Projections and Views

A three-dimensional object can be represented in a single plane, such as on a sheet of paper,

using projecting lines and planes. All projection theory is based on two variables: line of sight
(projecting lines) and plane of projection.

A line of sight (LOS) is an imaginary line between an observer’s eye and an object. A plane of
projection (i.e., an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon which the image is
projected. The projection is produced by connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the
projection plane. As a result, the 3D object is transformed into a 2D view.

If the distance from the observer to the object is infinite, then the projection lines are assumed to
be parallel, and the projection is called a parallel projection. Parallel projection is orthographic if
the plane of projection is placed between the observer and the object, and the plane is
perpendicular to the parallel lines of sight.

You can use parallel projection technique to create both multiview and pictorial (isometric and
oblique) views.

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 1. In multiview orthographic projection (see details below), the object surface and the
projection plane are parallel, and you can see only two dimensions.
2. In isometric view (orthographic) the surface is no longer parallel to the projection plane,
but the latter is perpendicular to the lines of sight, with three dimensions being seen.
3. In oblique projection (non-orthographic) the object surface and the projection plane are
also parallel, but the lines of sights are not perpendicular to the projection plane, and you
can see again three dimensions.

If the distance from the observer to the object is finite, then the projection lines are not parallel
(since all lines of sight start at a single point), and the drawing is classified as a perspective
projection. In perspective view the object surface and projection plane can be also parallel.

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Multiview projection
By changing position of the object relative to the line of sight you can create different views of
the same object. Drawing more than one face of an object by rotating the object relative to your
line of sight helps in understanding the 3D form. Having several views on one drawing you use
the concept of multi-view projection, which is based on the orthographic (parallel) projection
technique where

 the plane of projection is positioned between the observer and the object,

 the plane of projection is perpendicular to the parallel lines of sight, and

 the object is oriented such that only two of its dimensions are shown.

Main principles of creating multiview projections

The plane of projection can be oriented to produce an infinite number of views of an object.
However, the most common views are the six mutually perpendicular views that are produced by
six mutually perpendicular planes of projection:

 Front view – the one that shows most features or characteristics.

 Left side view – shows what becomes the left side of the object after establishing the
front view position.
 Right side view – shows what becomes the right side of the object after establishing the
front view position.
 Top view – shows what becomes the top of the object once the position of the front view
is established.
 Bottom view – shows what becomes the bottom of the object once the position of the
front view is established.
 Rear view – shows what becomes the rear of the object once the position of the front
view is established.

Selection of Views

 The most informative (descriptive) view of the object to be represented is normally

chosen as the principal view (front view) to best describe the shape and details of the
object. This is view A related to the corresponding direction of viewing A and it usually
shows the object in the functioning, manufacturing, or mounting position.
 Typically, three views (front, top, and right-side) are used in orthographic projections

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View positions on drawings and corresponding viewing directions

Positions of the other views relative to the principal view in the drawing depend on the
projection method.

The number of views and sections must be limited to the minimum necessary to fully represent
the object without ambiguity.

Unnecessary repetition of details must be avoided.

Conventional view placement

Generally, three views of an object are enough, however, a drawing must contain as many views
as necessary to illustrate the part, usually at right angles to one another.

 Views are arranged in a systematic manner:

o The top view is directly above the front view.
o The right-side view is placed to the right of the front view.
o The left-side view is placed to the left of the front view.
o The bottom view is placed below the front view.

Particular Representation

 Dashed lines indicate hidden edges.

 Solid lines indicate visible edges.
 Center lines show symmetry.

Frontal plane of projection

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In multiview projection, the object is viewed perpendicular to the main faces, so that only one
face of the object is depicted in each view. The frontal plane of projection is the plane onto
which the front view of a multiview drawing is projected.

In the front view you can see height and width of the object, but you cannot see its depth.

Horizontal plane of projection

The top view is projected onto the horizontal plane of projection, which is plane suspended
above and parallel to the top of the object.

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The top view of an object shows the width and depth dimensions.

Profile plane of projection

In multiview drawings, the right side view is the standard side view. The right side view is
projected onto the right profile plane of projection, which is a plane that is parallel to the right
side of the object. However, you can also use the left side view if it is more descriptive and
informative. Moreover, when needed, you can include both side views into one drawing.

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The side view of an object shows the depth and height dimensions.

The three-view multiview drawing is the standard used in engineering and technology, because
often the other three common views are mirror images and do not add to the knowledge about
the object.

The standard views used in a three-view drawing are the

 top,
 front, and
 right side views,

arranged as shown in the figure:

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The width dimension is common to the front and top views. The height dimension is common to
the front and side views. The depth dimension is common to the top and side views.

For simple parts one or two view drawings will often be enough. In one-view drawings the third
dimension may be expressed by a note, or by descriptive words, symbols, or abbreviations, such
as Ø, HEX, etc.

Square sections may be indicated by light crossed diagonal lines, as shown above, which applies
whether the face is parallel or inclined to the drawing plane.

Another example of a one-view drawing:

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Additional views may be added if they improve visualization.

The views should also be chosen to avoid hidden feature lines whenever possible. That means
that the most descriptive view should be shown.

Besides, you should select the minimum number of views needed to completely describe an
object. Eliminate views that are mirror images of other views.

Why multiview drawings technique is so important?

To produce a new product, it is necessary to know its true dimensions, and true dimensions are
not adequately represented in most pictorial drawings. For example, the photograph is a pictorial
perspective image. However, as you can see, the image distorts true distances, while the latter
are essential for manufacturing and construction, and in this example the case in question is the
width of the road, not the electrical pole!

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In mechanical engineering perspective projections distort measurements.

As you can see, the two width dimensions in the front view of the block appear different in
length in the perspective projection. In other words, equal distances do not appear equal on a
perspective drawing.

Thus, since engineering and technology depend on exact size and shape descriptions for design,
the best approach is to use the parallel projection technique (orthographic projection) to create
multi-view drawings where each view shows only two of the three dimensions (width, height,
depth).
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To summarize:

The advantage of multiview drawings over pictorial drawings is that multiview drawings shows
the true size and shape of the various features of the object, whereas pictorials distort true
dimensions which are critical in manufacturing and construction.

1st & 3rd angles (glass box)

What exactly you should place on the right side projection?

Is it that we can see from the left side, or from the right side of the object?

To answer these questions there are two different ways, based on two different principles

 First-Angle Projection
 Third-Angle Projection.

Third angle is used in Canada and the United States. First angle is used in Europe.

In third angle orthographic projection the object may be assumed to be enclosed in a glass
box.

Each view represents that which is seen when looking perpendicularly at each face of the box.

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The resulted views are identified by the names as shown.

The front, rear, and side views are sometimes called elevations, e.g., front elevation. The top
view may be termed the plan.
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If desired, the rear view may be shown both ways – at the extreme left or the extreme right.
When this is not practical to show rear view at he extreme left or right due to the length of the
part, particularly with panels and mounting plates, the rear view should not be projected up or
down, as this would result in its being shown upside down.

Instead, it should be drawn as if projected sideways, but located in some other position, and
should be clearly labelled REAR VIEW REMOVED.

In first angle orthographic projections the object is considered as being rolled over to either
side, so that the right side of the object is drawn to the left of the front elevation:

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It is mandatory to indicate the method of multiview projection by including the appropriate ISO
(International Organization for Standardization) projection symbol – the truncated cone:

You should place this symbol in the lower right-hand corner of the drawing in or adjacent to the
title block.

Axonometric projection

It is one of the pictorial drawing projections, which are useful for illustrative purposes,
educational aids, installation and maintenance drawings, design sketches, and the like.

The Greek word axon means axis and metric means to measure. Axonometric projection is a
parallel projection technique used to create a pictorial drawing of an object by rotating the object
on an axis relative to a plane of projection.

Axonometric projections such as isometric, dimetric, and trimetric projections are orthographic,
in that the projection lines are all parallel, but the angle of views is so chosen that three faces of a
rectangular object would be shown in a single view.

Axonometric drawings are classified by the angles between the lines comprising the
axonometric axes. The axonometric axes are axes that meet to form the corner of the object that
is nearest to the observer.
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When all three angles are unequal the drawing is classified as a trimetric. When two of the three
angles are equal the drawing is classified as a dimetric. When all three angles are equal the
drawing is classified as a isometric.

Although there are an infinite number of positions that can be used to create such a drawing only
few of them are used.

Summary of Types of views used in drawings

The two main types of views (or “projections”) used in drawings are:

 pictorial
 orthographic

Pictorial views

Pictorial views show a 3-D view of how something should look when completed. There are three
types of pictorial views:

 perspective
 isometric
 oblique

Perspective view

A perspective view presents a building or an object just as it would look to you. A perspective
view has a vanishing point; that is, lines that move away from you come together in the distance.
For example, in Figure 1, we see a road and line of telephone poles. Even though the poles get
smaller in their actual measurement, we recognize them as being the same size but more distant.

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1. Perspective view

2. An isometric view

3. Oblique view of the object in Figure 2

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4. Multi-view through a glass box

5. Box opened to produce orthographic views

6. Drawing with the glass box flattened out

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7.

8. Orthographic views of the object in Figure 2

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Revision exercises

1. Which view is usually chosen as the front view of an object?

A. The view that shows the object's bottom

B. The view that shows the most details and features
C. The view that shows only hidden edges
D. The view with the least amount of detail

2. In orthographic projection, the top view is placed:

A. Directly below the front view

B. To the right of the front view
C. Directly above the front view
D. To the left of the front view

3. What does a dashed line in a technical drawing represent?

A. Visible edges
B. Hidden edges or features
C. Centerlines
D. Transparent parts

4. What is the main difference between First Angle Projection and Third Angle Projection?

A. The arrangement of views

B. The use of dashed lines
C. The scale of the drawing
D. The type of object being drawn

5. In isometric projection, the angles between the three axes are:

A. 90° each
B. 120° each
C. 60° each
D. 180° each

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6. Which type of projection shows the front face in true size and shape, with depth drawn at an
angle?

A. Isometric Projection
B. Oblique Projection
C. Perspective Projection
D. Orthographic Projection

7. When drawing a symmetrical object, which of the following is used to represent symmetry?

A. Hidden lines
B. Centerline
C. Cutting plane line
D. Hatching lines

8. What is the purpose of hatching in a sectional view?

A. To show hidden edges

B. To indicate transparent surfaces
C. To represent areas that are cut by the section plane
D. To emphasize visible lines

9. In perspective projection, how many vanishing points are used in a two-point perspective
drawing?

A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. None

10. Which of the following tools is best for drawing accurate isometric projections?

A. Compass
B. Protractor
C. 30°/60° Set Square
D. French Curve

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