Dr.

Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

Oscillations
Complex numbers recap:
c=a+i*b, where c=(-1)
imaginary

c*=a-i*b, i will be replaced by –i

Z
cc*=( a+i*b)( a-i*b)=a2+b2
 (c*)*=c
real c=|c|ei where |c|=(a2+b2) and tan=b/a
ei=cos+i*sin; ei=cos+i*sin
Z* 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 −𝑒 𝑖𝜃
2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ; 2𝑖
= sin 𝜃
Simple harmonic motion (SHM):
Simple harmonic motion is a type of periodic motion where the restoring force is directly proportional
to the displacement. The standard textbook example is this mass on spring. If the system is left at rest

y
at the equilibrium position then there is no net force acting on the mass(m). However, if the mass is

ur
displaced from the equilibrium position, a restoring elastic force which obeys Hooke's law is exerted

dh
by the spring.
Mathematically, the restoring force F is given by
F=-k*x w
ho
where F is the restoring elastic force exerted by the spring and x is the displacement from the
lC

equilibrium position(x=0).
That force will be equal to mass times acceleration by Newton's law. Then the equation of motion
Pa

becomes
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥 ⇒ 2 + 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 2 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
h

In our present study, we are going to deal with linear 2nd -order differential eqn. In the most general
is

case, let us consider a driven oscillator with external for 𝐹𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑡 and a dissipation term. The
an

equation of motion is given by

𝑏 𝑘 𝐹𝑜
M

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑏𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥̈ + 𝑥̇ + 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡

𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝐹𝑜
r.

2
𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡
𝑚
D

1. Absence of dissipation and external force, =0 & Fo=0.

𝑥̈ + 𝜔𝑜 2 𝑥 = 0
𝛼𝑡
Guess soln 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒
(𝛼 2 + 𝜔𝑜 2 )𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 = 0
𝛼 2 + 𝜔𝑜 2 = 0
𝛼 = ±𝑖𝜔𝑜
If 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are two solutions of a linear differential eqn. then 𝑓 = 𝐴𝑓1 + 𝐵𝑓2 is the general soln. of
the equn, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are constants. The value of the constants 𝐴 and 𝐵 is found from the initial
conditions of the problem.
Hence 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑜 𝑡
Choose 𝐴 and 𝐵 such a way that 𝑥 (𝑡) is real (because 𝑥 (𝑡) is real measurable quantity). We can
choose 𝐴 = 𝐵, and x will become a real number. But that’s too restricted, instead, we demand that
𝐴 = |𝐴|𝑒 𝑖𝜙 and 𝐵 = |𝐴|𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 .

1|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

𝑥 (𝑡) = |𝐴|𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑜𝑡+𝜙) + |𝐴|𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑜𝑡+𝜙)

= 2|𝐴| 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜙)

2. Absence of external driving force, Fo=0.

𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑜 2 𝑥 = 0
𝛼𝑡
Trial soln 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒
(𝛼 2 + 𝛾𝛼 + 𝜔𝑜 2 )𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 = 0
𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑜 2 𝑥 = 0
−𝛾 ± √𝛾 2 − 4𝜔𝑜 2 𝛾 𝛾 2
𝛼= = − ± √( ) − 𝜔𝑜 2 = 𝛼±
2 2 2

𝛾
Case I: 2 > 𝜔𝑜

𝛾 𝛾 2
𝛼+ = − + √( ) − 𝜔𝑜 2
2 2

y
ur
𝛾 𝛾 2
𝛼− = − − √( ) − 𝜔𝑜 2

dh
2 2
It is evident that 𝛼− < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼+ < 0
w
If 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are two solutions of a linear differential eqn. then 𝑓 = 𝐴𝑓1 + 𝐵𝑓2 is the general soln. of
ho
the equn, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are constants. The value of the constants 𝐴 and 𝐵 can be found from the
initial conditions of the problem.
lC

Hence 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −|𝛼+ |𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −|𝛼−|𝑡

Note that due to the exponentially falling factor e-|t in x, it will die down after some time.
Pa

x
h
is
an
M

t
r.
D

𝛾
Case II: 2 < 𝜔𝑜

−𝛾 ± 𝑖√4𝜔𝑜 2 − 𝛾 2 𝛾 𝛾 2 𝛾
𝛼= = − ± 𝑖 √𝜔𝑜 2 − ( ) = − ± 𝑖𝜔′ = 𝛼±
2 2 2 2
𝛾𝑡 ′ 𝛾𝑡 ′
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 − 2 𝑒 𝑖𝜔 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 − 2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔 𝑡

Choose A and B such a way that 𝑥(𝑡) is real(because 𝑥 (𝑡) is real measurable quantity). We can
choose A=B and x will become a real number. But that’s too restricted. Instead, we demand that
A=|A|ei and B=|A|e-i.
𝛾𝑡 ′ ′
𝑥 (𝑡) = |𝐴|𝑒 − 2 (𝑒 𝑖(𝜔 𝑡+𝜙) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔 𝑡+𝜙) )

2|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

𝛾𝑡 𝛾𝑡
= 2|𝐴|𝑒 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔′ 𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝐶𝑒 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔′ 𝑡 + 𝜙)

t
−
2
e

cos ( t +  )

The parameters 𝐶 and 𝜙 are found by demanding that the initial position and velocity, 𝑥(0) and

y
𝑣(0), have some prescribed values at 𝑡 = 0.

ur
𝛾

dh
Case III: 2 = 𝜔𝑜

Trial soln 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 w

ho
𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑜 2 𝑥 = 0
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝑓̇(𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 − 𝑓 (𝑡)𝛼𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
lC

𝑥̈ (𝑡) = 𝑓̈ (𝑡)𝑒 𝛼𝑡 − 2𝑓̇ (𝑡)𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑡 + 𝑓 (𝑡)𝛼 2 𝑒 𝛼𝑡

𝑓̈(𝑡)𝑒 − 2𝑓̇ (𝑡)𝛼𝑒
𝛼𝑡 −𝛼𝑡
+ 𝑓(𝑡)𝛼 2 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 + 𝛾(𝑓̇(𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 − 𝑓(𝑡)𝛼𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 ) + 𝜔𝑜 2 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 = 0
Pa

𝑓̈ (𝑡) + (−2𝛼 + 𝛾)𝑓̇(𝑡) + 𝑓 (𝑡)(𝛼 2 + 𝛾𝛼 + 𝜔𝑜 2 ) = 0

𝛾 𝛾2 𝛾2 𝛾2
Since, 𝛼 = − , −2𝛼 + 𝛾 = 0 and 𝛼 2 + 𝛾𝛼 + 𝜔𝑜 2 = − + =0
2 4 2 4
h
is

∴ 𝑓̈ (𝑡) = 0
an

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑡
M

The general solution, 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 = (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡

r.

The constants A and B can be calculated by imposing initial conditions, at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 and 𝑥̇ = 𝑣0

D

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐵𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 − 𝛼 (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡

Therefore we have

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥0 = 𝐴 and 𝑣0 = 𝐵 − 𝜔𝑜 𝐴

𝐴 = 𝑥0 and 𝐵 = 𝑣0 + 𝜔𝑜 𝑥0

3|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

Miscellaneous relations

a. Time constant of modulus of decay (𝝉):

This is the time in which the amplitude decreases to 1/e of its initial value. It is given by
1 𝑎𝑒 −𝛼(𝑡+𝜏)

y
= = 𝑒 −𝛼𝜏

ur
𝑒 𝑎𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
1 2𝑚

dh
𝑜𝑟, 𝜏= =
𝛼 𝑏
𝜏 is a measure of how quickly the motion is damped out by the retarding force.
b. Energy relation: w
ho
The total energy of the vibrating system is the sum of kinetic energy and potential
lC

energy.
1 1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑘𝑥 2
Pa

2 2
The instantaneous loss of energy due to the retarding force 𝑏𝑥̇ is the product of force
and velocity, therefore
h

𝑑𝐸
is

𝑃=− = 𝑏𝑥̇ 2
𝑑𝑡
an

Now from the total energy expression, we get

𝑑𝐸
M

= 𝑚𝑥̈ 𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥̇ 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
r.

𝑑𝐸
Putting the value of 𝑑𝑡 in the expression of 𝑃, we get
D

𝑚𝑥̈ 𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥̇ 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥̇ 2 = 0

𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑏𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
Which is the equation of motion of the mass 𝑚.
c. Logarithmic decrement:
The logarithmic decrement is a measure used in the analysis of damped oscillatory
systems to quantify the rate of decay of the oscillations. It is defined as the natural
logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of one peak to the amplitude of the next peak in
the same direction (typically, successive maxima or minima) during damped oscillations.
Let, 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 … are the successive maximum displacement on the same side of the
equilibrium position. Then the logarithmic decrement 𝛿 is defined by the expression
𝑥0 𝑥1 𝑥𝑛−1
𝑒𝛿 = = =⋯=
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑥 𝑥
0 1 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑥0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 𝑛𝛿 = … =
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑛

4|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

1 𝑥0
𝑜𝑟, 𝛿= ln
𝑛 𝑥𝑛
d. Fractional loss of energy per cycle:
Let 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the maximum displacement of two consecutive oscillations on the same
side of the equilibrium position, then the fractional loss of energy is given by
1 2 1 2
Δ𝐸 2 𝑘𝑥1 − 2 𝑘𝑥2 𝑥2 2
= = 1 − ( ) = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝛿 ≈ 2𝛿
𝐸 1 2 𝑥1
2 𝑘𝑥1
When 𝛿 is small.
e. Increase in periodic time due to damping:
2𝜋
The periodic time in the absence of damping is 𝑇 = 𝜔 . With damping, this time period is
0

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝛾 2 −1/2 2𝜋 1 𝛾 2 1 𝛾 2
𝑇′ = 1/2 = 𝜔 (1 − (2𝜔 ) ) ≈ 𝜔 (1 + 2 (2𝜔 ) ) = 𝑇 (1 + 2 (2𝜔 ) )
𝛾 2 0 0 0 0 0
(𝜔02−( ) )
2
𝛾
When 𝜔 is small.

y
0

ur
1 𝛾 2
∴ 𝑇 ′ = 𝑇 (1 + ( ) )
2 2𝜔0

dh
3. Driven problem(Fo0): w
ho
Expression for displacement:
lC

Now consider the driven problem.

Pa

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑏𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡

h

Now introduce another problem where the driving force is 𝐹𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) and the solution is y(t):
is

𝑚𝑦̈ + 𝑏𝑦̇ + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝐹𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡

an

Now if we form 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡) , by adding the two 2nd order differential equations of 𝑥, we
M

find
r.

𝑚𝑧̈ + 𝑏𝑧̇ + 𝑘𝑧 = 𝐹𝑜 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

D

The plan is to solve this equation for 𝑧 and take the real part, which is our 𝑥(𝑡). The nice thing
about 𝑧 is that we can guess a solution.

𝑧(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 , where 𝑧𝑜 is a constant in time. Therefore, 𝑥̇ = 𝑖𝜔𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 and 𝑥̈ = −𝜔2 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

By substituting the guess soln in the above equation we get,

(−𝑚𝜔2 + 𝑖𝜔𝑏 + 𝑘)𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = 𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

𝐹0 𝐹0
𝐴= 2
= 2
(−𝜔 𝑚 + 𝑖𝜔𝑏 + 𝑘) (𝑘 − 𝜔 𝑚 ) + 𝑖𝜔𝑏

Where the denominator (−𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑖𝜔𝛾 + 𝑘) can be written in polar form as

𝜔𝑏 𝜔𝛾 𝑏
√(𝑘 − 𝜔 2 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑏2 𝑒 𝑖𝛼 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = = = 𝑘
𝑘−𝜔 2𝑚 𝜔𝑜 2−𝜔 2 −𝜔𝑚
𝜔

5|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

This leads to

𝐹0 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛼)
𝑧 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 =
√(𝑘 − 𝜔 2 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑏2 √(𝑘 − 𝜔 2 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑏2

𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛼)
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 =
√(𝑘 − 𝜔 2 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑏2
𝐹0
= [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 )]
𝜔√(𝑘/𝜔 − 𝜔𝑚 )2 + 𝑏2

Equating the real and imaginary part on the both sides of the equation, we get

𝐹0 𝐹0
𝑥= cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 ) = cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 )
𝜔√(𝑘/𝜔 − 𝜔𝑚 )2 + 𝑏2 𝜔√(𝜔𝑚 − 𝑘/𝜔)2 + 𝑏2

𝐹0

y
𝑥= cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 )
𝜔𝑍𝑚

ur
dh
Where 𝑍𝑚 = √(𝜔𝑚 − 𝑘/𝜔)2 + 𝑏2
Also,
w
ho
𝐹0 𝐹0
𝑦= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 ) =
sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 )
𝜔√(𝜔𝑚 − 𝑘/𝜔)2
+ 𝑏2 𝜔𝑍𝑚
lC

The displacement is largest where 𝑍𝑚 is smallest. If 𝑏 = 0, this clearly occurs at 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 . At this

point, 𝐴, the amplitude of vibrations diverges. This is, however, an un-physical case since there is
Pa

always some friction 𝑏. In the presence of nonzero 𝑏, the maximum in 𝐴 occurs near 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 .
This is called resonance and is more pronounced the smaller the value of 𝑏
h
is

Note that at 𝜔 = 0, 𝐴 = 𝐹𝑜 /𝑘. The function then rises and peaks near 𝜔𝑜 , and vanishes as 𝜔 →
.
an

What is missing in the above equation? Note it has no free parameters: both 𝐴 (the amplitude)
M

and 𝜙 (the phase) are determined by 𝑚, 𝑏, 𝜔𝑜 , and 𝜔. How do we ensure that 𝑥 (0) and 𝑣 (0)
match specific initial conditions? The solution is to add the following term to 𝑥(𝑡).
r.
D

𝐹 𝛾𝑡
𝛾 2
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝜔𝑍𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) + 𝐶𝑒 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔′ 𝑡 − 𝜙𝑜 ) where 𝜔′ = √𝜔𝑜 2 − ( 2)
𝑚

Note, however, that due to the exponentially falling factor 𝑒 −𝛾𝑡/2 , it will die down after some
time.

F/mo

o 
6|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

Expression for velocity in steady state

In the context of a forced oscillation, particularly when dealing with a simple harmonic oscillator
under a driving force, the velocity at a steady state can be derived from the equation of motion.
Consider the standard forced oscillator equation:

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑏𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 , also, 𝑣 = 𝑥̇ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑣̇ + 𝑏𝑣 + 𝑘 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡

where:
o 𝑚 is the mass of the oscillator,
o 𝑏 is the damping coefficient,

y
ur
o 𝑘 is the spring constant,
o

dh
𝑥(𝑡) is the displacement,
o 𝐹0 is the amplitude of the driving force, and
o 𝜔 is the angular frequency of the driving force. w
ho
Using the complex notation, the equation of motion can be written as
lC

𝑚𝑉̇ + 𝑏𝑉 + 𝑘 ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
Pa

1
Where 𝑉 is complex. Consider a trial solution 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 . Then, 𝑉̇ = 𝑖𝜔𝑉 and ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝜔 𝑉.
h

Substituting these values in the above equation, we get

is
an

𝑚𝑉̇ + 𝑏𝑉 + 𝑘 ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
M

𝑜𝑟, (𝑖𝜔𝑚 + 𝑏 + 𝑘/𝑖𝜔)𝑉 = 𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

r.
D

𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝜃) 𝐹0 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝜃)

𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= = 1/2
=
𝑖𝜔𝑚 + 𝑏 + 𝑘/𝑖𝜔 𝑘 2 𝑍𝑚
[(𝜔𝑚 − ) + 𝑏2 ]
𝜔
1/2
𝑘 𝑘 2
Where, tan 𝜃 = (𝜔𝑚 − 𝜔) /𝑏 and 𝑍𝑚 = [(𝜔𝑚 − 𝜔) + 𝑏2 ]
𝐹0
The real part of the solution is 𝑣 = cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝑍𝑚

By comparing the current expression of an LCR circuit, we have an analogous relationship in the
mechanical system
𝑘
𝑍𝑚 = 𝑖 (𝜔𝑚 − ) + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑖𝑋𝑚
𝜔
𝑘
Where 𝑍𝑚 is the complex mechanical impedance and 𝑋𝑚 = (𝜔𝑚 − 𝜔) is the mechanical
reactance. The amplitude of 𝑍𝑚 is

7|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

1/2
2 2 ]1/2
𝑘 2
|𝑍𝑚 | = [𝑋𝑚 +𝑏 = [(𝜔𝑚 − ) + 𝑏2 ]
𝜔
𝑘
𝑋𝑚 (𝜔𝑚− ) 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜔
and the phase angle is tan 𝜃 = 𝑏
= 𝑏
= 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝜃 represents the phase lag of velocity
relative to the driving force.

Resonance
In forced vibration, the displacement and velocity amplitudes are influenced by the drive
frequency, 𝜔. At specific values of 𝜔, the displacement and velocity amplitudes reach their
maximum. When this occurs, it indicates that resonance has been achieved between the driving
force and the driven system. Two cases will be discussed, i) displacement resonance and ii) velocity
resonance.

y
i) Amplitude resonance:

ur
The displacement amplitude as obtained previously
𝐹0

dh
𝐴=
√(𝑘 − 𝜔 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑏2
2

w
For 𝐴 to be maximized, the term in denominator i.e. √(𝑘 − 𝜔 2 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑏2 or
ho
(𝑘 − 𝜔2 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔2 𝑏2 will be the minimum. Therefore,
𝑑
lC

[(𝑘 − 𝜔2 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔2 𝑏2 ] = 0
𝑑𝜔
𝑜𝑟, 2(𝑘 − 𝜔2 𝑚 )(−2𝜔𝑚 ) + 2𝜔𝑏2 = 0
Pa

𝑘 𝑏2 2
𝛾 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔2 = − = 𝜔 0 − 2 ( )
𝑚 2𝑚 2 2
h

𝑘 𝑏
where, 𝜔0 = and 𝛾 = .
is

𝑚 𝑚
By substituting the value of 𝜔 in the expression of displacement amplitude, se get
an

𝐹0 𝐹0
𝐴= =
M

√(𝑘 − 𝜔 2 𝑚 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑏2 2 2 2
√(𝑘 − ( 𝑘 − 𝑏 2 ) 𝑚) + ( 𝑘 − 𝑏 2 ) 𝑏2
𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚
r.
D

𝐹0 𝐹0
= =
2 2
2 2 2 2
√(𝑘 − (𝑘 − 𝑏 )) + ( 𝑘 − 𝑏 2 ) 𝑏2 √( 𝑏 ) + ( 𝑘 − 𝑏 2 ) 𝑏2
2𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚
𝐹0 𝐹0 𝐹0
= = =
𝑘 𝑏2 𝑘 𝑏2 𝛾 2
√(
𝑚 4𝑚 2 ) 𝑏
− 2 𝑏 √ (𝑚 − ) 𝑏√(𝜔02 − (2) )
4𝑚 2
1
Since the potential energy is given by 2
𝑘𝑥 2 , potential energy will be maximum at displacement
1
𝛾 2 2
resonance, i.e. when 𝜔 = (𝜔02 − 2 ( 2) ) .

ii) Velocity resonance:

The expression of velocity amplitude is

8|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

𝐹0
𝑉0 = 1
𝑘 2 2
[(𝜔𝑚 − ) + 𝑏2 ]
𝜔

It is evident that 𝑉0 will be maximum when the term in the denominator will be minimum,
𝑘
i.e. when 𝜔𝑚 − 𝜔 = 0
𝑘
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔2 = = 𝜔02
𝑚
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜔 = 𝜔0
The velocity resonance frequency is equal to 𝜔0 . Therefore the velocity amplitude at
resonance is
𝐹0
𝑉0 =
𝑏
Evidently, the kinetic energy at velocity resonance is maximum at 𝜔0 = 𝜔. The maximum

y
kinetic energy is

ur
1 1 𝑚𝐹02
𝐸𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉02 =
2 𝑏2

dh
2
Analogous to the AC LCR circuit, resonance is defined by the elimination of electrical
w
reactance. Charge resonance, the electrical counterpart to mechanical displacement
ho
resonance, holds limited significance in AC circuit theory. Therefore, we may consider the
disappearance of mechanical reactance to be the condition for resonance, by which we
lC

shall mean velocity resonance.

Pa

Power in forced vibration and resonance

The instantaneous rate of work done by the driving force in the steady state is given by
h

𝐹02
is

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑥̇ 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 = cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑍𝑚
an

𝐹02 𝐹2
= (cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜃) cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0 (cos2 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜃 )
M

𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚
The average power 𝑃̅ is given by
r.

𝐹2
̅𝑖 = 0 cos 𝜃
D

𝑃̅ = 𝑃
2𝑍𝑚
1 1
Since, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
cos2 𝜔𝑡 = 0 and ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 2sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2
sin 2𝜔𝑡 = 0, hence the
2
average power is
𝐹02
𝑃̅ = cos 𝜃
2𝑍𝑚
𝑋𝑚 1 𝑏 𝑏
Now, tan 𝜃 = 𝑏
, therefore cos 𝜃 = √ 𝑋𝑚 2 = 1 =𝑍
1+( ) 2 )2 𝑚
𝑏 (𝑏 2+𝑋𝑚

𝐹02 𝑏
𝑃̅ = 2
2𝑍𝑚
and,
𝐹02
𝑃̅𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜 =
2𝑏

9|P ag e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

Power factor
𝐹0
The root mean square (RMS) force for a harmonic force with amplitude 𝐹0 is .
√2

1 𝑇 1 𝐹 2 𝑇 𝐹0
𝐹𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝐹02 cos2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = √ 0 =
𝑇 0 𝑇 2 √2
The 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value of the velocity in the steady state is
𝐹0
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2𝑍𝑚
The expression for average power can be rewritten as follows:
𝐹02 𝐹0 𝐹0
𝑃̅ = cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜃
2𝑍𝑚 √2 √2𝑍𝑚
Due to the phase difference 𝜃, the power is not simply the product of their effective
values; instead, it is this product multiplied by cos 𝜃. Therefore, cos 𝜃 is referred to as the
power factor.

y
ur
Work done against the retarding force:

dh
The instantaneous rate at which energy is expended to overcome the retarding force(𝑏𝑥̇ ) is 𝑏𝑥̇ ∗ 𝑥̇ =
𝑏𝑥̇ 2 . Using the expression of 𝑥̇ , we get w
ho
𝐹02
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑡 = 𝑏𝑥̇ 2 = 𝑏 2 cos2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝑍𝑚
lC

Therefore,
𝑏𝐹02 𝑏𝐹02
Pa

𝑃̅𝑟𝑒𝑡 = 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
cos2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) = 2
𝑍𝑚 2𝑍𝑚
̅
This is the same as 𝑃 , the average rate at which energy is supplied by the driving force is equal to the
h

average rate at which energy is consumed in overcoming the resistance.

is
an

Sharpness of resonance
M

Sharpness of resonance refers to how quickly the amplitude of an oscillating system decreases after it
is excited at its resonant frequency. For small values of 𝑏, the value of 𝑃̅ decreases rapidly as 𝜔
r.

increasingly deviates from 𝜔0 . The resonance in such a case is said to be sharp. Conversely, when 𝑏 is
D

large, 𝑃̅ changes much more gradually as 𝜔 moves away from 𝜔0 . In this case, the resonance is
described as broad or flat.

Quality factor (𝑸):

The quality factor(𝑄) is defined as the ratio of the total energy stored in the oscillator to the
energy lost per cycle:

10 | P a g e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜔0

𝑄 = 2𝜋 = (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝜔2 − 𝜔1
2
1 2 1 2 𝛾 ′
Δ𝐸 2 𝑘𝑥1 − 2 𝑘𝑥2 𝑥2 2 𝑒 −2(𝑡+𝑇 ) ′
= = 1−( ) =1−( 𝛾 ) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑇 ≈ 𝛾𝑇 ′
𝐸 1 2 𝑥1 − 𝑡
2 𝑘𝑥1 𝑒 2

′ ′
For small damping 𝛾𝑇 ′ ≪ 1, 𝑒 −𝛾𝑇 ≈ 1 − 𝛾𝑇 ′ , therefore 1 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑇 ≈ 𝛾𝑇 ′
Δ𝐸 = 𝛾𝑇 ′ 𝐸
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸 2𝜋 𝜔𝑑
𝑄 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 ′ = ′ =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝛾𝑇 𝐸 𝛾𝑇 𝛾
Since 𝜔𝑑 ≈ 𝜔0 for small damping, the expression for the quality factor simplifies to:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜔0
𝑄 = 2𝜋 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝛾
As indicated before,
𝜔0
𝑄=
𝜔2 − 𝜔1

y
ur
where, 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 is the bandwidth. 𝑄 can be expressed in terms of the constants of the system.
𝐹2 𝐹2 𝑏

dh
We have, 𝑃̅𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜 = 2𝑏0 and 𝑃̅ = 2𝑍0 2 . Based on the definition of bandwidth (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ) as full width
𝑚
at half maximum (FWHM), we have
w
ho
1
𝑃̅ = 𝑃̅𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜
2
lC

𝐹02 𝑏 1 𝐹02
𝑜𝑟, 2 = 2 2𝑏
Pa

2𝑍𝑚
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑍𝑚 = 2𝑏2
h
is

2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑋𝑚 + 𝑏2 = 2𝑏2
an

2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑋𝑚 = 𝑏2 , ⟹ 𝑋𝑚 = ±𝑏
M

Now 𝜔2 > 𝜔1 , therefore it can be stated that

r.
D

𝑋𝑚 |𝜔2 = 𝑏 𝑋𝑚 |𝜔1 = −𝑏
𝑘 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔2 𝑚 − =𝑏 𝑜𝑟, 𝜔1 𝑚 − = −𝑏
𝜔2 𝜔1
By eliminating 𝑘 from both equations we get
𝜔1
𝜔2 𝑚 − (𝑏 + 𝜔1 𝑚 ) = 𝑏
𝜔2
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔22 𝑚 − 𝜔12 𝑚 − 𝜔1 𝑏 = 𝑏𝜔2
𝑜𝑟, (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )(𝜔2 + 𝜔1 )𝑚 = (𝜔1 + 𝜔2 )𝑏
𝑏
𝑜𝑟, (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ) = =𝛾
𝑚
This gives
𝜔0 𝜔0
𝑄= =
𝜔2 − 𝜔1 𝛾

11 | P a g e
 Dr. Manish Pal Chowdhury, IIEST Shibpur

Therefore,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜔0
𝑄 = 2𝜋 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝜔2 − 𝜔1
The relative influence of impedance components on velocity amplitude varies across the
resonance curve.

o At low frequencies where 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔0 , 𝜔𝑚 is generally small compared to 𝑘/𝜔. It is then the

stiffness (𝑘) which controls the amplitude, and the vibrations are said to be
stiffness-controlled.
o At high frequencies where 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔0 , 𝑚𝜔 generally large compared with 𝑘/𝜔. The
vibrations are said to be mass-controlled or inertia-controlled.
o Near the resonance 𝑚𝜔 and 𝑘/𝜔 tend to cancel out each other, and the motion is said to
be resistance-controlled.

Phase relations:

y
ur
𝐹 𝜔𝑏 𝜔𝛾
From the expression of displacement 𝑥 = 𝜔𝑍0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 ), and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑘−𝜔2 𝑚 = 𝜔 2 −𝜔 2 =

dh
𝑚 𝑜
𝑏 𝑏
𝑘 = − 𝑋 , i.e the displacement lags the driving force 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 by an angle 𝛼. Also from the
−𝜔𝑚 𝑚
𝜔
w (𝜔𝑚− )
𝑘
ho
𝐹 𝑋𝑚
expression of velocity displacement, 𝑣 = 𝑍 0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃), and tan 𝜃 = 𝑏
𝜔
= 𝑏
.
𝑚
lC

Therefore,
Pa

𝑏 𝑋𝑚
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = − and tan 𝜃 =
𝑋𝑚 𝑏
h

𝜋 𝑏
is

𝑜𝑟, tan 𝛼 = − cot (𝛼 − ) = −

2 𝑋𝑚
an

𝜋 𝑋𝑚
M

𝑜𝑟, tan (𝛼 − ) =
2 𝑏
r.

Hence,
D

𝜋
tan (𝛼 − ) = tan 𝜃
2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑜𝑟, 𝛼− = 𝜃 ⟹ 𝛼 = +𝜃
2 2

12 | P a g e