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Laws of Thermodynamics: First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of Energy)

The document discusses the principles of bioenergetics, focusing on energy flow in biological systems, including the laws of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, and the role of high-energy compounds like ATP. It explains the significance of oxidation-reduction reactions, electromotive force, and the relationship between standard redox potential and standard free energy change. Overall, it highlights how these concepts are essential for understanding energy transfer and metabolic processes in living organisms.

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Sharanabasava B Sharanabasava B
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12 views5 pages

Laws of Thermodynamics: First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of Energy)

The document discusses the principles of bioenergetics, focusing on energy flow in biological systems, including the laws of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, and the role of high-energy compounds like ATP. It explains the significance of oxidation-reduction reactions, electromotive force, and the relationship between standard redox potential and standard free energy change. Overall, it highlights how these concepts are essential for understanding energy transfer and metabolic processes in living organisms.

Uploaded by

Sharanabasava B Sharanabasava B
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Unit-1 Principles of bioenergetics: Introduction, Laws of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy,

Relationship of standard free energy to enthalpy, entropy and equilibrium constant, high
energy compounds, ATP as universal currency of free energy, oxidation-reduction reactions,
electromotive force, half reactions, redox potential, relationship of standard redox potential
and standard free energy change. Standard redox potential of biologically important half-
reactions.

Bioenergetics is the study of energy flow through biological systems, focusing on


how organisms acquire, transform, and utilize energy to sustain life processes. It
encompasses the principles governing energy transfer and conversion within living
organisms, from the cellular level to the organismal level.

Laws of Thermodynamics:

1. First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of Energy): Energy


cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to
another. In biological systems, this law dictates that the total energy within a
closed system remains constant, although it can change forms (e.g., chemical
energy to kinetic energy).
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics: This law states that the entropy (a
measure of disorder or randomness) of a closed system tends to increase over
time. In biological systems, it implies that energy transformations are
associated with an increase in entropy, leading to the overall tendency toward
disorder.

Gibbs Free Energy:

Gibbs free energy (G) is a thermodynamic quantity that represents the maximum
amount of useful work that can be extracted from a system at constant temperature
and pressure. It is defined by the equation:

ΔG=ΔH−TΔSΔG=ΔH−TΔS

Where:

• ΔGΔG is the change in Gibbs free energy.


• ΔHΔH is the change in enthalpy (total heat content) of the system.
• TT is the temperature in Kelvin.
• ΔSΔS is the change in entropy of the system.
Relationship of Standard Free Energy to Enthalpy, Entropy, and Equilibrium
Constant:

The standard free energy change (ΔG∘ΔG∘) of a reaction is related to its enthalpy
change (ΔH∘ΔH∘), entropy change (ΔS∘ΔS∘), and equilibrium constant (KK) by the
equation:

ΔG∘=−RTln⁡(K)ΔG∘=−RTln(K)

Where:

• RR is the gas constant (8.314 J/(mol·K)).


• TT is the temperature in Kelvin.
• KK is the equilibrium constant for the reaction.

At equilibrium, ΔG∘=0ΔG∘=0, and the equation becomes:

ΔG∘=ΔH∘−TΔS∘=−RTln⁡(K)ΔG∘=ΔH∘−TΔS∘=−RTln(K)

This equation illustrates the relationship between the thermodynamic parameters of


a reaction. If ΔG∘<0ΔG∘<0, the reaction is spontaneous (exergonic), releasing free
energy. If ΔG∘>0ΔG∘>0, the reaction is non-spontaneous (endergonic), requiring
energy input to proceed. If ΔG∘=0ΔG∘=0, the reaction is at equilibrium.

In summary, bioenergetics explores the fundamental principles governing energy


transfer and transformation within biological systems. Understanding the laws of
thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, and their relationship to enthalpy, entropy, and
equilibrium constants is essential for comprehending the energetics of biochemical
reactions and metabolic processes in living organisms.

High Energy Compounds:

High-energy compounds are molecules that possess a relatively large amount of


potential energy stored in their chemical bonds. These compounds are crucial for
various cellular processes as they serve as energy carriers, providing the necessary
fuel for cellular work. Some examples of high-energy compounds include adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), phosphocreatine (PCr), and high-energy phosphate bonds in
molecules like phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) as the Universal Currency of Free Energy:


ATP is often referred to as the "universal energy currency" of the cell due to its
central role in energy metabolism. It is composed of three phosphate groups, a
ribose sugar, and an adenine base. The high-energy bonds between the phosphate
groups make ATP a rich source of energy. When ATP is hydrolyzed to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi), energy is released, which can be
used to drive cellular processes.

ATP Synthesis and Hydrolysis:

ATP synthesis occurs primarily through cellular respiration in the mitochondria and
photosynthesis in chloroplasts. In cellular respiration, ATP is generated through
oxidative phosphorylation, where energy derived from the oxidation of glucose is
used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. In photosynthesis, ATP is synthesized during the
light-dependent reactions, where light energy is captured and used to generate a
proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, driving ATP synthesis through ATP
synthase.

Conversely, ATP hydrolysis involves the breakdown of ATP into ADP and Pi, releasing
energy that can be used by the cell. This energy is utilized in various cellular
processes, including muscle contraction, active transport, biosynthesis, and signaling.

Role of ATP in Cellular Processes:

ATP serves as the primary energy source for cellular processes, facilitating energy
transfer and coupling endergonic (energy-requiring) reactions with exergonic
(energy-releasing) reactions. Examples of ATP-dependent processes include:

1. Muscle Contraction: ATP hydrolysis powers the movement of myosin heads


during muscle contraction, providing the energy needed for muscle
movement.
2. Active Transport: ATP is utilized by membrane transport proteins to pump
ions and molecules against their concentration gradients across cell
membranes.
3. Biosynthesis: ATP provides the energy required for the biosynthesis of
macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
4. Signaling: ATP is involved in cell signaling pathways, where it acts as a
substrate for kinases that phosphorylate proteins, regulating their activity.

Regulation of ATP Levels:

Cells tightly regulate ATP levels to meet the energy demands of different
physiological states. This regulation involves the coordination of ATP synthesis and
hydrolysis pathways, as well as feedback mechanisms that sense cellular energy
status. For example, ATP levels are regulated through allosteric inhibition of enzymes
involved in ATP synthesis pathways by high ATP concentrations and activation of ATP
hydrolysis pathways in response to energy demand.

In summary, ATP serves as the universal energy currency in cells, facilitating energy
transfer and powering various cellular processes. Its high-energy phosphate bonds
make it an efficient energy carrier, and its synthesis and hydrolysis are tightly
regulated to maintain cellular energy homeostasis.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions:

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions involve the transfer of electrons between


reactants. In these reactions, one substance loses electrons (oxidation) while another
gains electrons (reduction). The substance that is oxidized is called the reducing
agent because it causes another substance to be reduced, while the substance that is
reduced is called the oxidizing agent because it causes another substance to be
oxidized.

Electromotive Force (EMF):

Electromotive force (EMF) is the force or potential difference generated by a redox


reaction that drives the flow of electrons through a circuit. It is a measure of the
tendency of a redox reaction to occur spontaneously. EMF is typically measured in
volts (V) and is symbolized by the letter E. The greater the difference in the tendency
of the substances involved in the redox reaction to gain or lose electrons, the higher
the EMF.

Half Reactions:

In redox reactions, the overall reaction is often broken down into two half-reactions,
one representing oxidation and the other representing reduction. Each half-reaction
shows the transfer of electrons between reactants. For example:

Oxidation half-reaction: A→A++e−A→A++e−


Reduction half-reaction: B++e−→BB++e−→B

By combining the half-reactions, the overall redox reaction can be determined.

Redox Potential:

Redox potential, also known as oxidation-reduction potential or redox potential, is a


measure of the tendency of a substance to gain or lose electrons. It is measured in
volts (V) and is symbolized by the letter E. Redox potential is a thermodynamic
property that quantifies the driving force behind redox reactions.
A substance with a higher redox potential has a greater tendency to gain electrons
and be reduced, while a substance with a lower redox potential has a greater
tendency to lose electrons and be oxidized. Redox potential is influenced by factors
such as concentration, temperature, and pH.

Relationship of Standard Redox Potential and Standard Free Energy Change:

The relationship between standard redox potential (E∘E∘) and standard free energy
change (ΔG∘ΔG∘) for a redox reaction is described by the equation:

ΔG∘=−nFE∘ΔG∘=−nFE∘

Where:

• ΔG∘ΔG∘ is the standard free energy change for the reaction.


• nn is the number of moles of electrons transferred in the reaction.
• FF is Faraday's constant (96,485 C/mol), representing the charge of one mole
of electrons.
• E∘E∘ is the standard redox potential of the reaction.

This equation relates the thermodynamic driving force of a redox reaction (as
determined by its standard free energy change) to the redox potential of the
reaction. If ΔG∘<0ΔG∘<0, the reaction is spontaneous and proceeds in the forward
direction. If ΔG∘>0ΔG∘>0, the reaction is non-spontaneous and requires an input of
energy to proceed. If ΔG∘=0ΔG∘=0, the reaction is at equilibrium.

In summary, oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons between


reactants, driven by differences in redox potential. Redox potential is a measure of
the tendency of a substance to gain or lose electrons, and it is related to the
standard free energy change of a redox reaction through Faraday's constant and the
number of electrons transferred.

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