A. 6.8 C. 5.3
B. 3.1 D. 4.8

Problems for Practice:

1. The radius of a circle circumscribing an isosceles triangle is 25 cm.
If one of the equal interior angles of this isosceles triangle measures
70o, what is the area of the triangle?

2. What is the radius of the circle circumscribing an isosceles right

triangle having an area of 162 sq.cm?

3. In the figure shown below, determine the angle . AB is the

Volume of a Pyramid diameter of a circle.
1
V = AB h
3
Surface Area of a Pyramid
TSA = AB + LSA

Pyramids are also named according to their base.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS: 4. A quadrilateral ABCD is inscribed in a circle. The following are the
1. In the figure shown, arc BC = 1/2 arc CD. Solve for θ. given data: AB=22 m, BC=35 m, CD=24 m, and AC=40 m. Find: (a)
AD; (b) BD; (c) the area of the quadrilateral.

Situation 1:
In triangle ABC, c = 5 cm and a = 7 cm. The distance from the incenter
of the circle to the side BC is 1.477 cm. If the area of the triangle is
16.25 cm2,
5. Compute the side b.
6. Find the radius of the circle which is escribed outside the triangle if
it is tangent to side a.
7. How far is the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of
the sides to the side a?

8. The base of a truncated prism whose volume is 8200 cc is a rectangle

2. A quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle such that one of its sides
in which the length is twice the width. If the heights at the corners of
coincides with the diameter. If the other three sides measure 2 m, 3
the prism are 16 cm, 12 cm, 12 cm, and 16 cm, find the length of its
m and 4 m, determine the diameter of the circle.
base.
3. A triangle has an area of 9.92 cm2 and its perimeter is 15 cm. Find 9. A truncated prism has a horizontal triangular base ABC, AB = 10
the distance from the point of intersection of its angle bisectors to cm, BC = 12 cm, and CA = 8 cm. The vertical edges through A, B and
one side. C are 20 cm, 12 cm, and 18 cm long respectively. Determine the
volume of the prism.
4. The area of a triangle ABC is 26.83 cm2 and the product of its three
sides is 504 cm3. How far from vertex A is the point of intersection of 10. The volume of the pyramid with a square base is 900cm3 and its
the perpendicular bisectors of its sides? base is 15cm x 15cm. Find the lateral edge.

5. The area of a triangle ABC is 60 cm2 and its perimeter is 48 cm. 11. From the figure shown, angle ABC = 180 and angle BAD = 360. If
Compute the radius of the escribed circle tangent to the longest side the radius of the circle is 12cm, compute the area of AOD. Point O is
of the triangle which is equal to 22.5 cm. the center of the circle.

6. The sides of a triangle form an arithmetic progression and the

product of the lengths of the shortest and longest sides is 77. Find the
product of the radius of the circle inscribed in the triangle and the
radius of the circumscribing circle.

CE BOARD NOVEMBER 2018:

7. The bases of a right prism are pentagons with each side 6 m. long.
The bases are 12 m apart. What is the volume and the surface area of
the prism?

8. An inverted square pyramid has a height of 8 m and a top edge of 3

m. If it contains water to a depth of 5 m, then the volume of the water Answers:
is _____. 1. 709.5 cm2 6. 4.06 cm
a. 5.24 m3 c. 4.48 m3 2. 9√2 cm 7. 4.09 cm
b. 4.72 m3 d. 5.86 m3 3. 105° 8. 34.23 cm
4. (a) 30.35 m 9. 661.44 cm3
CE BOARD NOVEMBER 2018: (b) 39.76 m 10. 16.02 cm
9. The famous pyramid of Egypt has an altitude of 15 m and weight of (c) 747.60 m2 11. 68.48 cm2
4000 kg. It has a square base. At what distance from its base must it be 5. 10 cm

Plane Geometry - deals with the properties of plane figures or

geometrical shapes of two dimensions, such as angles, triangles,
square, polygons, conic sections, etc.

POLYGONS – a closed plane figure with three or more sides and

angles.
Concave polygon – a polygon having at least one interior angle
greater than 180°
Convex polygon – a polygon where all interior angles are less than
180°
Regular polygon – a polygon having all sides equal and all angles
equal
Similar polygons – polygons whose corresponding angles are QUADRILATERALS
equal, and corresponding sides are proportional – a polygon bounded by four straight lines (also known as
quadrangle or tetragon)

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
=( ) =( ) =( )
𝐴𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

PROPERTIES OF POLYGONS
Sum of Interior Angles 𝜃 AREA OF QUADRILATERALS
𝛴θ = 180°(𝑛 − 2) Area of Parallelogram
Sum of Exterior Angles 𝛽 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
𝛴β = 360° Area of Trapezoid
Sum of Central Angles 𝛼 1
𝛴𝛼 = 360° 𝐴= ℎ(𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )
2
Number of Diagonals d Area of Kite & Rhombus
𝑛 1
𝑑 = (𝑛 − 3) 𝐴= 𝑑 𝑑
2 2 1 2
Area of Trapezium (General Quadrilateral)

𝐴 = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)(𝑠 − 𝑑) − 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 cos 2 θ

where:
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑 𝐴+𝐶 𝐵+𝐷
𝑠= and θ = or θ =
2 2 2

Perimeter and Area of Regular Polygon

𝑃 = 𝑠𝑛 CIRCLE
– a closed plane curve every point of which is equidistant to a fixed
1 𝑠2𝑛 point called its center
𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎 = Parts of a Circle
2 180°
4 tan ( ) 1. Radius – a line segment formed by joining any point on the
𝑛
where: circle and its center
𝑠 = length of one side 2. Chord – a line segment formed by joining any two points on
𝑛 = number of sides the circle
𝑎 = apothem 3. Diameter – the longest chord of a circle. It has a length that is
twice the radius.
Apothem – a line from the center of a regular polygon 4. Arc – a set of points on the circle that are bounded by two
perpendicular to one of its sides. This is equal to the radius of the endpoints that are also on the circle
inscribed circle. 5. Sector – a region bounded by two radii of a circle and the
included arc of the two radii
6. Segment – a region bounded by an arc and the chord joining
the endpoints of the arc.

Secant – Tangent Rule:

If a secant and tangent segment are drawn to a circle from the
same external point, the product of the length of the secant
segment and its external part equals the square of the length of the
tangent segment.
(AB)2 = AD x AC

PROPERTIES OF CIRCLE SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Circumference
𝐶 = 𝜋𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑟 1. Find the area of a regular decagon if one of its sides measures
Area 4 cm.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 A. 149.9 cm2 C. 179.1 cm2
Arc length B. 123.1 cm2 D. 98.9 cm2
𝑠 = 𝑟θ
Area of Sector 2. A regular hexagon having an area of 93.53 cm2 is inscribed in a
1 𝜋𝑟 2 θ
𝐴 = 𝑟2θ = circle. Find the area of the regular octagon that will circumscribe
2 360° this circle.
Area of Segment
1
𝐴 = 𝑟 2 (θ − sin θ) 3. A rectangle with sides AB = CD = 50 m and BC = AD = 120 m is
2
shown in the figure. It is divided into three parts by parallel lines
AE and FC which are 20 m apart. Find the area of AECF.
Two Chords Rule:
If two chords intersect in a circle, the product of the lengths of the
segments of one chord equal the product of the segments of the
other.
a x b = c x d

4. The parallel bases of a trapezoid measure 100 cm and 150 cm

respectively and its altitude is 60 cm. It is to be divided into two
parts whose areas are in the ratio of 2:5 by a line parallel to its
bases such that the bigger part is adjacent to the smaller base.
Determine the length of this dividing line, area of the smaller and
bigger parts.
Two Secants Rule:
If two secant segments are drawn to a circle from the same 5. A goat is tied outside a triangular fenced garden at point A. The
external point, the product of the length of one secant segment and sides of the fence are AB = 8 m, BC = 9 m, and CA = 12 m. If the
rope with which the goat is tied is 14 m, find the area over which
its external part is equal to the product of the length of the other
the goat can graze outside the fence.
secant segment and its external part.
AC x AB = AE x AD 6. Two circles whose radii are 12 cm and 16 cm respectively,
intersect at two points. The angle between the lines tangent to
the circles at their point of intersection is 29.5°. Find the distance
between their centers.

CE BOARD MAY 2016:

Chords AB and CD intersect each other at O inside the circle.
AO = 8 cm, CO = 12 cm, DO = 20 cm and AB = diameter of the
circle.
7. Compute the diameter of the circle.
8. Compute the length of arc AC.
9. Determine the area of OCA.

Problems for Practice:

1. A triangular piece of land has one side measuring 12 km. The

land is to be divided into two equal areas by a dividing line
parallel to the given side. What is the length of the dividing line?

2. The sides of a bigger polygon are 4 m, 6 m, 7 m, 13 m, and 18

m. A similar smaller polygon has a longest edge of 12 m. What is
the perimeter of the smaller polygon?

3. A trapezoidal lot ABCD has sides BC parallel to AD. AB = 395

m, AD = 530 m and BC = CD. Angle CDA = 860. Determine the
area of the lot.

4. A rectangular lot 80 m x 40 m long is divided into two areas by

an arc whose center is at the mid-point of the shorter side. If the
radius of the arc is 30 m, what is the ratio of the area of the
smaller part to the area of the bigger part?

5. The diagonals of a rhombus are 16 cm and 12 cm long

respectively. Determine (a) the length of its sides; (b) the acute
angle between its sides; (c) the area of the rhombus.

6. A road is tangent to a circular lake. Along the road and 12 miles

from the point of tangency, another road opens towards the lake.
From the intersection of the two roads to the periphery of the lake,
the length of the new road is 11 miles. If the new road will be
prolonged across the lake, find the length of the bridge
constructed.

7. The distance between the center of the circles which are

mutually tangent each other externally are 10 cm, 12 cm and 14
cm respectively. Find the area of the largest circle.

8. In the previous problem, compute the area enclosed between

the points of tangency of the three circles.

9. Two circles are concentric. The chord of the bigger circle is

tangent to the smaller circle and measures 10 cm. What is the area
outside the smaller but inside the bigger circle?

10. Two circles have radii of 6 cm and 8 cm and their centers are
20 cm apart. Find the lengths of the common external tangent and
the common internal tangent.

11. The sum of the interior angles is six times the sum of its
exterior angles. How many diagonals does this polygon have?

12. A hexagram formed by overlapping two equal equilateral Answer Key:

triangles, is inscribed in a circle of radius 6.928. Find the sides of 1. 8.485 km
the equilateral triangle. 2. 32 m
3. 53,420.23 m2 or
13. Two tangents are drawn from an external point P of a circle and 168,571.60 m2
intersect the circle at points A and B, respectively. Point C is on 4. 0.53
the periphery of the circle and is closer to P than either A or B. If 5. (a) 10 cm;
the angle between the tangent lines is 48°, find the angle ACB. (b) 73.74°;
(c) 96 cm2
14. Find the area of a quadrilateral whose sides are 10 cm, 8 cm, 6. 2.09 miles
16 cm, and 20 cm, if the sum of two opposite interior angles is 225°. 7. 64π cm2
8. 5.08 cm2
15. A circle whose area is 452 cm2 is cut into two segments by a 9. 25 cm2
chord whose distance from the center of the circle is 6 cm. Find the 10. External = 19.90 cm
area of the larger segment. Internal = 14.28 cm
11. 77 diagonals
12. 12
13. 114°
14. 145.33 cm2
15. 363.56 cm2

! = "#
pump

volume flow rate weight flow rate

mass flow rate
! "! # $% "
Q = discharge # && && $
# ' ' ' $ 1
% &
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)

THREE FORMS OF HEAD OR ENERGY 𝑣! " 𝑝! 𝑣" " 𝑝"

2 + + 𝑧! + 𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑧" + 𝐻𝐿
! 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
= velocity head
2" in N.m per N
of fluid flowing, HA = head added by the pump (m)
! or in m of fluid
= pressure head
! flowing TURBINE
Z = elevation head 1

E = total head or energy (m)

!! "
#= + +$
!% !
turbine
!
"
2
!#
!
𝑣! " 𝑝! 𝑣" " 𝑝"
! + + 𝑧! = + + 𝑧" + 𝐻𝐿 + 𝐻𝐸
v 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
!
HE = head extracted by the turbine (m)
!
Power:
datum
! = "#! #$

1 P = power in watts (W)

Q
Q = (m3/s)
γ = N/m3
E=m
2
Values of E:
In pumps, E is HA.
Theoretically (no Head Loss),
In turbines, E is HE.

!! = !" (B.E.) Ex. For energy available at the tip of the nozzle below,

𝑣! " 𝑝! 𝑣" " 𝑝"

+ + 𝑧! = + + 𝑧" V
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Z
Actually (with Head Loss),
datum
𝑣! " 𝑝! 𝑣" " 𝑝"
+ + 𝑧! = + + 𝑧" + 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 hp = 746 W k = 1000
!"! "# !"! "#
$% = $% =
!"# !"""
! ! = ! " = ! # ! continuous flow

!"#$"#
S = slope of the energy grade line # =
!" Efficiency: %&& = (!"")
'($"#
"
In pumps, the first power solved is an output. In turbines,
the first power solved is an input.
This review material is exclusively for the personal use, viewing and downloading of Review Innovations’ reviewees. Unauthorized
reproduction, use, or dissemination is strictly prohibited and shall be prosecuted to the full extent of the law.
Review Innovations CE Review for April 2025 – Hydraulics 8
1. A 250 – mm Ø pipe 2750 m long supplies water at a 5. Water flows through the turbine shown at a rate of 0.386
velocity of 2.4 m/s. m3/s. The pressures at A and B are 161.2 kPa and – 19.6
a. What is the discharge in gpm? kPa, respectively. How many kW are delivered by the
b. What is the discharge in mgd? water to the turbine?
c. What is the weight flux?
d. What is the mass flux?
e. Calculate the slope of the energy grade line if the
head loss 20 times the velocity head.
f. Estimate the population that can be served assuming
a per capita consumption of 150 liters per day.

2. The head loss from section 1 to section 2 in the pipe system

shown is 2.1 m and the head loss from section 2 to 3 is 4.9
m. If the velocity of flow at 1 is 1.8 m/s and the pressure
is 180 kPa.
a. Find the discharge.
b. Find the velocity at point 3. 6. Assume the conduit shown has diameters of 300 mm and
c. Find the pressure at point 3. 450 mm at sections 1 and 2, respectively. If water is flowing
in the conduit at a velocity of 5 m/s at section 2, find the ff:

a. Velocity at section 1.
b. Flow rate at section 1.
c. Flow rate at section 2.
d. Weight flow rate.
e. Mass flow rate.

3. A 50-mm-diameter siphon is drawing oil (s.g. = 0.82) from

an oil reservoir, as shown. The head loss from point 1 to
7. The pump shown delivers 115 li/s of oil, sg = 0.84, to
point 2 is 1.50 m and from point 2 to point 3 is 2.40 m.
reservoir D at elevation 72 m. The energy lost in the
a. Calculate the exit velocity.
suction line is 3.2 J/N and in the discharge line is 7.6 J/N.
b. What is the discharge?
a. Compute the total head added by the pump.
c. Calculate the pressure at point 2.
b. How many kW does the pump supply the system?
c. If the pump is 85% efficient, how much power does
it need?

8. The 600-mm Ø pipe shown conducts water from reservoir

A to a pressure turbine which discharges through another
600-mm Ø pipe into the tail-race at B. The loss of head
from A to 1 is 5 times the velocity head in the pipe and
4. Pump BC shown brings oil, sg = 0.72 to reservoir D at 170 the loss of head from 2 to B is 0.2 times the velocity head
liters per second. The energy lost from A to B is 1.1 J/N in the pipe. If the discharge is 700 li/s.
and from C to D is 4.7 J/N. a. Compute the hp given up by the water to the turbine.
a. How many hp does the pump supply? b. Compute the pressure head at 1.
b. If the pump is 80% efficient, how much power is c. Compute the pressure head at 2.
needed?
c. What is the elevation of the energy grade line just
after the pump?

• Which of the following is true?

a) EGL always drops in the direction of flow
b) EGL always rises in the direction of flow
c) EGL always remains constant in the direction of
flow
d) EGL may or may not change in the direction of
flow

• Which of the following is true?

a) HGL will never be above EGL
b) HGL will never be under EGL
c) HGL will never coincide with EGL
d) HGL will may or may not be above EGL

• The vertical intercept between EGL and HGL is

equal to
a) pressure head
b) potential head
c) kinetic head
d) Piezometric head

• The slope of HGL will be

a) greater than that of EGL for a pipe of uniform
cross-section
b) smaller than that of EGL for a pipe of uniform
cross-section
c) equal than that of EGL for a pipe of uniform
cross-section
d) independent of that of EGL for a pipe of
uniform cross-section

6) 11.25 m/s 7) 61.8 m 8) 537.4 hp

0.795 m3/s 58.6 kW 54.1 m
0.795 m3/s 68.9 kW -4.25 m
7.8 kN/s 9) 412.2 kW
795 kg/s 10) 3.51 m (the flow
is from R to I)

9. A can floats in the position shown. What is its weight in

#$ = ! ! %" N? Ans. 5 N

BF = buoyant force (kN)

γf = unit weight of fluid displaced (kN/m3)
Vd = volume of fluid displaced (m3);
volume of body displacing;
volume of body immersed

1. An iceberg (sg = 0.917) floats in ocean water with 3000 m3

of the iceberg protruding above the free surface. What is
the volume of the iceberg below the free surface?

2. A piece of wood floats in water with 15 cm projecting

above the water surface. When placed in oil, the block
projects 10 cm above the liquid surface.
a. Calculate the height of the wood.
b. Calculate the specific gravity of the wood. 10. An iceberg in the ocean floats with one-seventh of its
c. If the wood is vertically submerged in seawater (s.g. volume above the surface. What is its specific gravity
= 1.03) by how many millimeters would it project relative to ocean water? What portion of its volume
out the surface? would be above the surface if ice were floating in pure
water? Ans. 0.857; 11.7%
3. A stone cube 280 mm on a side and weighing 425 N is
lowered into a tank containing a layer of water over a 11. A freshly cut log floats with one fourth of its volume
layer of mercury. Determine the draft in mercury. protruding above the water surface. Determine the
specific weight of the log. Ans. 7.36 kN/m3

4. A solid object of specific gravity 3.47 floats in mercury. 12. To what depth will a 2.4-m diameter log 5 m long and
a. What fraction of its volume is above the liquid specific gravity of 0.425 sink in freshwater. Ans. 1.06
surface?
b. What is its weight if 0.018 m3 is below the liquid 13. A plastic sphere is immersed in seawater and moored at
surface? the bottom. The sphere radius is 38 cm. The mooring line
c. What vertical force will fully submerge the object? has a tension of 710 N. What is the specific weight of the
sphere, in kN/m3. Ans. 7.015
5. A stone weighs 468 N in air. When submerged in water, it
weighs 298 N. Determine the volume of the stone.
14. A 1-m-diameter cylindrical mass, M, is connected to a 2-
6. A rectangular tank of internal width of 5 m, as shown in
m wide rectangular gate as shown. The gate is to open
the figure, contains oil of sp. gr. = 0.8 and water.
when the water level, h, drops below 2.5 m. Determine
a. What is the value of h?
the required value for M. Neglect friction at the gate hinge
b. If a 1000 N block is made to float in oil, what is the
and the pulley. Ans. 2480 kg
new value of h?
c. If a 1000 N block is made to float in oil, what is the
rise (cm) in water surface in chamber B?

15. Two spheres, each 1.20 m in diameter, weigh 4 kN and 12

kN respectively. They are connected with a short rope
and placed in water.
a. What is the tension in the rope?
7. A piece of irregularly shaped metal weighs 300.0 N in air. Ans. 3.12 kN
When the metal is completely submerged in water, it b. What is the buoyant force on the lighter sphere?
weighs 232.5 N. Find the volume of the metal. Ans. 7.12 kN
Ans. 0.00688 m3 c. What portion (in meter) protrudes from the water?
Ans. 0.34 m

• The resultant upward pressure of the fluid on an

immersed body is called
(a) upthrust
(b) buoyant force
(c) center of pressure
(d) all the above

• What is the principal cause of action of buoyant force on

a body submerged partially or fully in fluid?
a) Displacement of fluid due to submerged body
b) Development of force due to dynamic action
c) Internal shear forces mitigating external forces
d) None of the mentioned

• The center of gravity of the volume of the liquid

displaced by an immersed body is called
(a) meta-center
(b) center of pressure
(c) center of buoyancy
(d) center of gravity

• The horizontal component of buoyant force is

(a) negligible
(b) same as buoyant force
(c) zero
(d) none of the above

• Choose the wrong statement

(a) any weight, floating or immersed in a liquid, is acted
upon by a buoyant force
(p) Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced
(c) The point through which buoyant force acts, is called
the center of buoyancy
(d) Center of buoyancy is located above the center of
gravity of the displaced liquid

• According to the principle of buoyancy a body totally

or partially immersed in a fluid will be lifted up by a
force equal to
(a) the weight of the body
(b) more than the weight of the body
(c) less than the weight of the body
(d) weight of the fluid displaced by the body

• How can relatively denser object be made to float on

the less dense fluid?
a) By altering the shape.
b) By altering the forces acting on the object
c) By altering the shear forces acting on the object
d) None of the mentioned

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Review Innovations CE Review for Apr 2025 – Geotechnical Engineering 3
Flow of Water thru soil Situation 2.
A falling head hydraulic conductivity test is performed on a
1. Discharge (Q) sample of soil. The standpipe having a diameter 0.2 cm is
Q = Av = kiA observed and it takes 60 seconds for the water to drop by 50
cm from an initial hydraulic head of 90 cm. The sample has a
2. Discharge Velocity (v) length of 20 cm, and a diameter of 4 cm. Determine the
v = ki following:
4. Coefficient of permeability of soil
3. Seepage Velocity or Interstitial Velocity (vs) 5. Hydraulic gradient
v ki
vs = = 6. Rate of flow of water in the soil
n n
Situation 3.
4. Seepage Force (j) A pumping test was made in a sand layer extending to a
j = i w depth of 15 m. The initial ground water table is located 2 m
below the ground surface. Observation wells were sighted at
5. Transmissivity (T) distances 3m and 7.5 m from the pumping well. Using a
T = kt discharge of 0.4 m3 per hour, a steady level is attained at the
pumping well. The measured drawdowns at the two
6. Hydraulic Gradient (i) observation wells are 1.5 m and 0.35 m respectively.
h Determine the following:
i=
L 7. Hydraulic head at the observation well farther from
pumping well.
7. Coefficient of Permeability (k) 8. Hydraulic head at the observation well nearer from
or Hydraulic Conductivity
pumping well.
A. Constant Head Test
9. Coefficient of permeability of the soil.
Vol L
k=
Aht Situation 4.
B. Falling/Variable Head Test Three layers of soil is shown with the corresponding values
aL h1 of coefficient of permeability.
k= ln
At h2 K1 = 4 x 10 –3 cm/sec 3m
C. Pumping Test (Unconfined Aquifer)
Q ln(r1 / r2 )
k= K2 = 5 x 10 – 3 cm/sec 4m
 (h12 − h2 2 )
D. Pumping Test (Confined Aquifer)
K3 = 6 x 10-3 cm/sec 5m
Q ln(r1 / r2 )
k=
2 t (h1 − h2 )
Determine the following:
8. Equivalent Coefficient of Permeability (keq) 10. Equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability
or Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity 11. Equivalent vertical coefficient of permeability
A. Parallel Flow 12. Ratio of equivalent coefficient of permeability
h1k1 + h2 k2 + h3k3 + ... + hn kn
keq =
H Situation 5.
B. Perpendicular Flow The figure shows the layers of soil in the tube that is 10 cm
H by 10 cm in cross section. When the tube is supplied with
keq = water, a constant head difference of 30 cm is observed. The
h1 h2 h3 h
+ + + ... + n coefficient of permeability of each sample are as follows.
k1 k2 k3 kn
Sample K (cm/s)
Sample Problems:
A 2 × 10-3
Situation 1. B 3 × 10-3
A constant-head permeability test is performed on a sample C 4 × 10-3
of granular soil. The length of soil sample is 15 cm and the
cross-sectional area is 10 cm2. If a 24 cm3 volume of water Determine the following:
passes through the soil sample in a 3-minute period and the 13. Equivalent coefficient of permeability
constant head is 30 cm determine the following: 14. Hydraulic gradient
1. Coefficient of permeability of the soil 15. Rate of water supply
2. Discharge velocity
3. Seepage velocity if the void ratio is 0.64

Situation 8.
30 cm For the constant head permeability test conducted below:
L = 30 cm
A = Area of Specimen = 177 cm2
A B C Constant head difference, h = 50 cm
Water collected in a period of 5 min = 350 cm3
A 22. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec
15cm 20cm 25 cm
(3.95 x 10-3)

Situation 6.
Situation 9.
A test is set up as shown in the figure. A cylindrical mold 4
For the falling head permeability test conducted below:
cm in diameter is filled with silt to a height of 15 cm, whose
Length of specimen = 200 mm
coefficient of permeability K1 = 1.1 × 10-2 cm/min. A second
Area of soil specimen = 1000 mm2
coaxial mold is placed around the first mold to form an
Area of standpipe = 40 mm2
annular ring whose outside diameter is 10 cm and whose
Head difference at t = 0 s, h1= 500 mm
height is also 15 cm. Its thickness is negligible. The second
Head difference at t = 180 s, h2 = 300 mm
mold is filled with sand whose coefficient of permeability is
23. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in mm/sec
K2 = 8.2 × 10-2 cm/min. The test set up is a permeameter of
(2.27 x 10-2)
constant head. Water is placed in the mold and maintained
at a level of 36 cm above the level of the outlet.
Situation 10.
For the layered soil shown below.

24. Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity

(horizontal to vertical ratio) (145.4)

Situation 11.
The figure shows three layers of soil that is in a 100 mm by
100 mm container. Water is supplied to maintain a constant-
head difference of 300 mm across the sample. The hydraulic
conductivities of the soils in the direction of flow through
16. What is the total flow of water in cm3/min? them are as follows:
17. What is the equivalent coefficient of permeability Sample K (cm/s)
cm/min? A 1.0 × 10-2
18. What is the total amount of water percolated after 55 B 3.0 × 10-3
C 4.9 × 10-4
min?
25. Estimate the discharge in the soil in cm3/hr
(291.24 cm3/hr)
Situation 7.
A river and a canal run parallel to each other but at different
elevations as shown in the figure and has been determined
to exist for a 450 m length. The coefficient of permeability of
the sand is 3 m per day. Determine the following:
19. Quantity of water which flows into the canal
20. Seepage velocity if the porosity of the sand
is 0.22
21. Time for the water from the river to reach the canal

Elevation = 90m
Elevation = 80m
River
Canal
Sand layer 1.5m thick

128m

1. Components method
Given: Magnitude and three directions of the force θx , θy,
θz
Fx = F cosθx
Fy = F cosθy
Fz = F cosθz

2. Vector approach
Given: Magnitude and two points
!⃗
F = Fλ
F = magnitude of the force
l = unit vector along the line of action of the force

Situation 4: The horizontal boom OC, which is supported by

a ball-and-socket joint and two cables, carries the vertical
force P = 8000 N.

xi + yj + zk
!!!⃗
F = F$ &
%x2 + y2 + z2

where: x = x2 – x1 y = y2 – y1 z = z2 – z1

MOMENT OF A FORCE IN 3D SPACE

1. Determine the tensile force in cable AD.

2. Determine the tensile force in cable CE.
3. Determine the magnitude of reaction at O.

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

Situation 1: A tower guy wire is anchored by means of a bolt

at A. The tension in the wire is 2500 N.

  
M=rxF
 
r = xi + yj + zk F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

PROBLEMS:

Situation 1: A force of 500 N forms angles of 60°, 45°, and

120°, respectively, with the x, y, and z axes. Find the
components Fx, Fy, and Fz of the force. 1. Determine the components Fx, Fy, Fz of the force acting
on the bolt.
Situation 2: A force F of magnitude 500N is directed from A 2. Determine the angles θx, θy, θz defining the direction of
(-4, 5, 2) to B (6, 1, -2). Find the components Fx, Fy, and Fz of the force.
the force.
Situation 2: A transmission tower is held by three guy wires
Situation 3: In the figure below, three cables support the attached to a pin at A and anchored by bolts at B, C, and D.
1,500 kN weight. If the tension in wire AB is 630 lb, determine the:
1. Determine the tension in cable AB.
2. Determine the tension in cable AC. 1. vertical force P exerted by the tower on A.

1. Compute the component of F along the x-y plane.

2. Compute the component of F along the x-axis.
3. Compute the moment Mz of F about the z-axis thru the
Situation 3: The magnitudes of the three forces acting on the base of the mast.
plate are T1 = 100 kN, T2 = 80 kN, and T3 = 50 kN. 4. Determine the moment of the force about the origin.

1. Determine the x-component of the resultant force. Situation 6: A horizontal rigid boom OD is subjected to a
2. Determine the magnitude of R. vertical load P=1000 N and is supported by two cables to a
3. Determine the coordinates of the point where R vertical supporting wall as shown. Assume point O is a
intersects the plate. hinged-support.

1. Determine the tension in cable AC.

Situation 4: As shown in the figure, a load P is supported by 2. Determine the tension in cable BC.
the tripod. If the force in any leg is limited to 2000 N, 3. Determine the magnitude of the reaction at O.

Situation 7: A rectangular plate is supported by brackets at

A and B and by a wire CD. Knowing that the tension in the
wire is 200 N, determine the moment about A of the force
exerted by the wire on point C.

1. Determine the force in member AD.

2. Determine the force in member AC.
3. Determine the force in member AB.
4. Determine the maximum load P that can be supported
by the tripod.
Situation 4: The homogeneous bar AB weighs 400 N. End B
Situation 5: A tension force F of magnitude 5.3 kN is applied leans against a frictionless vertical wall and end A is
to the cable attached to the top of the rigid mast and secured supported by a ball-and-socket joint.
to the ground.
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Review Innovations CE Review for April 2025 – Engineering Mechanics 4

1. Determine the tension in cable BC.

2. Determine the wall reaction at B.
3. Determine the total reaction at A.

Answer Key for Problems for Practice:

1. Fx = -1060 N, Fy = 2120 N, Fz = 795 N, θx = 115.09º, θy =

32.01º, θ z = 71.46º
2. P = 1,572.10 lb, TAC = 467.42 lb, TAD = 814.35 lb
3. Rx = -24.188 kN, R = 208 kN, (0.707 m, 0.716 m, 0)
4. FAD = 2,000 N, FAC = 2,000 N, FAB = 1,912.64 N, P = 4,597.7
N
5. Fxy = 4.813 kN, Fx = 2.961 kN, Mz = -36.42 kN-m, M =
27.32i – 36.42k
6. TAC = 1,414 N, TBC = 1,751 N, RO = 2,368 N
7. MA = -7,680i + 28,800j + 28,800k
8. T = 126.38 N, NB = 164.17 N, RA = 390.35 N

Truss is defined as a structure that is made of straight,

slender bars that are joined together to form a pattern of
triangles. Trusses are usually designed to transmit forces
over relatively long spans such as roof and bridges.

The analysis of trusses is based on the following three

assumptions:
1. The weights of the members are negligible.
2. All joints are pins.
3. The applied forces act at the joints.

Methods in Truss Analysis:

Situation 3: Flexible cables CF and DE brace the truss at its
1. Method of Joints central panel.
The equilibrium equations are applied to individual
joints (or pins) of the truss. Given: h = 4m
s = 3m
2. Method of Sections W = 30 kN
Analyzes the free-body diagram of a part of a truss that
contains two or more joints. C D

Identifying zero-force members:

1. If only two noncollinear members are connected to a joint
that has no external loads or reactions applied to it, then h
the force in both members is zero.

A B
2. If three members, two of which are collinear, are
E F
connected to a joint that has no external loads or reactions s s s
applied to it, then the force in the member that is not
collinear is zero. W

PROBLEMS: 1. Determine the force in member CD, in kN.

2. Determine which diagonal is acting and the force in it, in
Situation 1: A cantilever truss is pin-connected at joint D kN.
and is supported by a roller at G. Spacing of trusses is 3m. 3. Determine the resulting force in member BD, in kN
If the wind load is 1.44 kPa
Situation 4: The tower shown is subjected to three forces as
follows:
F1 = 4 kN
F2 = 6 kN
F3 = 6 kN

Given: a = 5.8 m
b = 3.2 m
c = 4.8 m
d = 2.0 m

d c
G H
1. Determine the horizontal reaction at the roller support. F1
2. Determine the force in member AB, in kN.
b
3. Determine the force in member BE, in kN.
E F
F2
K
Situation 2: Given the truss below, determine the:
b
C D
1. Force in member AC F3
J
2. Force in member AD
b
3. Force in member DE
A I B
4. Force in member GI
5. Force in member FH a a
6. Force in member GH
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Review Innovations CE Review for April 2025 – Engineering Mechanics 3
1. Determine the resultant reaction at B, in kN.
2. Determine the force in member AC, in kN.
3. Determine the force in member GE, in kN

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

Situation 1: Using the figure below,

Situation 4: A transmission tower is subjected to the wind

loads shown.

1. Determine the vertical reaction (kN) at support A.

2. Determine the axial force (kN) at member GK.
3. Determine the axial force (kN) at member EG.

1. If P = 3,000 N and Q = 1,000 N, determine the force in

member CD.
2. If P = 3,000 N and Q = 1,000 N, determine the force in
member JK.
3. If FCD = 6,000 N and FGD = 1,000 N (both under
compression), determine the value of P. Answer Key for Problems for Practice:
1. FCD = 5,250 N (Compression), FJK = 2,250 N (Tension), P
Situation 2: A couple acting on the winch at G slowly raises = 5,167.95 N
the load W by means of a rope that runs around the pulleys 2. FEF = 1.828W (Tension), FKL =2.83W (Compression)
attached to the derrick at A and B. Assuming the diameters 3. FBC = 16.67 kN (Compression), FCE = 0, FBF = 10.68 kN
of the pulleys and the winch are negligible. (Tension)
4. AV = 9.176 kN, FGK = 2.11 kN (Compression), FEG = 5.35
1. Determine the force in member EF of the derrick. kN (Compression)
2. Determine the force in member KL of the derrick.

Situation 3: A plane truss is loaded as shown. Determine the:

1. force in member BC
2. force in member CE
3. force in member BF

A simple beam 4.5 m in span carries a concentrated load of

300 kN at its midspan and is subjected to an axial tensile
force of 250 kN Fy = 248 MPa. Three sections are being
considered as follows with their corresponding properties 7 kN
relevant to this problem. Determine the following:

Section Area Depth Moment of Inertia

W24x55 0.010 m2 598 mm 0.000558 m4
W21x62 0.012 m2 533 mm 0.000554 m4
W21x68 0.013 m2 537 mm 0.000616 m4

1. Lowest axial tensile stress 8. Bending stress about the x-axis.

2. Lowest maximum bending stress 9. Bending stress about the y-axis.
3. Safe and economical section if Ft = 0.6Fy and Fb = 0.66Fy. 10. Interaction value. If Fbx = 0.6Fy and Fby= 0.75Fy

Situation 2. Situation 4.

A steel column carries an axial load of 800 kN, a moment Steel channels are used as purlins and are spaced at 1.2 m
of 70 kN-m at the top and moment 49 kN-m at the bottom. on centers and simply supported on roof trusses 6 m apart.
The two moments are in opposite direction and applied Roof slope, lV:4H. Superimposed roof dead load, D = 720
about the x-axis. The steel section has the following Pa; Roof live load, L = 1000 Pa; Wind pressure, W = 1440
properties: Pa; wind pressure coefficients: 0.2 pressure at the
windward side; 0.6 suction at the leeward side.
A = 13000 mm2 rx = 109 mm
Sx = 1200 x 103 mm3 ry = 94 mm Properties of the channel: C 200 mm x 76 mm
L = 3.6 m k = 1.0
Fy = 248 MPa E = 200000 MPa Sx = 6.19 x 104 mm3 Sy = 1.38 x 104 mm3
weight = 79 N/m
Use NSCP specification for compressive stress and Fbx =Fby
= 148 MPa. Determine the following: Assume all loads pass through the centroid of the section.

4. Compressive stress if axial load only existed. 11. Using the interaction formula, fbx/Fbx + fby/Fby,
5. Bending stress if bending moment alone existed. calculate the maximum ratio of actual to the allowable
6. Allowable compressive stress using NSCP. bending stress for load combination 0.75(D+L+W) Fbx=
7. From the interaction formula compute the interaction Fby= 207 MPa.
value. Assume the column is braced against joint 12. Using the interaction formula,
translation (sidesway prevented) fbx/Fbx + fby/Fby, calculate the maximum ratio of actual to
the allowable bending stress for load combination
Situation 3. 0.75(D+L+W) if sagrods are provided at midspan of the
purlins. Fbx= Fby= 207 MPa.
A W12x78 bridge crane runaway girder is on a simple span
of 6m. Assume that the crane wheel imparts a vertical load
of 71 kN and a lateral load of 7 kN, applied at the top flange
of the girder. A standard 0.4 kN/m rail will be used.
Neglect shear and deflection. Determine the following:

Properties of W21x78:
d = 300 mm Ix = 191.73x106 mm4
bf = 200 mm Iy = 35.07x106 mm4
w = 1.32 kN/m -

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Review Innovations CE Review for April 2025 – Steel Design 4
Problem for practice:
Situation: A structural Z section is used as a column with Situation: Channel sections are used as a purlin. The top
unsupported length of 4m. Fy = 250 MPa chords of the truss are sloped 4H to 1V. The trusses are
spaced 6 m on centers and the purlins are spaced 1.2 m on
Properties: centers.
A = 600 mm2 Superimposed dead load = 500 Pa Live load = 1000 Pa
Ix = 120 x 106 mm4 Wind load = 1400 Pa
Iy = 50 x 106 mm4 Wind coefficients: Windward = + 0.2 Leeward = -0.6
Ixy = -75 x 106 mm4 Properties of C200 x 76
Sx = 6.19 x 104 mm3 Sy = 1.38 x 104 mm3
13. Compute the minimum radius of gyration Weight, w = 79 N/m
14. Determine the allowable axial stress using NSCP. Allowable bending stresses, Fbx = Fby = 207 MPa
15. Find the allowable axial load that the column could
carry. 23. Determine the computed maximum moment, Mx, due
to combination of dead load and live load in kN-m.
Situation: A simply supported steel beam 6m long carries 24. Determine the computed maximum moment, My, due
a uniform load 30kN/m and an axial tensile force of 100kN. to combination of dead load and live load in kN-m.
The properties of steel section are as follows: 25. Determine the computed uniform load due to dead load
A = 7800 mm2 Ix = 140x106 mm4 and live load in kN/m.
d = 324 mm Iy = 16x106 mm4 26. Determine the maximum bending stress about x-axis
due to D+L in MPa.
16. What is the axial tensile stress of the beam, in MPa. 27. Determine the maximum bending stress about y-axis
17. What is the bending stress in the beam due to uniform due to D+L in MPa.
28. Determine the computed maximum moment, Mx, due
load alone, in MPa.
to combination of dead load, live load and wind load in
18. What is the interaction value if Fb = 210 MPa and Ft =
kN-m (D+L+W).
100 MPa?
29. Determine the computed maximum moment, My, due
to combination of dead load, live load and wind load in
Situation: A steel column carries an axial load of 200 kN, a kN-m (D+L+W).
moment of 50 kN-m at the top and a moment of 25 kN-m 30. Interaction value for dead load and live load only.
at the bottom. The two moments are in opposite direction 31. Interaction value for load combination 0.75(D+L+W)
and applied about the x-axis. The steel section has the
following properties: Problem 10-18
A = 13000 mm2 rx = 109 mm Solve again (problem 23-31) but assume the purlins have
Sx = 1200 x 103 mm3 ry = 94 mm sagrod at midspan.
L = 3.6 m k = 1.0
Fy = 248 MPa E = 200000 MPa

Use NSCP specification for compressive stress and Fbx =Fby

= 148 MPa. Determine the following:

19. Compressive stress if axial load only existed.

20. Bending stress if bending moment alone existed.
21. Allowable compressive stress using NSCP.
22. From the interaction formula compute the interaction
value.

fa Cm = 0.85
A. When
 0.15
Fa
SIDESWAY PREVENTED

fa fbx fby I. For member subject to transverse loading between their

+ +  1.0
Fa Fbx Fby supports.

Cm = 0.85 for member whose ends are

fa restrained against rotation in the plane of
B. When
 0.15 bending.
Fa
Cm = 1.0 for member whose end/s are
fa C mx fb x C my fb y unrestrained against rotation in the plane
+ +  1.0 of bending
Fa  fa   fa 
 1 − F
 bx  1 −  Fby
 F'e x   F'e y 
II. For member not subject to transverse loading between
their supports.

and
Cm = 0.6 – 0.4 [M1/M2]

fa fbx fby
+ +  1.0
0.6Fy Fbx Fby AXIAL TENSION AND BENDING

where ft fbx fb
+ + y  1.0
Ft Fbx Fby
:
12π 2E
F'e =
23( kL b /rb )2 ft – tensile stress = P/A
Ft – allowable tensile stress

fa – Compressive stress /axial stress = P/A

fb – bending stress
Lb – unsupported length about the axis of bending
rb - radius of gyration about the axis of bending

2015 NSCP
1. Determine the required nominal strength for the concrete beam
406.3.2 T-beam Geometry
section.
406.3.2.1 For non-prestressed T-beams supporting monolithic or
2. Determine the maximum height of the rectangular stress block
composite slabs, the effective flange width bf shall include the beam
for a tension-controlled section.
web width bw plus an effective overhanging flange width in accordance
with Table 406.3.2.1, where h is the slab thickness and Sw is the clear 3. Calculate the required depth of the concrete rectangular stress
distance to the adjacent web. block.
4. Calculate the required reinforcement area.
Flange Effective overhanging flange 5. Determine the number of 28mm required as tension
location width, beyond face of web reinforcement.
8h
Each side of
Least of: sw/2
web Problem 3
ln/8
Least of: 6h A pre-cast concrete T-beam section has a flange width of 600
One side of mm, flange thickness of 100 mm, width of web of 300 mm, effective
sw/2
web depth of 580 mm and a total depth of 650 mm. Use f’c = 21 MPa and
ln/12
fy = 415 MPa. The section is reinforced with 4 - 25mmØ bars in
tension.
406.3.2.2 Isolated nonprestressed T-beams in which the flange is used to 1. Calculate the depth of compression block.
provide additional compression area shall have a flange thickness
2. Compute for the strain in the tension steel.
greater than or equal to 0.5bw and an effective flange width less than
or equal to 4bw. 3. Calculate the design flexural strength of the section.
4. If the beam is 8m long, find the maximum concentrated service
live load acting at midspan that can be supported by the beam if
it already carries a total service uniform dead load of 24kN/m.
U = 1.2D + 1.6L.
Minimum Flexural Reinforcement:

𝑓𝑐
𝐴 𝑏 𝑑 Problem 4
4𝑓
A pre-cast concrete T-beam section has a flange width of 600
1.4 mm, flange thickness of 100 mm, width of web of 350 mm, effective
𝐴 𝑏 𝑑 depth of 580 mm and a total depth of 650 mm. Use f’c = 21 MPa and
𝑓
fy = 415 MPa. The section is reinforced with 5 - 28mmØ bars in
If flange is in tension, bw is replaced by either tension.
2bw or the width of the flange, whichever is 1. Calculate the depth of rectangular stress block.
smaller.
2. Compute for the strain in the tension steel.
3. Calculate the design flexural strength of the section.
4. Determine the total factored uniform load including the beam’s
Problem 1 weight, the beam could safely support if the beam is 8m.
The floor system shown in the given figure is composed of parallel
beams with span length of 4m is 300mm wide having an effective depth of
460 mm casted monolithically with the concrete slab 100 mm thick. Steel PROBLEM for PRACTICE
yield strength fy=415 MPa and concrete strength f’c=24 MPa. If section is
Problem 5
reinforced for tension only, determine the following if the beam carries a
Given: Slab thickness, t = 100 mm
total factored load of 68 kN/m:
Effective depth, d = 550 mm (from slab surface)
Web width, bw = 300 mm
Beam spacing = 2.0m on centers
Column = 300x300mm
Column spacing = 4.8 m on centers
Materials: Concrete, fc’ = 28 MPa
Steel bar, fy = 400 MPa
1. The effective flange width for a T-beam based on NSCP 2015
The slab is casted monolithically with the beam and steel bars to be
provision. Assume 300x300mm column dimension.
placed in one layer only. Determine the following:
2. The depth of compression block of the T-beam in order for the
1. The effective width of the slab (mm) acting as concrete flange in the
reinforcement reach the strain corresponding to fy just as the concrete
design of the beam for positive bending. 2015 NSCP
in compression reaches its assumed crushing strain of 0.003, if
effective flange width is 900 mm.
3. The tension reinforcement area in order for the reinforcement reach Problem 6
the strain corresponding to fy just as the concrete in compression Given: Slab thickness, t = 175mm
reaches its assumed crushing s rain of 0.003 if positive bending Effective depth, d = 300 mm
moment is considered and if effective flange width is 900 mm. Web width, bw = 250 mm

Materials: Concrete, fc’ = 24 MPa

Problem 2 Steel bar, fy = 415 MPa
𝜙 = 0.90
A T-beam section has a flange width of 600 mm, flange thickness
Concrete slab casted monolithically with the beam. The steel bars will be
of 100 mm, width of web of 350 mm, effective depth of 535 mm and a
distributed in one layer only.
total depth of 600 mm. Use f’c = 21 MPa and fy = 415 MPa. The section
1. If the equivalent width of the concrete flange from the slab bf =
is required to resist a total service dead load moment of 260 kN-m and 600mm, determine the value of the balanced steel area of the section
a service live load moment of 142 kN-m. Use 𝜙 = 0.90 and U = 1.2D +
1.6L.

Problem 7
Given beam cross section shown in Figure - 2

Concrete, fc’ = 28 MPa

Steel bar, fy = 415 MPa

Determine the following:

1. The depth of the compression stress block in mm.

2. The ultimate negative moment capacity of the section.

Problem 8
Given: Slab thickness, t = 100 mm
Effective depth, d = 550 mm (from slab surface)
Web width, bw = 300 mm
Beam spacing = 2.0m on centers
Simple span = 4.8 m.
Materials: Concrete, fc’ = 28 MPa
Steel bar, fy = 415 MPa

The slab is casted monolithically with the beam and steel bars to
be placed in one layer only. Determine the following:
1. If the effective flange width is 600mm determine the number of
pcs. of 32mmΦ bars required for the beam to resist a design
moment of 700 kN-m.

Problem 9
Concrete beams 8 meters long and spaced 4m center-to-center
are used to support a concrete slab 115 mm thick constructed
monolithically with the beams. The beams were designed for tension
only in positive bending and has an effective depth of 650 mm
measured from the slab surface, bw = 300 mm. Steel yield strength fy =
415 MPa and concrete strength fc’ = 21 MPa.
1. If flange width is 2m., determine the ultimate moment capacity
of the beam in kN-m if reinforced with six 28mm bars?

INVESTIGATION OF RECTANGULAR BEAM SECTIONS

1. Equate C to T (to solve for a or c)

𝑪 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝒇𝒄 𝒂𝒃 𝑻 𝑨𝒔 𝒇𝒔
𝑨𝒔 𝒇𝒔
𝒂
𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝒇𝒄 𝒃

𝒂
𝒄
𝜷𝟏

2. Calculate nominal flexural strength, Mn

𝒂 𝒂
𝑴𝒏 𝑪 𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒏 𝑻 𝒅
𝟐 𝟐

3. Apply Strength Reduction Factor, 

Strength =  Mn
where  = 0.90 if tension controlled
= use linear interpolation for transition region

Or,
1. Compute the steel reinforcement ratio, ρ.
As

bd
2. Calculate resisting moment coefficient, R .
n
𝒇𝒔 𝟐
𝑹𝒏 𝝆𝒇𝒔 𝝆𝟐
𝟏. 𝟕𝒇′𝒄

3. Calculate the flexural strength of the beam.

𝑴𝒖 𝝓𝑹𝒏 𝒃𝒅𝟐

Tension steel will yield

Section Classification:

Tension-controlled Transition-zone Compression-

Section Section controlled Section
using Strain 𝛆𝒕 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝛆𝒕 𝛆𝒕𝒚 𝛆𝒕 𝛆𝒕𝒚

using Stress 𝒇𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝒚 𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝒚

𝟑 𝟑
using 𝒄 𝒄 𝒅 𝒅 𝒄 𝒄𝒃 𝒄 𝒄𝒃
𝟖 𝒕 𝟖 𝒕
𝟑 𝟑
using 𝒂 𝒂 𝜷𝟏 𝒅𝒕 𝜷𝟏 𝒅𝒕 𝒂 𝒂𝒃 𝒂 𝒂𝒃
𝟖 𝟖
using Steel
𝝆 𝝆𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑻𝑪 𝝆𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑻𝑪 𝝆 𝝆𝒃 𝝆 𝝆𝒃
Ratio

Note:
0.85𝑓 600 𝑑
𝜌 𝛽
𝑓 600 𝑓 𝑑

0.85𝑓 3 𝑑
𝜌 𝛽
𝑓 8 𝑑

This review material is exclusively for the personal use of Review Innovations’ reviewees. Unauthorized reproduction, use, or
dissemination, uploading or downloading is strictly prohibited and shall be prosecuted to the full extent of the law.
Review Innovations CE Review for April 2025 – Concrete 3
ANALYSIS/INVESTIGATION OF RECTANGULAR BEAMS 3. Determine the value of strength reduction factor 𝜙 for flexure in
accordance with the 2010/2015 NSCP.
Problem 1
A reinforced concrete beam is 300 mm wide with an effective 4. What is the design flexural strength of the section kN-m.
depth of 400 mm. Use f’c= 21 MPa and fy = 415 MPa. U = 1.2D +
1.6L. Problem 6
Given Beam Data:
1. Compute for the nominal flexural strength if the section is Beam width, bw = 300mm
reinforced with 4 – ϕ20mm bars. Tension steel bars = 8 – ϕ25mm equally-placed in 2 layers
2. Compute for the nominal flexural strength if the section is Effective depth to centroid
reinforced with 5 – ϕ28mm bars. of entire reinforcement, d = 512.5 mm
Effective depth to centroid
Problem 2 of outer layer reinforcement, dt = 537.5 mm
A 4m reinforced concrete cantilever beam has a width of 300 mm Concrete strength, fc’ = 42 MPa
and a total depth of 560mm with an effective depth of 490 mm. It is Steel yield strength, fy = 415 MPa
reinforced with 5 - φ28mm tension bars. f’c = 30 MPa and fy = 415
1. Determine the location of the neutral axis of the section.
MPa. In addition to live load and its own weight, the beam carries
a 150-mm-thick concrete slab (casted monolithically with the 2. Determine the value of strength reduction factor 𝜙 for flexure in
beam) with a tributary width of 4 m. The unit weight of concrete is accordance with the 2010/2015 NSCP.
24 kN/m3 Use 2010/2015 NSCP. 3. Determine the design flexural strength of the section in kN-m.
1. Determine the net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel.
2. Calculate the design moment capacity of the beam, in kN-m. Problem 7
Given Beam Data:
3. Find the maximum uniform service live load acting over the Beam width, bw = 300mm
entire span that can be supported by the beam. Concrete strength , fc’ = 24 MPa
Steel yield strength, fy = 415 MPa
Problem 3 Use 2010/2015 NSCP.
Given data of a concrete beam:
Beam width, bw = 300mm 1. Determine the design flexural strength of the section in kN-m if
Effective depth, d = 500mm beam is reinforced with 4 – ϕ25mm bars placed in a single
Concrete strength , fc’ = 28 MPa layer under an effective depth of 550mm.
Steel yield strength, fy = 415 MPa 2. Determine the design flexural strength of the section in kN-m if
The beam has 2 – ϕ25mm bars at the compression side having an beam is reinforced with 6 – ϕ25mm bars placed equally in two
effective cover of 65mm. If said bars are found necessary to resist layers having an effective depth of 520mm to centroid of total
the loads, the effect of the concrete displaced by said tension reinforcement and 550mm to the centroid of outer
reinforcements shall not be neglected. Use the 2010/2015 NSCP. layer reinforcements.

1. What is the design moment capacity of the beam in kN-m if the

Problem 8
tension steel As = 4 – ϕ28mm placed in one layer only. A 6 m concrete beam is simply supported at the ends. The
2. What is the design moment capacity of the beam in kN-m if the beam has a width b = 300 mm and a total depth h = 450 mm. It
tension steel As = 6 – ϕ28mm placed in two layers with the is reinforced with 4 - 25mm ø at the tension side and 2 - 25mm ø
outmost layer placed under a depth of 530mm. at the compression side with 70 mm cover to centroid of
3. What is the stress (MPa) in the 2- ϕ25mm bars if the tension reinforcements. fc’ = 35 MPa, fy = 415 MPa. To simplify the
steel As = 6 – ϕ28mm bars placed in two layers with the solution, ignore compression steel when steel ratio ρ < ρmax. At
outmost layer placed under a depth of 530mm. ultimate condition, U = 1.2D + 1.6L.

1. Determine the depth of the rectangular stress block.

PROBLEM for PRACTICE 2. Determine the nominal flexural strength, Mn.
Problem 4 3. Determine the total factored uniform load including the
A reinforced concrete beam is 250 mm wide with an effective beam’s weight, the beam could safely support.
depth of 400 mm. Use f’c= 21 MPa and fy = 275 MPa. The section
4. If the beam spacing is 3m, determine the safe service floor live
is reinforced with 4 – ϕ25mm bars. U = 1.2D + 1.6L.
load (kPa) if the beam already carries 24.7 kN/m total
1. Calculate the design flexural strength of the section. factored dead load.
2. Calculate the safe service live load moment if the service
moment from total dead load is 96 kN-m. Problem 9
Given Beam Data:
3. If the beam is 5m long with a moment from total dead load of Beam width, bw = 300mm
96 kN-m, find the maximum moving concentrated service Concrete strength , fc’ = 24 MPa
live load that can be supported by the beam. Steel yield strength, fy = 415 MPa
Use 2010/2015 NSCP.
Problem 5 The beam has 3 – ϕ25mm bars at the compression side having an
A reinforced concrete beam is 300 mm wide with an effective effective cover of 60mm. If said bars are found necessary to resist
depth of 525 mm to centroid of reinforcement. Use f’c= 21 MPa and the loads, the effect of the concrete displaced by said
fy = 415 MPa. The section is reinforced with 3 – ϕ28mm bars reinforcements shall not be neglected. Use the 2010/2015 NSCP.
single layer.
1. Determine the design flexural strength of the section in kN-m if
1. Which of the following gives the classification of the section. beam is reinforced with 4 – ϕ25mm bars placed in a single
A. Tension- controlled layer under an effective depth of 570mm.
B. In transition but still in compliance with the NSCP. 2. Determine the design flexural strength of the section in kN-m if
C. In transition and not in compliance with the NSCP. beam is reinforced with 8 – ϕ25mm bars placed equally in two
D. Compression-controlled layers having an effective depth of 540mm to centroid of total
2. Determine the stress in the tension reinforcements at failure. tension reinforcement and 570mm to the centroid of outer
layer reinforcements.

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