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CSS Framework
Alternatives
Explore Five Lightweight Alternatives
to Bootstrap and Foundation with
Project Examples
—
Aravind Shenoy
Anirudh Prabhu
 CSS Framework
Alternatives
Explore Five Lightweight
Alternatives to Bootstrap and
Foundation with Project
Examples

Aravind Shenoy
Anirudh Prabhu
CSS Framework Alternatives
Aravind Shenoy Anirudh Prabhu
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Mumbai, India

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-3398-6 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-3399-3

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-3399-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018936183
Copyright © 2018 by Aravind Shenoy and Anirudh Prabhu
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part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
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The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
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Printed on acid-free paper
 I dedicate this book to my uncle, R.N. Kamath,
and my sister, Aruna; without them, I am incomplete.
—Aravind Shenoy

I dedicate this to my mother and father for their

endless support and words of encouragement.
I also dedicate this to my many friends who have
supported me throughout the process. I will always
appreciate all they have done.
—Anirudh Prabhu
Table of Contents
About the Authors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix
About the Technical Reviewer�������������������������������������������������������������xi
Acknowledgments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii

Chapter 1: Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive

Web Design�������������������������������������������������������������������������1
What Are Frameworks?�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
Components of a CSS Framework������������������������������������������������������������������������3
Advantages of Using a CSS Framework����������������������������������������������������������������4
Various Popular Frameworks��������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Bootstrap��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Foundation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6
Materialize������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
Skeleton����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Milligram���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
UIkit���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Material Design Lite��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11
Susy��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11
Choosing a Framework���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12
Concept of Grids��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Building a Landing Page with Skeleton ����������������������������15

Installing Skeleton����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Skeleton’s Grid System���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19
An Overview of Skeleton’s Attributes������������������������������������������������������������������24
Building a Landing Web Page with Skeleton�������������������������������������������������������25
Step 1: Defining the Content Area�����������������������������������������������������������������25
Step 2: Completing the <body> Tag Content�������������������������������������������������28
Step 3: Defining the Freelance Portal������������������������������������������������������������29
Step 4: Completing the Sections�������������������������������������������������������������������32
Step 5: Designing a Sign-up Form�����������������������������������������������������������������37
Step 6: Creating a Footer�������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39

Chapter 3: Building a Product Page with Milligram���������������������������41

Installing Milligram���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Overview of the Milligram Framework����������������������������������������������������������������44
Grid System in Milligram�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
Building a Product Page with Milligram��������������������������������������������������������������48
Step 1: Defining the Header���������������������������������������������������������������������������48
Step 2: Defining the Navigation���������������������������������������������������������������������51
Step 3: Defining the Banner Area������������������������������������������������������������������53
Step 4: Designing the Content Area���������������������������������������������������������������60
Step 5: Creating the Pricing Area�������������������������������������������������������������������63
Step 6: Creating the Footer����������������������������������������������������������������������������65
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68

vi
 Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Introducing UIkit���������������������������������������������������������������69

Installing UIkit�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69
Grids, Cards, Flex, and Width������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Animations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
Scrollspy with Animations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������96
Accordions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������100
Icons�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106

Chapter 5: Material Design Lite Explained����������������������������������������107

Installing MDL���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
MDL Layout�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
Building an Intuitive Web Page Using MDL�������������������������������������������������������121
Step 1: Creating the <head> Section����������������������������������������������������������121
Step 2: Creating a Fixed Header with a Drawer������������������������������������������122
Step 3: Creating the About Section��������������������������������������������������������������126
Step 4: Inserting an Image with Content�����������������������������������������������������133
Step 5: Developing the Content for the Moments Tab���������������������������������136
Step 6: Designing the Footer Section����������������������������������������������������������143
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������151

Chapter 6: Susy Explained����������������������������������������������������������������153

Creating a 4×3 Responsive Grid Layout������������������������������������������������������������154
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������167

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������169

vii
About the Authors
Aravind Shenoy A marketing expert by
profession, Aravind’s core interests are
technical writing, content writing, content
development, web design, and business
analysis. He was born and raised in Mumbai
and still resides there. A music buff, he
loves listening to rock ’n’ roll and rap. Oasis,
R.E.M., The Doors, Dire Straits, Coldplay,
Jimi Hendrix, and Michael Jackson rule his
playlists.
He firmly believes in this motto: “We are here for a good time, not a
long time. Be happy perennially.”

Anirudh Prabhu A UI developer with more

than seven years of experience, Anirudh
specializes in HTML, CSS, JavaScript, jQuery,
Sass, LESS, Twitter, and Bootstrap. He also has
experience with CoffeeScript and AngularJS.
Anirudh has worked as a technical
reviewer for Apress and Packt and has been
involved in building training material about
HTML, CSS, and jQuery for Twenty19, which is
a portal for students and interns.

ix
About the Technical Reviewer
Ferit Topcu is a software developer who has
spent the last few years working and exploring
the Web and JavaScript. He’s been in web
development for more than five years and has
worked in different areas including research
topics, social media analytics, and the Internet
of Things. He recently joined one of Europe’s
biggest e-commerce companies, Zalando.
At Zalando, he is developing web applications
to improve its whole retail process.
Ferit has a master’s degree in computer engineering from TU Berlin
and is a father of two. His free time is spent with family and friends and
contributing to open source projects.

xi
Acknowledgments
As I stride through this journey of life, I want to take this opportunity to
thank every person who has stood by me, especially those who believed
in me when others said “Don’t encourage him.” Well, life is like that, and
indeed life is beautiful. It couldn’t have been better. Thanks to everyone
who provided the right support when I needed it the most.

—Aravind Shenoy

xiii
CHAPTER 1

Choosing Lightweight
Frameworks for
Intuitive Web Design
When it comes to web design, Bootstrap, Foundation, and Materialize are
probably the first frameworks that come to a designer’s mind, given their
massive range of components and attributes. However, when talking about
light web projects, you do not usually need a comprehensive framework
like Bootstrap or Foundation (again, depending on the complexity of your
project). Usually, to build a small web site, lightweight frameworks can do
the job effectively and cut down the bulk, or noise, associated with massive
frameworks. For example, if your web site merely needs something like a
grid or some popular components commonly found in most frameworks,
then you should consider a lightweight framework.
Moreover, developing web sites and web applications from scratch is
quite a tedious process as it involves writing a sizeable amount of code.
Maintaining that code while the web site evolves adds to the complexity.
Coding from scratch (as we like to call it) is quite an endeavor, and a
framework can help you write a few lines of code and incorporate reusable
sets of commonly used code that you can maintain quite easily. Clean
coding and upkeep are tasks easily achieved using a framework.

© Aravind Shenoy and Anirudh Prabhu 2018 1

A. Shenoy and A. Prabhu, CSS Framework Alternatives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-3399-3_1
Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

Therefore, to simplify your web designing tasks, using a Cascading

Style Sheets (CSS) framework is a good option. As mentioned earlier, there
are plenty of frameworks on the Web other than Bootstrap, Foundation,
and Materialize. These light frameworks are quite streamlined and
remarkable, given their resourcefulness. The adage “Good things come in
small packages” is applicable here.
In this chapter, we explain what frameworks are and introduce the
popular Bootstrap, Foundation, and Materialize. Then we will review five
lightweight frameworks: Skeleton, Milligram, UIkit, Material Design Lite,
and Susy. These frameworks will be used throughout the book to build
interactive and immersive web pages. In doing so, you’ll form a strong
basis to select the one that best suits your development needs.

What Are Frameworks?

A framework is a premeditated set of concepts, modules, and standardized
criteria that make the task of developing web sites and web applications
easier. It provides generic functionality with already written modules and
tailored components created in a standard manner. In short, it is a reusable
software environment that allows web designers and developers to easily
build their projects and solutions with minimal coding and without
worrying about the low-level details. This reduces development time and
provides easy upkeep and alterations whenever necessary.
Usually, there are two kinds of frameworks.

• Front-end frameworks (CSS and JavaScript frameworks)

• Back-end or server-side programming frameworks

While back-end frameworks are used by web developers and

programmers to build applications on the server-side, front-end
frameworks are used by web designers and developers for implementing
the Cascading Style Sheets language.

2
 Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

In this book, you will get a glimpse into front-end frameworks, which
basically are pre-prepared packages containing the structure of files and
folders of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and CSS documents (some
with JavaScript functions), which help designers and developers build
interactive and immersive web sites.
Frameworks allow you to use a common standardized structure that
cuts out much of the groundwork of writing code from scratch and helps
you reuse components, modules, and libraries, freeing you up to focus on
core tasks at a high level.

Components of a CSS Framework

The following are the basic components of a CSS framework:

• Grids (structures that help organize the content and

design the layout)

• Typography elements

• Cross-browser compatibility

• Helper classes for positioning elements

• Utility classes

• Navigational elements

• Source code written in preprocessors such as Sass

and LESS

• Media elements (badges, tooltips, comments,

and so on)

3
Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

Advantages of Using a CSS Framework

Though some people have advocated not using CSS frameworks, mainly
because of issues such as bloated structure, ingrained HTML markup,
and a common aesthetic across framework-based web sites, using a CSS
framework has several benefits. You should try using a CSS framework for
the following reasons:

• Clean and consistent coding

• Cross-browser compatibility

• Grid-based design

• The ability to incorporate healthy coding practices

• Easy-to-build prototypes

• Easy maintenance and upkeep

• Allows reuse and clean homogenous code structure

• Easy expandability and modifications

• Solid documentation

• Common ground for building immersive web sites

• Accessibility

A budding developer can find it difficult to build web sites just based
on pure HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. In addition, grid-based layouts help
budding designers to position, structure, and design the layout quite easily.
You do not have to reinvent the wheel, meaning you can get some hands-­
on experience without the intricacies and dilemmas that you will come
across when you code from scratch. Good and clean coding practices are
imperative when you grow as a web designer, and frameworks are all about
awesome cohesiveness and consistent coding that will hold you in good
stead in times to come.

4
 Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

Various Popular Frameworks

In this section, you will look at the most popular frameworks used
by web designers across the globe. The most popular frameworks for
designing web sites are Bootstrap, Foundation, and Materialize. Which
one a developer chooses depends on the needs and requirements of a
web site and its design. However, just because a framework is popular
doesn’t mean it fits the bill when it comes to designing your projects.
You need to consider several issues when it comes to selecting a
framework; we’ll talk more about that later. Let’s now take a look at the
various superlative frameworks that are in vogue today.

B
 ootstrap
Bootstrap is the most popular mobile-first framework in web design; it’s
used extensively by developers across the globe (Figure 1-1). You can find
more information on the official web site at http://getbootstrap.com/.

Figure 1-1. Bootstrap

5
Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

Bootstrap adopts a mobile-first paradigm by which you can build

responsive web sites. It comes with components, modules, JavaScript
functions, and media queries that help developers build immersive
web sites with ease.

F oundation
Foundation was the earliest responsive framework and is as massive and
advanced as Bootstrap for building web products and services (Figure 1-2).
Foundation comes with cool features such as Flex Grid and Motion UI. The
latest version, Foundation 6, is quicker, is lighter in size compared to its
earlier versions, and is a solid front-end framework for designing beautiful
web sites, e-mails, and apps that look good on any device. You can find more
information on the official web site at http://foundation.zurb.com/.

Figure 1-2. Foundation

6
 Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

M
 aterialize
Materialize is a modern front-end framework based on Google’s Material
Design philosophy that helps developers build and design immersive web
sites (Figure 1-3). You can find more information on the official web site at
http://materializecss.com/.

Figure 1-3. Materialize

Materialize has a superlative, creative user interface (UI) component

library that incorporates cross-browser compatibility and device-agnostic
capabilities for developing attractive and consistent web sites.

7
Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

S
 keleton
As mentioned earlier, sometimes you don’t need a large framework,
especially if you are embarking on a small project. Skeleton is a simple,
responsive boilerplate and is extremely lightweight with 400 lines of code
and with a mobile-based philosophy (Figure 1-4). You can find more
information on the official web site at http://getskeleton.com/.

Figure 1-4. Skeleton

8
 Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

M
 illigram
Milligram is a minimalistic framework with just enough styles for small
and interactive web sites (Figure 1-5). Its zipped file size is only 2KB. It
comes with a mobile-first philosophy and supports the modern browser
versions of Chrome, Firefox, Safari, IE, and Opera. Its cutting-­edge features
include the FlexBox grid system, and it is a simple, top-notch framework
from a usability point of view. You can find more information on the
official web site at http://milligram.io/.

Figure 1-5. Milligram

9
Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

U
 Ikit
UIkit is a light and modular front-end framework for developing faster and
powerful web interfaces (Figure 1-6). It has a massive collection of HTML,
CSS, and JavaScript components and modules that can be extended with
themes. It is flexible because it can be customized to give a unique feel to
your web sites. You can find more information on the official web site at
https://getuikit.com/v2/.

Figure 1-6. UIkit

10
 Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

Material Design Lite

Google released its own front-end framework called Material Design Lite
(MDL) that is based on its Material Design philosophy (Figure 1-7). MDL is a
lightweight framework with few dependencies and is focused on simple web
sites such as blogs and landing pages. It allows you to customize styles and
web sites designed using MDL degrade gracefully in legacy browsers. You
can find more information on the official web site at https://getmdl.io/.

Figure 1-7. Material Design Lite

S
 usy
In today’s era of agile development and constant changes, the layout
designs are crucial and cannot be restricted to a single framework,
especially if your web site is intricate design-wise. With Susy (Figure 1-8),
the settings are not set in stone, meaning you can use its integrated
Sass-­based libraries to create immersive layouts with potent structural
designs. Susy is not a typical framework but more of a UI utility as it
simplifies and streamlines the task of designing intricate grid layouts.
You can find more information on the official web site at http://susy.
oddbird.net/.

11
Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

Figure 1-8. Susy

Choosing a Framework
As you can see, we have covered many popular frameworks. Choosing
the right framework is quite important and depends on the needs and
requirement of your projects. Some frameworks are bloated, meaning
they have too many built-in styles, which might not be required for a small
project.
The following are some of the factors that you should consider when
choosing a framework:

• An existing web project may already be using a

particular framework that cannot be used with your
desired framework.

• Some projects may not need the clutter associated with

heavyweight frameworks for performance-related issues.

• You might need different preprocessor support such

as for LESS or Sass, which is not integrated with your
desired framework.
• Web sites built with a particular framework may look
similar if not customized to give them an authentic look
and feel.

12
 Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

There are several other factors such as the ease of use, speed of
configuration, usability, features, widgets, components, long-term support,
and reliability that you need to consider when choosing a framework. In
summary, you need to choose your framework based on the requirements
and needs of the project; especially when choosing lightweight front-end
kits for small projects, given the bloat and bulk associated with massive
frameworks.

Concept of Grids
A grid system allows you to structure and stack content horizontally and
vertically in an easy manner. It is easily adaptable for any web site or web
application and has a lot of advantages. It is usually responsive, meaning
it adjusts itself based on the browser or device width. So, it displays the
content appropriately in a mobile device, a laptop, a tablet, or a desktop
depending on the size of the device. Plus, you have media queries, which
help you define the grid layout based on the device width.
Grids are usually 12-column containers in many frameworks but can
be customized using methods specific to the framework. You can have
flexible layouts wherein you can divide the page into several regions and
place content using the markup.
Another concept catching on in CSS designs is the FlexBox. The
difference between a grid and FlexBox layout is that grid layouts are two-­
dimensional, while a FlexBox is usually one-dimensional wherein you can
lay out content in a row or a column.
The choice of using a grid layout or a FlexBox depends on how you
want to structure your content. With a FlexBox you space out the content
and build a structure using that content. Suppose you have certain items; it
is up to you to decide how much space each item should take. Grid layouts,
on the other hand, are content-agnostic. In grid layouts, you create a layout
and place the content into rows and columns.

13
Chapter 1 Choosing Lightweight Frameworks for Intuitive Web Design

In most modern frameworks, both the grid and the FlexBox are
supported. While the usability of the grid layout is awesome, a FlexBox can
help you place things more aesthetically.
For a detailed explanation of the grid concept, you can refer the
Mozilla developer network web site, specifically the following web page,
for in-depth information: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/
Web/CSS/CSS_Grid_Layout.

S
 ummary
In this chapter, we gave you an overview of some popular CSS frameworks.
We also covered the benefits of using a CSS framework. CSS frameworks
are comprised of components, modules, libraries, navigational elements,
typography, media queries, tailor-made widgets, and grid layouts that
make web design a breeze. We also gave you an overview of grid and
FlexBox layouts.
We will now dedicate a chapter for each of the frameworks mentioned
in the introduction of the chapter, starting with Skeleton. With each
chapter, we use a progressive approach, meaning the next framework is
more extensive and a framework’s resourcefulness increases as you move
through the book.

14
CHAPTER 2

Building a Landing
Page with Skeleton
Skeleton is an intuitive framework for lightweight projects. It is extremely
lightweight with a handful of HTML elements and was developed with
a mobile-first philosophy. In this chapter, you will learn how to install
Skeleton. You will also learn about its grid system and attributes; Finally,
we will build a landing web page with Skeleton.

I nstalling Skeleton
To get started, go to the Skeleton web site at http://getskeleton.com/.
You will see the Download button, which is highlighted in a red box in
Figure 2-1.

© Aravind Shenoy and Anirudh Prabhu 2018 15

A. Shenoy and A. Prabhu, CSS Framework Alternatives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-3399-3_2
Chapter 2 Building a Landing Page with Skeleton

Figure 2-1. Skeleton download page

Click Download to download the Skeleton .zip file. After unzipping

the file, you will see the file structure shown in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2. Content of the Skeleton framework

The css folder is where you save your CSS files. By default, the css
folder contains the Normalize and Skeleton style sheets.

16
 Chapter 2 Building a Landing Page with Skeleton

Normalize.css is a small CSS file that provides better cross-browser

consistency in the default styling of HTML elements. It makes browsers
render all elements more consistently and in line with modern standards.
It precisely targets only the styles that need normalizing. You can find more
information about Normalize on the official web site at https://necolas.
github.io/normalize.css/.
You can also see the images folder where you can store your images.
By default, the images folder contains the favicon image for Skeleton.
The index.html file is your default web page. When you edit the page
in Notepad++ or any editor, you will see the code displayed in Listing 2-1.

Listing 2-1. Basic Skeleton Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>

  <!-- Basic Page Needs ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -->

  <meta charset="utf-8">
  <title>Your page title here :)</title>
  <meta name="description" content="">
  <meta name="author" content="">

  <!-- Mobile Specific Metas –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -->

  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width,
initial-­scale=1">

  <!—FONT  –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––-–– -->
  <link href="//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=
Raleway:400,300,600" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">

  <!—CSS  –––––––-––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -->
  <link rel="stylesheet" href="css/normalize.css">
  <link rel="stylesheet" href="css/skeleton.css">

17
Chapter 2 Building a Landing Page with Skeleton

  <!—Favicon  ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -->
  <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="images/favicon.png">

</head>
<body>

  <!-- Primary Page Layout –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -->

  <div class="container">
    <div class="row">
      <div class="one-half column" style="margin-top: 25%">
        <h4>Basic Page</h4>
        <p>This index.html page is a placeholder with the
CSS, font and favicon. It's just waiting for you
to add some content! If you need some help hit up
the <a href="http://www.getskeleton.com">Skeleton
documentation</a>.</p>
      </div>
    </div>
  </div>

<!-- End Document ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -->

</body>
</html>

Now click the index.html file to display the web page, as shown in
Figure 2-3.

18
 Chapter 2 Building a Landing Page with Skeleton

Figure 2-3. Skeleton basic example in a browser

Skeleton’s Grid System

Like most other frameworks, Skeleton has its own grid system. It is
essentially a 12-column grid with a maximum width of 960px. It is a
responsive grid that adjusts itself depending on the browser/device size.
Take a look at the code snippet in Listing 2-2 to understand how the
grid system works.

Listing 2-2. Skeleton Grid System Demonstrated

<body>
<div class="container">
<!-- columns should be the immediate child of a .row -->
             <div class="row">
                   <div style="text-align:center; border: 1px
solid black;" class="one column">One</div>
                   <div style="text-align:center; border:
1px solid black;" class="eleven
columns">Eleven</div>
             </div>

19
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Answ. The word Remember is set in the beginning of the fourth
Commandment, partly because of the great benefit of
remembering it; we being thereby helped, in our preparation, to
keep it; and in keeping it better, to keep all the rest of the
commandments, and to continue a thankful remembrance of the
two great benefits of creation, and redemption, which contain a
short abridgment of religion; and partly because we are very
ready to forget it; for that there is less light of nature for it, and
yet it restraineth our natural liberty in things at other times
lawful; that it cometh but once in seven days, and many worldly
businesses come between, and too often take off our minds from
thinking of it, either to prepare for it, or to sanctify it; and that
Satan, with his instruments much labour to blot out the glory,
and even the memory of it, to bring in all irreligion and impiety.

The method in which we shall proceed, in speaking to these

answers, shall be,
I. To consider the sins forbidden in this Commandment; and these
are,
1. The omission of the duties required. Sins of omission are
exceeding prejudicial; because, though they have a tendency to
harden the heart, and stupify the conscience; yet they are, of all
others, least regarded. As for the omission of holy duties, on the
Sabbath-day; this is a slighting and casting away a great prize, put
into our hands; and therefore, in such a case, it will be said,
Wherefore is there a price put into the hands of a fool to get
wisdom, seeing he hath no heart to it, Prov. xvi. 16. It may be also
observed, that this is generally attended with the neglect of secret
duties, and is an in-let to all manner of sins, and to a total apostasy
from God.
2. The next thing forbidden in this Commandment is, the careless
performance of holy duties; that is, when our hearts are not
engaged in them, or we content ourselves with a form of godliness,
denying the power thereof, have no sense of God’s all-seeing eye, or
dread of spiritual judgments, or being given up to barrenness and
unprofitableness, under the means of grace. Such a frame of spirit
as this, is always attended with a declining state of religion;
especially if we do not lament and strive against it.
And to this we may add, that we greatly sin, when we profane the
day by idleness; and that either by sleeping away a great part of the
morning of the day, as though it were a day of sloth, and not of
spiritual rest, designed for religious exercises; or drowsiness under
the ordinances, as though we had no concern in them; whereby we
give all about us to understand, that we do, as it were, withdraw our
thoughts from the work, which we pretend to be engaged in. In
some, indeed, this proceeds very much from the weakness of their
natural constitution. Such may be heavy and weary in duty, though
they, are not weary of it; and this is what they lament, and are far
from giving way to; though they are, sometimes, unavoidably
overtaken with it. In this case, though it cannot be excused from
being a sin; yet it is such, as, it is to be hoped, our Saviour will
cover, with the mantle of his love, or, at least, not charge upon them
for their condemnation; though he may reprove them for it, to bring
them under conviction. Thus he dealt with his disciples, when he
came to them, and found them asleep, Matt. xxvi. 40, 41. and
though he tacitly reproves them, yet he does not infer from hence,
that they were wholly destitute of faith; but charges their
unbecoming carriage therein, on the weakness of faith, being
impowered by the infirmities of nature, when he says, The spirit
indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak.
There are other sins forbidden in the fourth Commandment, that are
particularly mentioned in this answer, which have been occasionally
insisted on, in considering how the Sabbath is to be sanctified; in
which we have shewn, that, as we are not to do that which is in
itself sinful, so we are to abstain from our worldly employments and
recreations, and endeavour to fence against that vanity of thoughts,
which will have a tendency to alienate our affections from God, or
hinder the success of ordinances; and therefore we pass them over
at present, and proceed to consider,
II. The reasons annexed to this Commandment. And,
1. It is highly reasonable that we should sanctify the Lord’s day,
since he is pleased to allow us six days out of seven, for the
attending to our worldly affairs, and reserves but one to himself.
This supposes that we are allowed to engage in our secular callings
on other days: and therefore, though it be brought in occasionally, in
this commandment, it is a duty belonging to the second table rather
than the first; particularly, it seems to be a branch of the eighth
Commandment; however, it is alleged as a reason of our observing
this Commandment. It is a very large allowance that God has made,
of six days in seven, for our own employments. If, on the other
hand, he had allowed us but one day in seven for them, and laid
claim to six days, to be set apart for religious worship, none would
have had reason to complain, since he, being the absolute Lord of
our time, may demand what proportion of it he pleases; and they
who are truly sensible of the real advantage that there is in the
attendance on all God’s holy institutions, and consider the Sabbath
as a privilege and blessing, would not only think it reasonable, but a
great instance of the kindness of God to man, had this earth so
much resembled heaven, that there should be a perpetual Sabbath
celebrated here, as there is there, where the saints count it their
happiness to be engaged without interruption, in the immediate
service of God.
Obj. It is objected, by some, that they cannot spare a seventh part
of time for religious duties, out of their worldly business; and that it
is very hard for them to get bread for their families, by all their
diligence and industry. Others allege, that the Sabbath is their
market-day, wherein, by selling things, they get more than they do
on other days.
Answ. 1. As to the former part of the objection, taken from the
difficulty of persons subsisting their families, it may be replied; that
God is able to made up the loss of the seventh part of time, so that
their not working therein, shall not be a real detriment, to those who
are in the fewest circumstances in the world, God has ordered it so,
that our observing his holy institutions, shall not, in the end, prove
detrimental to us. Thus when Israel was commanded to rest, and
not to cultivate their land for an whole year together, every seventh
year, providence so ordered it, that they were not sufferers thereby,
inasmuch as the year before brought forth enough for three years,
Lev. xxv. 20-22. and when they were not to gather manna on the
seventh day of the week, there was a double quantity rained upon
them, which they gathered the day before, Exod. xvi. 22-24.
Therefore, why may we not conclude, that, by the blessing of God,
what is lost by our not attending to our secular callings on the Lord’s
day, may be abundantly made up, by his blessing succeeding our
endeavours on other days.
As to that part of the objection, in which it is pretended that the
Lord’s day is their market-day, in which they expect more advantage
than on other days; it may be replied, that if this is true, it arises
from the iniquity of the times; and it should be a caution to us, not
to encourage those who expose their wares to sale on the Sabbath-
day; since if there were no buyers, there would be no sellers; and
this public and notorious sin would be hereby prevented. We have a
noble instance of this in Nehemiah, whose wisdom, zeal, and holy
resolution, put an effectual stop to this practice, in his dealing with
those who sold fish on the Sabbath-day, Neh. xiii. 16-21. First, he
shut the gates of the city against them; and when he saw that they
continued without the walls, hoping, by some means or other, to get
into the city, or to entice some to come out to buy their
merchandize; then he testified against them, and commanded them
not to continue without the walls, and by this means, gave a check
to that scandalous practice. Moreover, this gain of iniquity is not to
be pretended as a just excuse for the breach of a positive
commandment; since, what is gotten in a way of presumptuous
rebellion against God, it is not like to prosper, whatever pretence of
poverty may be alleged, to give countenance thereunto.
2. Another reason annexed to enforce our observation of the
Sabbath-day, is taken from God’s challenging a special propriety in it.
Thus it is called the Sabbath of the Lord thy God; a day which he
has consecrated, or separated to himself, and so lays claim to it.
Therefore it is no less than sacrilege, or a robbing of him, to employ
it in any thing but what he requires to be done therein.
3. God sets his own example before us for our imitation therein.
Thus it is said, In six days the Lord made heaven and earth, and
rested the seventh day, and hallowed it. It is observed, that God was
six days in making the world; whereas, had he pleased, he could
have created all things with the same beauty and perfection in which
they are at present, in an instant; but he performed this work by
degrees, that he might teach us, that whatever our hand finds to do,
we should do it in the proper season allotted for it; and as he ceased
from his work on the seventh day, he requires that we should rest
from ours, in conformity to his own example.
4. The last reason assigned for our sanctifying the Sabbath, is taking
from God’s blessing and sanctifying it, or setting it apart for an holy
use. To bless a day, is to give it to us as a particular blessing and
privilege. Accordingly we ought to reckon the Sabbath as a great
instance of God’s care and compassion to men, and a very great
privilege, which ought to be highly esteemed by them. Again, for
God to sanctify a day, is to set it apart from a common, to an holy
use; and thus we ought to reckon the Sabbath as a day signalized
above all others, with the character of God’s holy day; and as such,
it is to be employed by us in holy exercises, answerable to the end
for which it was instituted.
III. It is observed in the last answer we are explaining, that the
word Remember is set in the beginning of the fourth
Commandment; from whence we may observe, our great proneness,
through worldly business, and Satan’s temptations, to forget the
Sabbath. We may also learn from hence, the importance of our
observing it; without which, irreligion and profaneness would never
universally abound in the world; and, on the other hand, in our
observing this day as we ought to do, we may hope for grace from
God, whereby we may be enabled to keep his other commandments.
Again, the word Remember, prefixed to this Commandment, not
only imports that we are to call to mind, that this particular day
which God has sanctified, is a Sabbath, or to know what day it is, in
the order of the days of the week; but we ought to endeavour to
have a frame of spirit becoming the holiness of the day, or, to
remember it, so as to keep it holy. It is certain, that it is an hard
matter, through the corruption of nature, to get our hearts
disengaged from the vain amusements and entanglements of this
present world; by which means we lose the advantage that would
redound to us, by our conversing with God in holy duties. Therefore
we are to desire of him, that he would impress on our souls a sense
of our obligation to duty, and of the advantage which we may hope
to gain from it. And to induce us hereunto, let it be considered,
1. That the profanation of the Sabbath is generally the first step to
all manner of wickedness, and a making great advances to a total
apostasy from God.
2. The observing of it is reckoned as a sign between God and his
people. It is, with respect to him, a sign of his favour; and with
respect to man, it is a sign of their subjection to God, as their King
and Lawgiver, in all his holy appointments.
3. We cannot reasonably expect, that God should bless us in what
we undertake, on other days, if we neglect to own him, on his day,
or to devote ourselves to him, and thereby discover our preferring
him, and the affairs of his worship, before all things in the world.
From what has been said in explaining this Commandment, we may
infer,
(1.) That, this may serve to confute those who think that the
observation of days, in general, or, that the keeping the first day of
the week as a Sabbath, is a setting up the ceremonial law, without
distinguishing a right between a ceremonial and a moral precept.
For, how much soever the observation of the seventh day, might
have a ceremonial signification annexed to it, as it was given to
Israel, from mount Sinai, it is possible for the typical reference
thereof, to cease; and yet the moral reason of the Commandment
remain in force to us, as it is a day appointed by God, in which he is
to be worshipped, so that we may have ground to expect his
presence, and blessing, while attending on him in his holy
institutions.
(2.) Others are to blame, who think that every day is to be kept as a
Sabbath, pretending that this is most agreeable to a state of
perfection. But this is contrary to God’s allowing us six days for our
own employment; and, indeed, none, who make use of this
argument, do, in reality, keep any day as a Sabbath, at least, in such
a way as they ought.
(3.) Others are guilty of a great error, who think that the Sabbath is,
indeed, to be observed; but there is no need of that strictness which
has been inculcated; or, that it should be kept holy, from the
beginning to the end thereof. Some suppose, that the only design of
God in instituting it was, that public worship should be maintained in
the world; and therefore, that it is sufficient if they attend on it,
without endeavouring to converse with him in secret.
(4.) What has been said, is directly contrary to their opinion, who
think that the Lord’s day was a mere human institution; without
considering, as has been hinted, that what the apostles prescribed,
relating thereunto, was by divine direction; which opinion, if it
should prevail, would open a door to great carelessness and
formality in holy duties, and would be an inducement to us to
profane the day in various instances.
 Quest. CXXII.

Quest. CXXII. What is the sum of the six Commandments, which

contain our duty to man?
Answ. The sum of the six Commandments, which contain our
duty to man, is to love our neighbour as ourselves, and to do to
others what we would have them do to us.

As the first table of the ten Commandments respects our duty to

God, the other contains our duty to our neighbor; which is
comprized in the general idea of love. This is therefore styled the
sum of the following six Commandments; and it is included in our
Saviour’s words; Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself, Matt. xxii.
39. and elsewhere, Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you,
do ye even so to them, chap. vii. 12. Here it may be observed,
I. That we are commanded to love our neighbour as ourselves. This
implies in it,
1. A caution against a selfish temper; as though we were born only
for, or were obliged to do good to none but ourselves. This is what
the apostle reproves, when he says, Men shall be lovers of their
ownselves, 2 Tim. iii. 2. that is, they shall study and consult the
happiness, ease, and comfort of none but themselves.
2. It farther implies in it, our using endeavours to promote the good
of all, whom we converse with; and thereby rendering ourselves a
blessing to mankind. It does not, indeed, exclude self-love, which it
supposes to be a duty; but obliges us to love others as well as
ourselves, in things that relate to their spiritual and temporal good.
This leads us to enquire,
(1.) Whether we ought to love others better than ourselves; or what
the apostle intends, when he says, Let each esteem other better
than themselves? Phil. ii. 3.
Answ. [1.] It cannot be hereby intended, that they, who have
attained a great measure of the knowledge of the truths of God,
should reckon themselves as ignorant of, or unstable in, the
doctrines of the gospel, as those who never made them the subject
of their study and enquiry; nor, that they, who have had large
experience of the grace of God, should conclude that they have no
more experience thereof than those who are unregenerate, and
have not taken one step heavenward. But,
[2.] The meaning is, that the greatest saint should not think himself
better than the least, any otherwise than as he has received more
from the discriminating grace of God; as the apostle says, Who
maketh thee to differ from another; and what hast thou, that thou
didst not receive? 1 Cor. iv. 7. And, indeed, such an one may see
more sin in himself than he can see in any other; and therefore, may
have reason to reckon himself, as the apostle speaks, the chief of
sinners, 1 Tim. i. 15.
[3.] The best saints would have been as bad as the vilest of men,
had they been left to themselves; and it may be, some of them who
have had less grace, have had fewer talents, and opportunities of
grace, than they have had; which they have improved better, in
proportion to what they have received, than they have, the many
advantages which God has been pleased to bestow on them.
(1.) Our next enquiry may be, whether our love to our neighbour
should extend so far, as that we should be willing, were it needful, to
lay down our lives for them; as it is said, in 1 John iii. 16. We ought
to lay down our lives for the brethren; and in Rom. v. 7.
Peradventure, for a good man some would even dare to die.
Answ. [1.] By laying down our lives in these scriptures, is principally
intended hazarding our lives, or exposing ourselves to the utmost
danger, even of death itself, for others. But,
[2.] We are not to do this rashly, and at all times; but when God,
who is the sovereign Lord of our lives, calls us to it. And,
[3.] This ought not to be for every one, but for the brethren,
especially for those who are more eminently useful in the church of
God than ourselves or others. Accordingly the apostle says, for a
good man; that is, one who is a common good, or a blessing to
many others, one would even dare to die.
[4.] This must be, at such times, when in exposing ourselves for the
sake of others, we give our testimony to the gospel; and, in
defending them, plead the injured cause of Christ and religion.
II. This loving our neighbour as ourselves is farther illustrated in this
answer, by doing to others what we would have them to do us. This
is one of the most undeniable, and self-evident truths contained in
the law of nature. So that whatever disputable matters there may
be, as to what respects other duties, this is allowed of by all
mankind. Many, indeed, do not conform their practice to this rule;
which gives occasion to the injuries done between man and man.
However the vilest of men, when they deliberate on their own
actions, cannot but blame themselves for acting contrary thereunto.
Thus Saul did, when he said unto David, Thou art more righteous
than I; for thou hast rewarded me good; whereas I have rewarded
thee evil, 1 Sam. xxiv. 17. Therefore we conclude, that it is one of
the first principles of the law of nature; and may well be called, as it
is in this answer, the sum of the Commandments of the second
table, or that, to which they are all reduced. There are two things,
which we shall lay down, relating to this golden rule, of doing to
others as we would that they should do to us.
1. It is miserably neglected by a great part of the world; as,
(1.) By them who turn away their hearts from the afflicted; so as not
to pity, help, or endeavour to comfort them in their distress. The
Psalmist was of another mind, when he says, As for me, when they
were sick, my clothing was sackcloth. I humbled my soul with
fasting, and my prayer returned into mine own bosom. I behaved
myself as though he had been my friend or brother. I bowed down
heavily, as one that mourneth for his mother, Psal. xxxv. 13,-15.
(2.) They who deny to others those natural, civil, or religious
liberties, which, by God’s appointment, they have a right to, or envy
them the possession thereof, may be said to neglect this golden rule.
2. We are farther to enquire, how this rule, of doing to others what
we would have them do to us, may be of use, in order to our right
observing the Commandments of the second table?
Answ. The fifth Commandment, which requires the performance of
all relative duties, would be better observed, did superiors put
themselves in the place of inferiors, and consider what they would
then expect from them; and the same they ought to do to them.
Again, the sixth, seventh, and eight Commandments, that respect
the life, honour, or wealth of others; if these are dear to us, ought
we not to consider, that they are so to others; and if we would not
be deprived of them ourselves, how unreasonable is it for us to do
any thing that may tend to deprive others of them? Again, if,
according to the ninth Commandment, our good name be so
valuable, that we ought to maintain it, should not this rule be
observed by defamers, slanderers, and backbiters, who do that to
others which they would not have done to themselves? And the
tenth Commandment, which forbids our uneasiness at, or being
discontented with, the good of others, or endeavouring to supplant,
or divest them of the possession of what God has given them in this
world. This cannot be done by any one who duly considers, how
unwilling they would be to have what they possess taken away, to
satisfy the covetousness, or lust, of others.
Quest. CXXIII., CXXIV., CXXV., CXXVI., CXXVII.,
CXXVIII.

Quest. CXXIII. Which is the fifth Commandment?

Answ. The fifth Commandment is, Honour thy father and thy
mother, that thy days may be long upon the land, which the Lord
thy God giveth thee.
Quest. CXXIV. Who are meant by father, and mother, in the fifth
Commandment?
Answ. By father and mother, in the fifth Commandment, are
meant not only natural parents; but all the superiors in age, and
gifts, and especially such as by GOD’s ordinance, are over us in
place of authority, whether in family, church, or common-wealth.
Quest. CXXV. Why are superiors styled, father and mother?
Answ. Superiors are styled father and mother, both to teach them
in all duties towards their inferiors, like natural parents, to
express love and tenderness to them, according to their several
relations, and to work inferiors to a greater willingness and
cheerfulness in performing their duties to their superiors, as to
their parents.
Quest. CXXVI. What is the general scope of the fifth
Commandment?
Answ. The general scope of the fifth Commandment, is, the
performance of those duties which we mutually owe in our
several relations, as inferiors, superiors, or equals.
 Quest. CXXVII. What is the honour that inferiors owe to their
superiors?
Answ. The honour which inferiors owe to their superiors, is, all
due reverence, in heart, word, and behaviour; prayer, and
thanksgiving for them, imitation of their virtues and graces;
willing obedience to their lawful commands, and counsels, due
submission to their corrections, fidelity to, defence, and
maintenance of their persons and authority, according to their
several ranks, and the nature of their places; bearing with their
infirmities, and covering them in love, that so they may be an
honour to them and their government.
Quest. CXXVIII. What are the sins of inferiors against their
superiors?
Answ. The sins of inferiors against their superiors, are, all neglect
of the duties required towards them, envying at, contempt of,
and rebellion against their persons, and places, in their lawful
counsels, commands, and corrections, cursing, mocking, and all
such refractory and scandalous carriage, as proves a shame and
dishonour to them and their government.

In the fifth Commandment, no other relations are mentioned, but

father and mother; yet it may be observed,
I. That, hereby, all superiors in general are intended; as many others
are called fathers in scripture, besides our natural parents, viz.
1. Superiors in age. Thus it is said, Rebuke not an elder, but intreat
him as a father, and the younger men as brethren; the elder women
as mothers, the younger as sisters, with all purity, 1 Tim. v. 1, 2.
2. They, are also called fathers, who are superior in gifts; and
accordingly have been the first inventors of arts, which have been
useful to the world. Thus Jabal is said to be the father of such as
dwell in tents, and have cattle, Gen. iv. 20. that is, the first that
made considerable improvements in the art of husbandry; and Jubal
is said to be the father, that is, the instructor of all such as handle
the harp and organ, ver. 21. or the first that made improvements in
the art of music.
3. Persons to whom we owe, under God, our outward prosperity and
happiness. In this sense Joseph, though a subject, a young man,
and a little before, a prisoner, is called a father to Pharaoh, chap. xlv.
8. as he was an instrument to support his greatness, and preserve
him from the inconveniences of a seven years famine.
4. Princes, great men, and heads of families, are called fathers. Thus
Naaman was by his servants, 2 Kings v. 13.
5. Men of honour and usefulness in the church are so called. Thus
when Elisha saw Elijah ascend into heaven, he cries out, My father,
my father, the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof, chap. ii.
12. And Joash, the king of Israel, used the same expression to
Elisha, when fallen sick, chap. xiii. 14. And this is implied in the
apostle’s styling those whom he had been of use to, for their
conviction, and enlightening in the doctrines of the gospel, My little
children, Gal. iv. 19.
6. Good kings and governors are called fathers. Thus it is said, Kings
shall be thy nursing fathers, and queens thy nursing mothers, Isa.
xlix. 23.
II. We have an account, in one of the answers we are explaining, of
the reason why superiors are styled father and mother; namely, to
denote, that they should behave towards their inferiors, with that
love and tenderness, as though they were natural parents. Authority
is not only consistent herewith, but it ought to be exercised, by
superiors towards inferiors, in such a way. Thus Job, when in his
prosperity, was, as it were, a common father to all that were under
him; accordingly he says, I delivered the poor that cried, and the
fatherless, and him that had none to help him, Job xxix. 12. upon
which occasion he says, I was a father to the poor, ver. 16. And
ministers, who, in some respects, are superior in office to others;
when their reproofs are mixed with tenderness and compassion
towards the souls of men under their care, are compared to the
nurse that cherished her children; as being affectionately desirous,
and willing to impart to them, not the gospel of God only, but also
their own souls, as being dear to them, 1 Thess. ii. 7, 8.
III. We have, in another of the answers under our consideration, an
account of the general scope of the fifth Commandment; and, as it
requires the duties to be performed by every one in their several
relations; these are considered either as superiors, inferiors, or
equals. There are several sorts of relations wherein persons are
styled superior or inferior to one another.
1. Such as are founded in nature; as that of parents and children.
2. There are such relations as are political, designed for the good of
mankind, living together as members of the same common-wealth,
in which every one has a right to his civil liberties, which are to be
enjoyed by one, and defended by the other; of this sort is the
relation of magistrates and subjects.
3. There is a relation founded in mutual compact and agreement,
respecting things to be done, on the one side, and gratifications to
be allowed, on the other; of this kind is the relation between master
and servant. The only difficulty that arises from the account we have
of the obligation of persons to give honour to others, respects
superiors honouring inferiors. For the understanding of which, let it
be considered,
(1.) That superiors are not obliged to shew the same marks of
honour to their inferiors, as inferiors are bound, by the laws of God
and nature, to express to them. Nevertheless,
(2.) There is a duty which the greatest owe to the least; and there is
also a degree of honour, which the lowest of men, as reasonable
creatures, or Christians, have put upon them by God; and this is to
be regarded by those who are, as to their condition in the world,
superior to them.
(3.) The meanest and lowest part of mankind, are, in many respects,
necessary and useful to those who are much their superiors; and are
to be regarded by them in proportion thereto. And the performing
the duties which such owe to them, is called an honouring them.
IV. We have, in another of the answers we are explaining, an
account of the honour which inferiors owe to their superiors. Here it
will be necessary for us to premise some things concerning the
measure of submission and obedience which inferiors owe to
superiors, of what kind soever the relation be. As,
1. When the authority God has invested superiors with, is abused,
and the highest end of all sort of government, to wit, the glory of
God, and the good of mankind, can never be attained, nor is,
indeed, designed; or when the commands of superiors contradict the
commands of God, we are to obey him rather than men, Acts iv. 19.
2. If we cannot obey the commands of superiors, as being unjust,
we must pray that God would interpose, direct, and over-rule their
authority, that it may not be abused by them; or become a snare, or
an occasion of sin, to us.
3. Though we cannot yield obedience to them, in those things that
are contrary to the laws of God, this does not discharge us from our
obligation to obey their commands, in other things, agreeable
thereunto; since we are not to suppose that the abuse of their
authority in some instances, divests them of it in all respects.
V. We shall now proceed to consider the duties which inferiors owe
to their superiors. And,
1. That of children to parents. This is founded on the law of nature,
as under God, they derive their being from them; and they are
obliged thereunto, from a sense of gratitude for that love,
tenderness, and compassion which they have shewn to them.
Therefore the apostle says, that this is right, Eph. vi. 1. that is,
equitable, and highly reasonable; and elsewhere, that it is well-
pleasing unto the Lord, Col. iii. 20. This duty includes in it several
things.
(1.) They are sometimes to shew the regard they have to them by
outward tokens of respect. Thus Solomon, though his character, as a
king, rendered him superior to all his subjects; yet he expressed a
great deal of honour by outward gestures to his mother; when she
went to him to speak in the behalf of Adonijah: it is said, that ‘the
king rose up to meet her, and bowed himself unto her, and sat down
on his throne, and caused a seat to be set for the king’s mother; and
she sat on his right hand,’ 1 Kings ii. 19.
(2.) They ought to be ready to do them any acts of service, which
are not unlawful or impossible, when commanded by them. Thus
Joseph obeyed Jacob, when he sent him to see where his brethren
were, and what they were engaged in, Gen. xxxvii. 13. and David
obeyed Jesse, when he sent him to his brethren to the camp of
Israel, 1 Sam. xvii. 17, 20. This service is required more especially of
them, while they live with their parents, are maintained by them,
and not, by mutual compact, become servants to others.
(3.) Another duty which they owe, is, patient submission to their just
reproofs, design for their good. Thus the apostle says, ‘We have had
fathers of our flesh, which corrected us; and we gave them
reverence,’ Heb. xii. 9.
(4.) They are to attend to, and comply with, their wholesome advice
and instruction. Thus it is said, A wise son heareth his father’s
instruction, Prov. xiii. 1. and, on the other hand, he is branded with
the character of a fool who despiseth it, chap. xv. 5. and it is farther
added, He that regardeth reproof is prudent.
(5.) Children are to express their duty to their parents, by a thankful
acknowledgment of past favours; and accordingly ought to relieve
them, if they are able, when their indigent circumstances call for it;
and endeavour to be a staff, comfort, and support to them, in their
old age. This is contained in the message which Joseph sent to
Jacob, when he invited him to come down to him into Egypt, Gen.
xlv. 9,-11. So when Ruth bare a son to Boaz, her mother Naomi’s
companions blessed her, and said, He shall be unto thee a restorer
of thy life, and a nourisher of thine old age, Ruth iv. 15.
(6.) Children are to pay deference to, and, so far as it concerns the
glory of God, and their own future good, be advised, by their
parents, in disposing of themselves in marriage, or any other
important change of their condition and circumstances in the world.
Herein they acknowledge their authority as superiors, and the care
and concern which it is supposed they naturally have for their
welfare, as a part of themselves. Moreover, by this they pay a
deference to their wisdom and judgment, as being superior in age,
and probably, in wisdom, as well as relation. And this ought to be
done out of a sense of gratitude for past favours received; and
prudence will, for the most part, dictate as much, especially when
they depend on them for present, or expect future advantages from
them. This is also an expedient to maintain love and peace in
families, which is oftentimes broken by the contrary practice. And it
may be farther recommended, from the laudable examples hereof in
good men; as Isaac, who submitted to the direction of his father
Abraham herein; and Jacob, Gen. xxiv. who was determined by the
consent of Laban, chap. xxix. Many more instances might be given
to the same purpose. And, on the other hand, Esau’s contrary
practice hereunto is recorded in scripture, as a vile instance of
disobedience; which was a grief of mind unto Isaac and to Rebekah,
chap. xxvi. 35. And it was, doubtless, an argument that he had no
regard to God or religion.
Nevertheless, this obligation is not without some exceptions; for,
[1.] We do not speak of parents that are so far deprived of
judgment, that they are not fit to determine this matter; nor,
[2.] Such as have divested themselves of the natural affection of
parents, and entertaining an ungrounded prejudice against some of
their children, are endeavouring to expose them to ruin, that they
may shew more kindness to others. These forfeit that right, which is
otherwise founded in nature.
[3.] If parents, by refusing to comply with the desire of their
children, plainly, in the judgment of the wisest of men, obstruct their
happiness, and the glory of God herein. Or, if they have no reason
for their not complying, or the reason given is contrary to the laws of
God, or the common sense of all impartial judges; especially if the
affair took its first rise from them, and afterwards they changed their
mind, without sufficient ground. This, without doubt, lessens, or it
may be so circumstanced, that it wholly takes away the charge of sin
in the child, in acting contrary to the will of his parents, and fastens
the guilt on them.
[4.] The case is vastly different, when applied to children who are so
far from being dependent on their parents, that they depend on
them. Nevertheless, in this case, some deference and respect ought
to be paid to them; and as it is the children’s duty, it may be their
interest so to do; since we can hardly suppose, that parents, who
depend on their children, would oppose their happiness, in an affair
that is apparently contrary to their own interest, if they did not think
that they had sufficient reason for it; which ought to be duly
weighed, that it may be known, whether their advice is expedient to
be complied with, or no. And if in this, or any other instance,
children are obliged to act contrary to the will of their parents; they
ought to satisfy them, that it is not out of contempt to their
authority, but a conscientious regard to the glory of God; and that it
is conducive to their happiness, in the opinion of the wisest and best
of men.
2. We shall now consider the duty of servants to their masters. This
depends upon, and is limited by the contract, which first brought
them into that relation, the not fulfilling whereof, renders them guilty
of unfaithfulness. And it is no less an instance of immorality, for
them to rob them of that time, which they have engaged to serve,
than it is to take away any part of their estate. But more particularly,
(1.) Servants ought to behave themselves, in their calling, with
industry, being as much concerned for their masters interest as their
own. Thus Joseph, though a foreigner, and one who does not appear
to have expected any reward for his service, but a maintenance,
served Potiphar. In the like manner Jacob served Laban, though an
unjust, severe and unrighteous master. This may lead us to enquire
concerning the duty of servants, when their masters are froward,
passionate, and unreasonable in their demands, which renders their
service very irksome and unpleasant; but let it be considered in this
case,
[1.] That, the master’s passion, which is his sin, ought not to draw
forth the corruption of his servant; for, sin indulged by one, is no
excuse for its being committed by another. The apostle Peter
supposes the case under our present consideration, and gives this
advice; Servants be subject to your masters with all fear; not only to
the good and gentle, but also to the froward, 1 Pet. ii. 18.
[2.] If the master’s demands are unreasonable, the servant must
know the extent of his contract and obligation, which he must, in
justice, fulfil as unto Christ, Eph. vi. 5,-8. And, as for those services
that are reckoned unreasonable, and not agreeable to the contract.
These, if demanded, are rather to be referred to the determination
of others, since persons are apt to be partial in judging in their own
cause.
There seems, indeed, to be an exception to this, in some instances,
which we find in scripture, of the unlimited obedience of servants
under the ceremonial law, which was not founded in, nor the result
of any contract between their masters and them; accordingly we
read, that persons became servants,
1st, Through poverty; by reason of which, they sold themselves for
the payment of debts. In this case there was a kind of contract,
indeed; and the service to be performed ought, (pursuant to the law
of God and nature,) to have been agreeable to, and adjusted by the
value of the debt contracted.
2d, Prisoners taken in war, were treated as servants, and, as such,
sold to others. In this case, all the children that were born to them,
during their servitude, were the property of the master; and these
are called home-born servants, who had not so much liberty allowed
them as when they were servants by mutual compact, as is most
common among us; in which case both parties are bound by this
agreement.
3. We proceed to consider the duty of the members of a common-
wealth, or body-politic, to their lawful magistrates, as the apostle
says, Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers, Rom. xiii. 1.
Here we may observe,
(1.) The necessity and the end of civil government. This will appear,
if we consider mankind in general, as prone to be influenced by
those passions, which are not entirely under the conduct of reason,
and, if no check were given to them, would prove injurious to
societies. We may also observe, that God has, in his law, ordained
certain punishments to be inflicted, with a design to restrain those
corruptions, and to keep the world in order. And that this end may
more effectually be answered, it is necessary, that some should be
set over others, to administer justice, in chastising the guilty, and
defending the innocent; otherwise the world would be filled with
confusion, and men would commit sin with impunity; and more
resemble brute creatures than those that are endowed with reason,
and as such, capable of moral government; as it is said when there
was no king in Israel, every man did that which was right in his own
eyes, Judges xxi. 25.
We proceed now to consider the advantage of civil government. It is
in itself a blessing to mankind, when it does not degenerate into
tyranny. So that good magistrates are a great instance of divine
favour to a nation; as the queen of Sheba said to Solomon, Happy
are thy men, and happy are these thy servants which stand
continually before thee, and hear thy wisdom. Blessed be the Lord
thy God, which delighted in thee, to set thee on his throne, to be
king for the Lord thy God. Because thy God loved Israel, to establish
them for ever, therefore made he thee king over them, to do
judgment and justice, 2 Chron. ix. 7, 8. And it is included among the
blessings of the gospel-state, that kings should be their nursing
fathers, and their queens their nursing mothers, Isa. xlix. 23. Such
are said, as David was, to be raised up, to fulfil the will of God, Acts
xiii. 22.
Nevertheless, civil government may be so administered, that it may
cease to be a blessing to the subjects. Thus Samuel describes the
miserable estate of a people, whose kings endeavour to establish
their own greatness by enslaving and plundering their subjects
taking their sons and daughters by force, to be their servants;
seizing their fields, their vineyards and olive-yards, and the tenth of
their increase; which would oblige them to cry unto the Lord,
because of their oppression, 1 Sam. viii. 11,-18. And we have an
instance of this in Rehoboam, who was herein as remarkable for his
want of conduct, as his father was for his excelling wisdom. His
rough and ill-timed answer to his subjects, in which gave them to
expect nothing else but oppression and slavery, issued in the revolt
of the ten tribes from his government, 1 Kings xii. 13, 14.
From this different method of the administration of civil government,
whereby it rendered either a blessing or an affliction to the subjects;
we may infer,
[1.] That when that which is in itself a blessing, is turned into a
curse, this may be looked upon as a punishment inflicted by God, for
the iniquity of a people. Thus he says, I gave thee a king in mine
anger, and took him away in wrath, Hosea xiii. 11.
[2.] We have great reason to be well-pleased with, and to bless God
for the government we are under, as not being exposed to the
slavery that some other nations are; who have no laws, but what
result from the arbitrary will of their prince; and who can call
nothing they have their own. This should make us prize the liberties
we enjoy; and be a strong motive to us to give due and cheerful
obedience to our rightful and lawful sovereign, and all magistrates
under him, who rule in righteousness, and are a terror to evil doers,
but a praise to them that do well.
[3.] This affords matter of reproof to the restless tempers of those,
who are under the mildest government; which is administered
beyond all reasonable exception, our enemies themselves being
judges, who would confess the same, were they not blinded with
prejudice; which puts them upon betaking themselves to railery,
instead of better arguments. These are reproved by the apostle, who
speaks of some that walk after the flesh, in the lust of uncleanness,
and despise government. Presumptuous are they, self-willed, they
are not afraid to speak evil, even of dignities, 2 Pet. ii. 10. This leads
us
To consider the honour that subjects owe to their lawful magistrates.
Accordingly,
1st, They are highly to resent, and endeavour, in their several
stations and capacities, to check the insolence of those who make
bold with the character, and take the liberty to reproach their
magistrates in common conversation; which is directly contrary to
the law of God; that says, Curse not the king, no, not in thy thought,
and curse not the rich in thy bed-chamber. For a bird of the air shall
carry the voice; and that which hath wings shall tell the matter,
Eccles. x. 20.
2dly, We are to support the honour of government, by paying those
tributes which are lawfully exacted. Thus the apostle says, Render to
all their due; tribute to whom tribute is due, custom to whom
custom, fear to whom fear, honour to whom honour, Rom. xiii. 7.
3dly, We are to pray for a blessing from God, on the administration
of our civil governors, that it may be under the divine direction, and
tend to answer the great ends of government, viz. the glory of God,
and the welfare of the subject. And here I cannot but observe, that
no one on earth has a power of discharging subjects from their
obedience to their lawful governors, who endeavour to rule them
according to the laws of God and nature, and those fundamental
constitutions that are agreeable thereto. Therefore it is a most
detestable position advanced by the Papists, that the pope has a
power to excommunicate and depose sovereign princes; though it
does not appear that he has received any such authority from Christ,
but herein intermeddles with a province that does not belong to him.
For princes do not receive their crowns from him; and therefore are
not to be deposed by him. In opposition hereunto, it may be alleged,
1st, That this is directly contrary to the temper of the blessed Jesus,
and of the apostles, and primitive Christians; who did not encourage
their followers to depose Heathen kings and emperors; but on the
other hand, exhorted them to submit to them in all things,
consistent with the glory of God, and the good of mankind; not only
for wrath, but for conscience sake, ver. 5.
2dly, The church has no temporal sword committed to her, all its
censures being spiritual. Temporal punishments are left in the hands
of the civil magistrate; concerning whom, the apostle says, that he is
the minister of God to thee for good. But if thou do that which is
evil, be afraid; for he beareth not the sword in vain; for he is the
minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath upon him that doth
evil, ver. 4. On the other hand, when speaking concerning those,
who have the government of ecclesiastical matters committed to
them, he says, The weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but
mighty through God, to the pulling down of strong holds, 2 Cor. x.
24.
The arguments generally used by the Papists, to support the cause
of rebellion, and their usurped power to depose magistrates, who
are not of their communion, are very weak, and most of them, such
as may easily be answered; as,
1. When they allege the commission given by Christ, to Peter, Feed
my sheep, John xxi. 17. They pretend, that to feed, is the same as to
govern; and that this implies a power of punishing; which they
suppose to be so far extended, as that the bishop of Rome may
depose sovereign princes, as occasion offers; and that this power
was given to Peter and his successors, which the popes of Rome
pretend to be.
But to this it may be replied; that this commission given by Christ to
Peter, to feed his sheep, imports his feeding them with knowledge
and understanding, and not lording it over God’s heritage. Thus our
Saviour says, The kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over them;
and they that exercise authority over them, are called benefactors.
But ye shall not be so; but he that is greatest among you, let him be
as the younger; and he that is chief as he that doth serve, Luke xxii.
25, 26. Moreover, their pretence that the bishops of Rome are
Peter’s successors, contains a claim of what they have not the least
shadow of right to; and is, indeed, to place them in Peter’s chair,
who are the greatest opposers of his doctrine.
2. Another argument they bring, tending to overthrow the power of
the civil magistrate, is, that, as the soul is more excellent than the
body, and its welfare to be preferred in proportion thereunto; so the
church is to take care of the spiritual concerns of mankind, to which
all temporal concerns are to give place; therefore its power is
greater than that of the civil magistrate.
Answ. To this it may be replied; that this similitude does not prove
the thing for which it is brought; and though it be allowed, that the
soul is more excellent than the body; yet its welfare is not to be
secured by inflicting corporal punishments, such as persecutions and
massacres; which, to abate and encourage, is to cast a reproach on
religion; and it will tend very much to weaken the interest of Christ
in the world.
Moreover, the magistrate is ordained by God, to defend the religious
as well as civil liberties of his subjects; which is included in the
apostle’s exhortation; let prayers be made for kings and for all in
authority; that we may lead a peaceable and quiet life in all
godliness and honesty, 1 Tim. ii. 2. and elsewhere we are exhorted,
to submit to governors, as unto them who are sent by the Lord, for
the punishment of evil doers, and for the praise of them that do
well, 1 Pet. ii. 14.
3. There is another argument which they make use of, taken from
Azariah the priest’s opposing king Uzziah, for intruding himself into
the priest’s office, in burning incense in the temple. Thus it is said, in
1 Chron. xxvi. 16-18. that ‘when he was strong, his heart was lifted
up to his destruction. For he transgressed against the Lord his God,
and went into the temple of the Lord, to burn incense upon the altar
of incense. And Azariah the priest went in after him, and with him
four-score priests of the Lord, that were valiant men. And they
withstood Uzziah the king, and said unto him, It appertaineth not
unto thee, Uzziah, to burn incense unto the Lord, but to the priests
the sons of Aaron, that are consecrated to burn incense. Go out of
the sanctuary, for thou hast trespassed, neither shall it be for thine
honour from the Lord God.’ To support their argument, taken from
this scripture, they observe, that the priests, who went in with
Azariah, are said to be valiant men, and so ready to commit any
hostilities against the king. Azariah also threatens him, when he tells
him, It should not be for his honour; and peremptorily commands
him, to be gone out of the temple. This they suppose, is a flagrant
instance of the power of the church over the civil magistrate, in all
those things that interfere with what is sacred.
But to this it may be replied;
(1st,) That Uzziah’s sin, according to the law of that dispensation,
was very great, and against an express command of God, who had
ordered, that none should officiate in the priest’s office, but those
who were of the family of Aaron.
(2dly,) Azariah, and the rest of the priests, did not attempt to
depose him, but to prevent his going on in his sin; which would not
be for his honour, as the high-priest tells him. And this he says, not
in a menacing way, as signifying that he would inflict some
punishment on him; but as declaring what God would do against
him, that would tend to his dishonour for this sin.
(3dly,) Though the high-priest, in God’s name, commanded him to
go out of the sanctuary; yet he did not lay violent hands on him, at
least, till the leprosy was seen upon him. Ver. 27. ‘And Azariah the
chief priest, and all the priests looked upon him, and behold, he was
leprous in his forehead, and they thrust him out from thence; yea,
himself hasted also to go out, because the Lord had smitten him.’
This they did, because a leper was not, according to the law of God,
to enter into the congregation, inasmuch as he would defile it.
(4thly,) He was not properly deposed; but, by this plague of leprosy,
rendered incapable of reigning; and therefore ‘he lived alone,’ ver.
21. ‘in a several house, being a leper; for he was cut off from the
house of the Lord: and Jotham his son was over the king’s house,
judging the people of the land.’ This was agreeable to the law of
God, touching the leper, in which it is said, that ‘all the days wherein
the plague shall be in him, he shall be defiled; he is unclean: he
shall dwell alone, without the camp shall his habitation be,’ Lev. xiii.
46. It may farther be observed, that his son managed the affairs of
the kingdom for him; so that the use which is made by the Papists of
this scripture, to give countenance to their doctrine of deposing
princes, is foreign to the true sense thereof.
4. There is one more scripture-example which the Papists bring,
whereby they defend their practice, not only of deposing, but
murdering princes; and that is in 2 Kings xi. 15. But Jehoiada the
priest commanded the captains of the hundreds, the officers of the
host, and said unto them, have her forth without the ranges; and
him that followeth her, kill with the sword. For the priest had said, let
her not be slain in the house of the Lord. But to this it may be
replied,
[1st,] That Athaliah was plainly an usurper, not only by reason of her
sex, since a woman was not to reign over Israel, or Judah: But she
killed all the seed royal, to establish herself in the throne, except
Joash, who escaped, being hid from her fury, in an apartment
belonging to the temple, 2 Chron. xxii. 11.
[2dly,] What Jehoiada did in deposing her, was not only with a good
design to set up the lawful heir; but it was done by an express
command of the Lord, chap. xxiii. 3.
[3dly,] Joash was proclaimed, and anointed, and universally owned
as king by the people, before Athaliah was slain, 2 Kings xi. 12,-14.
VI. We are now to consider the sins of inferiors against their
superiors. These are expressed in general terms, in one of the
answers we are explaining; namely, neglecting the duties we owe to
them, envying at, and contempt of their persons, places, and lawful
counsels and commands, and all refractory carriage, that may prove
a shame and dishonour to their government; but, more particularly,
inferiors sin against their superiors.
1. In divulging their secrets; and that either as to what respects the
affairs of their families, or their secular callings in the world.
2. In mocking, reproaching, or exposing their infirmities. Thus it is
said, The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his
mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young
eagles shall eat it, Prov. xxx. 17.
3. In endeavouring to make disturbance or disorders in families, or
the common-wealth, through discontent with their station as
inferiors, or a desire to rule over those to whom they ought to be in
subjection.
4. Servants sin, in neglecting to fulfil their contract, or do the service
which they engaged to perform, when they first entered into that
relation. Or when they are only disposed to perform the duties
incumbent on them, when they are under their master’s eye, having
no sense of common justice, or their obligation to approve
themselves to God, in performing the duties they owe to man. Thus
the apostle exhorts servants, to be obedient to them which are their
masters, with fear and trembling, in singleness of heart, as unto
Christ. Not with eye-service, as men-pleasers, but as the servants of
Christ, doing the will of God from the heart, Eph. vi. 5, 6.
5. Children sin, by being unnatural to their parents, who refuse or
neglect to maintain them if they need it, especially when they are
aged; whereby they will appear to have no sense of gratitude, for
past favours, nor regard to that duty which nature obliges them to
perform.
Quest. CXXIX., CXXX., CXXXI., CXXXII., CXXXIII.

Quest. CXXIX. What is required of superiors towards their

inferiors?
Answ. It is required of superiors, according to that power they
receive from God, and that relation wherein they stand, to love,
pray for, and bless their inferiors; to instruct, counsel, and
admonish them; countenancing, commending, and rewarding
such as do well; discountenancing, reproving, and chastising
such as do ill; protecting, and providing for them all things
necessary for soul, and body; and by grave, wise, holy, and
exemplary carriage, to procure glory to God, honour to
themselves, and so to preserve the authority which God hath put
upon them.
Quest. CXXX. What are the sins of superiors?
Answ. The sins of superiors are, beside the neglect of the duties
required of them, and inordinate seeking of themselves, their
own glory, ease, profit, or pleasure; commanding things
unlawful, or not in the power of inferiors to perform; counselling,
encouraging, or favouring them in that which is evil, dissuading,
discouraging, or discountenancing them in that which is good;
correcting them unduly, careless exposing, or leaving them to
wrong, temptation, and danger; provoking them to wrath; or any
way dishonouring themselves, or lessening their authority, by an
unjust, indiscreet, rigorous, or remiss behaviour.
Quest. CXXXI. What are the duties of equals?
 Answ. The duties of equals are, to regard the dignity and worth
of each other, in giving honour to go one before another, and to
rejoice in each others gifts and advancement, as in their own.
Quest. CXXXII. What are the sins of equals?
Answ. The sins of equals are, beside the neglect of the duties
required, the undervaluing of the worth, envying the gifts,
grieving at the advancement or prosperity one of another, and
usurping pre-eminence one over another.
Quest. CXXXIII. What is the reason annexed to the fifth
Commandment the more to enforce it?
Answ. The reason annexed to the fifth Commandment, in these
words, [That thy days may be long upon the land, which the
Lord thy God giveth thee] is an express promise of long life and
prosperity, as far as it shall serve for God’s glory, and their own
good, to all such as keep this Commandment.

1. We are to consider the duties which superiors owe to their

inferiors. Whatever circumstance of advancement one has above
another in the world, this is a peculiar gift of God, and should not
give occasion to that pride of heart which is natural to fallen man,
which puts him upon casting contempt on those who are below him;
much less should they oppress others, who are in a lower station of
life than themselves; but should endeavour to do good to them, and
thereby glorify God. And, indeed, as every relation is mutual, and
calls for its respective duties, so that superiors expect the duty which
belongs to them, from inferiors; it is equally just and reasonable that
they should not neglect those duties which they are obliged to
perform to them; though they be of another nature, different from
those which they demand from them. Here we shall consider,
2. The duty of parents to children. This not only includes in it the
using their utmost endeavours to promote their worldly advantage,
as to what respects their present or future condition in life; but they
ought to have a just concern for their spiritual welfare, which is a
duty very much neglected, though it be incumbent on all parents,
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