APPLIED PHYSICS

OPTICAL PROPERTIES
(HALLIDAY RESINK AND KRANE)

INSTRUCTOR: AQSA HAMEED

 Major Areas To Discuss

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Figure: The electromagnetic spectrum. Note that both the wavelength and frequency scales are logarithmic.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: VISIBLE PORTION
 INTERFERENCE

Definition:
When identical waves from two sources overlap at a point in space, the combined wave
intensity at that point can be greater or less than the intensity of either of the two waves. We
call this effect interference.

Conditions for Interference:

Coherent sources:
The sources of the waves must be coherent, meaning they
emit identical waves with a constant phase difference.
Monochromatic waves:
The waves should be monochromatic, meaning they should
be of a single wavelength.
 TYPES of INTERFERENCE
The interference can be either
❑ Constructive
▪ when the net intensity is greater than the individual intensities.
▪ Maximal constructive interference of two waves occurs when their phase difference (in radians) is 0, 2π,4π, . . . .
❑ Destructive
▪ when the net intensity is less than the individual intensities
▪ Complete destructive interference of two waves occurs when their phase difference (in radians) is π, 3π, 5π… ;
equivalently, we say that the waves are 180°out of phase.

➢ Whether the interference is constructive or destructive depends

on the relative phase of the two waves
 COHERENT WAVES
Coherent Waves
➢ When phase relationship between the two waves does not change with time
➢ When coherent waves interfere, the intensity of the combined wave at any
point in space does not change with time

To perform interference experiments with light, it is

usually necessary to divide the light from a single source
into two components and to treat each component as if it
were emitted from an independent source of light. If we
do this properly, the two components can be made to
interfere.
 DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
A light beam, which we consider to be a train of plane waves such as might be obtained from a laser, is
incident on a barrier into which two narrow slits have been cut. Portions of each incident wavefront pass
through the slits, and so the slits can be considered as two sources of coherent light waves.

➢ we regard the slits as so narrow that each can be considered as a line of point
sources of light, with each point source emitting spherical Huygens wavelets

➢ To simplify the analysis, we assume that the distance D between the slits and
the screen is very much greater than the slit separation d

➢ When we view the screen, we see an alternating series of bright and dark
bands, or interference fringes, corresponding respectively to maxima and
minima in the intensity of the light
 DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
➢ To analyze the interference pattern, we consider waves from
each slit that combine at an arbitrary point P on the screen C
➢ The number of wavelengths contained in the path difference
S1b, determines the type of interference at P

Figure: Rays from S1, and S2, combine at P. In actuality, D >>

d, the figure has been distorted for clarity. Point a is the
midpoint between the slits.
 DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
To have a maximum at P the two rays must arrive For a minimum at P, the two rays must differ in phase by
in phase, and so S1b (=d sin θ) must contain a an odd multiple of π, for which S1b (=d sin θ) must
whole number of wavelengths or contain a half-integral number of wavelengths, or
S1 b = m λ m = 0,1,2,...
dsin θ =(m+1/2) λ m=0, ± 1, ± 2,... (minima)
which we can write as
Negative values of m locate the minima on the lower half
dsinθ = m λ where m=0, ± 1, ± 2,... of the screen
(maxima)

Note that each maximum above O in Fig has a

symmetrically located maximum below O; these
correspond to using m = -1, -2, -3…..

The central maximum (at point O) is described by

m=0
 DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
➢ We are interested in the location of an interference maximum on the screen, indicated by the distance y
measured from the center of the interference pattern in Fig
➢ It is convenient to make this calculation for the case in which y is small compared with the distance D
between the slits and the screen
➢ In this case the angle θ is small, and we can use the small-angle approximation sin θ = tan θ
Now
sinθ = mλ /d , tanθ = ym/D ym represents the location of the mth maximum),

mλ /d = ym/D

ym = mλD /d where m=0, ± 1, ± 2,...

The separation between adjacent maxima is

ym+1 - ym = Δy = (m+1)λD /d - mλD /d

Δy = λD /d

➢ As long as θ is small, the separation of the maxima is independent of m; that is, the fringes are evenly
spaced
 DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE USING LENS
Plane wavefronts do not form an image on a screen at any finite distance D from the slits. We therefore often use
a lens, to focus parallel rays from the slits onto the screen.

If a lens is used between the slits and the screen, it may seem that a phase difference should develop between the
rays beyond the plane represented by S1b, the geometrical path lengths between this plane and P being clearly
different.
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE

➢ First performed in 1801 by Thomas Young

➢ First conclusive proof of the wave nature of light

➢ First direct measurement of the wavelength of light

➢ No lasers in Young's time, so he created a source of coherent

light by allowing sunlight to fall on a narrow opening S0

➢ Young used pinholes rather than slits for his experiments so,
interference pattern was more complicated

➢ Even when carried out using a laser, the double-slit experiment

is often known as Young’s experiment
YOUNG’S DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE

Figure: In Young's interference experiment, sunlight diffracted from

pinhole S0, falls on pinholes S1 and S2 in screen B. Light diffracted from
these two pinholes overlaps on screen C, producing the interference pattern.
PROBLEM
 INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
Definition:
A layer of extremely small thickness of certain transparent medium is called thin film.

• Colors seen in soap bubbles, oil slicks, and

hummingbird feathers are due to interference
of light waves

• Interference occurs between reflections from

the front and back surfaces of thin,
transparent films

• Film thickness is typically on the order of the

wavelength of light
 CONDITIONS FOR INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
➢ Constructive and Destructive Interference

Thin films can reflect or transmit specific wavelengths depending on film thickness
Constructive Interference: Occurs when waves combine in phase, increasing intensity
Destructive Interference: Occurs when waves combine out of phase, reducing intensity

➢ Path and Phase Differences

Path Difference: Additional distance travelled by ray r2 through the film contributes to interference
because r2 must pass twice through the film before reaching the eye
Phase Change on Reflection:
Phase changes by 180° by ray r1 if reflected from a medium of higher refractive index
No phase change if reflected from a medium of lower refractive index

➢ Equations for Thin Film Interference

Wavelength in the film: λn=λ/n, where n is the refractive index of the film
Constructive Interference: 2d+ λn/2 =mλn , where m=1,2,3,...
Destructive Interference: 2d+ λn/2 =(m+1/2)λn , where m=0,1,2,...
 APPLICATIONS OF THIN FILMS

Optical Enhancements:
Thin films on lenses reduce reflection and enhance light transmission such as camera lenses

Thermal Management:
Coatings on windows enhance reflectivity for infrared radiation, reducing heating effects

Real-World Observations:
▪ Thin films of non-uniform thickness (e.g., wedge-shaped films) produce interference fringes (bands
of varying intensity)
▪ White light illumination results in vibrant colors due to constructive and destructive interference at
different wavelengths.
APPLICATIONS OF THIN FILMS
 POLARIZATION
Electromagnetic waves consist of
oscillating electric (E) and magnetic (B) fields,
perpendicular to each other and to the wave's
direction of propagation

Polarization refers to the orientation of the

E-field vector in an electromagnetic wave

Linear Polarization
A wave is said to be linearly polarized (or plane
polarized) when the E-field oscillates in a single fixed
direction as the wave propagates

plane of polarization is the plane determined by the E-

field vector and the direction of wave propagation
 POLARIZING SHEETS

Figure: The electromagnetic wave generated by the transmitter is polarized

Figure: Another view of the action
in the plane of the page, with its E vector parallel to the axis of the
of a polarizing sheet. A linearly
transmitting antenna. The receiving antenna can detect this wave with
polarized wave oriented in a random
maximum effectiveness if its antenna also lies in the plane and parallel to E.
direction falls on the sheet. The y
If the receiving antenna were rotated through 90° about the direction of
component of E is transmitted, and
propagation, no signal would be detected.
the z component is absorbed.
 HOW DOES POLARIZATION OCCUR ?

By Using a Filter (Polarizing Sheet):

It’s like a picket fence for waves: only waves moving in a
specific direction (e.g., up and down) can pass through

By Reflection: Figure: Unpolarized light is linearly polarized (and reduced

When light hits a shiny surface, some waves get aligned in in intensity by half) after passing through a single polarizing
one direction sheet. The parallel lines, which are not actually visible on the
sheet, suggest its polarization direction.
By Scattering:
Light from the sky gets polarized as it interacts with air
molecules

Real-Life Example:
Polarized sunglasses block glare because glare is light reflected
off surfaces like water or glass.

Figure: Unpolarized light is not transmitted by two polarizing

sheets whose polarizing directions are perpendicular to one
another.
 POLARIZING SHEETS: THE TECHNOLOGY BEHIND
THIS MAGIC ?
Function of Polarizing Sheets:

• Polarizing sheets (e.g., Polaroid) allow only specific

components of light to pass through based on their
electric field (E) vector orientation
• They transmit light vibrating parallel to their
characteristic polarizing direction and absorb light
vibrating at right angles to it

Manufacturing Process:

• Long-chain molecules are embedded in a plastic sheet

and stretched during manufacturing, aligning the
molecules parallel to each other.
• This alignment determines the sheet's polarizing
direction.
POLARIZING SHEETS: THE TECHNOLOGY BEHIND
THIS MAGIC ?
Effect on Light:
▪ Unpolarized light passing through a polarizing sheet becomes linearly polarized.
▪ The transmitted light has half the intensity of the incident unpolarized light due to the absorption of orthogonal
components.
Intensity Reduction:
▪ Ideal polarizing sheets transmit 50% of the incident light intensity.
▪ Real polarizers may transmit less (e.g., 40%) due to additional absorption and reflection.
Use of Multiple Sheets:
▪ When two polarizing sheets are used, their relative orientation determines the transmitted light intensity.
▪ If the sheets are aligned parallel, the maximum light intensity passes through.
▪ If the sheets are perpendicular (crossed), no light is transmitted (intensity = 0).
Malus's Law:
▪ The transmitted intensity through two polarizing sheets is given by:
I=Imaxcos2θ
where θ is the angle between their polarizing directions.
▪ Maximum intensity occurs when the sheets are parallel (θ=0∘ or 180∘).
▪ Minimum intensity occurs when they are perpendicular (θ=90∘).