CIVIL ENGINEERING ENHANCEMENT COURSE 1 BY: ENGR.

AML

Module 3 - PLANE AND SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

This module aims to equip you with a strong foundation in Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.
You will learn about angle measurement, trigonometric functions, and their applications in various
fields. By studying the properties of triangles in both flat and curved spaces, you will develop critical
thinking skills and learn to solve complex geometric problems.

Topics included in this module are the following:

 Angle Measurement
 Trigonometric Functions and Identities
 Sinusoidal and Asymptotic Trigonometric Functions
 Plane Triangles
 Triangle Inequality and Ambiguity
 Spherical Triangle
 Geographic Coordinate System

ANGLE MEASUREMENT

A. Sexagesimal system - is a numeral system that uses 60 as its base, meaning that it counts in
increments of 60. This system originated in ancient Mesopotamia and has been used for centuries to
measure time, angles, and geographic coordinates. The term "sexagesimal" comes from the Latin
word "sexagesimus," which means "sixtieth."

B. Centesimal system –is a numeral system that uses 100 as its base. It is also known as the decimal
system or base-10 system, which is the most commonly used system in modern society. The right
angle is divided into 100 parts (grade), the grade divided into 100 parts (minutes) and the minute
divided into 100 parts (seconds)

C. Circular/Natural system - is a system of angle measurement that uses radians as its unit. A radian
is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.

1 revolution = 2𝝅 radians (r) = 360 degrees (0) = 400 grads (g) = 6400 mils (m)

Acute Right Obtuse Straight

0° < 𝜃 < 90° 90O 90° < 𝜃 < 180° 180O

Complementary Angles: ∠𝐴 + ∠𝐵 = 90°

Supplementary Angles: ∠𝐴 + ∠𝐵 = 180°

Conjugate Angles: ∠𝐴 + ∠𝐵 = 360°

Problem: If the supplement of an angle 𝜃 is 5/2 of its complement, find the value of angle 𝜃.
A. 30 B. 60 C. 150 D. 330

Problem: 2000 mils is how many gradians?

A. 137.5 B. 127.5 C. 221.5 D. 125.0

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TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS & IDENTITIES

Trigonometric Functions - are mathematical functions that relate the angles of a right triangle to the
lengths of its sides. They are essential tools in various fields, including mathematics, physics,
engineering, and navigation.

There are six primary trigonometric functions:

 Sine (sin 𝜽): The ratio of the opposite side to

the hypotenuse.
 Cosine (cos 𝜽): The ratio of the adjacent side
to the hypotenuse.
 Tangent (tan 𝜽): The ratio of the opposite side
to the adjacent side.
 Cosecant (csc 𝜽): The reciprocal of the sine
function (1/sin 𝜃).
 Secant (sec 𝜽): The reciprocal of the cosine
function (1/cos 𝜃).
 Cotangent (cot 𝜽): The reciprocal of the
tangent function (1/tan 𝜃).

CAST Diagram - is a useful tool for remembering the signs of trigonometric functions in different
quadrants of the coordinate plane.

Problem: If the 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 3 5 but the 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 < 0, what quadrant is the angle 𝛽 located?
Ans: Q2
Problem: In what quadrant will 𝜃 terminate if 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃is positive and 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 is negative?
Ans: Q4

Problem: Angle 𝛽 is on QIII while angle 𝛼 is on QI. If 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = −4 9 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = 1 4 , what is the
value of cos (𝛼 + 𝛽)?
Ans: -0.214

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Problem: If sin A = 4/5, A in quadrant 2 and Sin B = 7/25, B in quadrant 1. Find cos (A – B).
A. 4/5 B. -4/5 C. -44/125 D. 44/125

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES - are equations that are true for all values of the angle involved.
They are essential for simplifying expressions and solving trigonometric equations.

1. Pythagorean Identities - are fundamental relationships between the square of the sine, cosine, and
tangent functions.

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 1

𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃

1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃

2. Complementary and Negative Identities:

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (90° − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (90° − 𝜃)

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (90° − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(90° − 𝜃)

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (90° − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (90° − 𝜃)

𝑠𝑖𝑛 (−𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (−𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

3. Sum and Difference Identities:

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵

𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 ∓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 ± 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 ± 𝐵) =
1 ∓ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵

4. Double-Angle Identities:

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃 =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃

5. Half-Angle Identities:
𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 =
2 2

𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
2 2

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𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝑡𝑎𝑛 = = =
2 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

6. Other Trigonometric Functions

Problem: Coversine A is equal to

A. 1 - cosA B. 1 - sin A C. 1 + cosA D. 1 + sin A

Problem: Which of the following relations is NOT true?

A. sin x = (tan x / sec x) C. cot x = csc x cos x
B. (cot x / csc x) = (sin x / tan x) D. (sec x / tan x) = (cos x / cot x)

Problem: Which of the following relations is true for any angle θ?

A. sin(-θ) = sin θ C. tan(-θ) = tan θ
B. sec(-θ) = sec θ D. csc(-θ) = csc θ

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SINUSOIDAL and ASYMPTOTIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Sinusoidal Trigonometric Functions - are periodic functions that oscillate between a maximum and
minimum value. They are used to model a wide range of phenomena, including sound waves,
alternating currents, and the motion of a pendulum. The two primary sinusoidal functions are the sine
and cosine functions.

For the function/s:

𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪) + 𝑫
or
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪) + 𝑫

Properties of Sinusoidal Functions:

 Period: The period of a sinusoidal function is the distance it takes for the function to repeat
itself. For the sine and cosine functions, the period is 2π.

 Amplitude: The amplitude of a sinusoidal function is the distance from the midline to the
maximum or minimum value.

 Midline (Vertical Shift): The midline of a sinusoidal function is the horizontal line that
passes through the middle of the function's oscillations.

 Phase shift: The phase shift of a sinusoidal function is the horizontal displacement of the
function from its usual position.

Problem: Given the function 𝑦 = 5 cos(3𝑥 + 2𝜋) + 2, identify the following:

a. Amplitude
Ans: 5
b. Period
Ans:
c. Frequency
Ans:
d. Phase Shift
Ans: −
e. Vertical Shift
Ans: 2

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Problem: Determine the period of the function 𝑦 = 4 sin 2𝑥 + .

A. 4 B. 𝜋 C. D. −

Asymptotic Trigonometric Functions - are those that approach a particular value (either infinity or
a finite number) as the input variable approaches a certain value. The most common asymptotic
trigonometric functions are the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions.

𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪) + 𝑫

Problem: Given the function 𝑦 = 3 tan (5x − 3π), identify the following:
a. Amplitude
b. Period
c. Frequency
d. Phase Shift
e. Vertical Shift
f. Asymptote
Ans: ( + 𝑘)

TRIANGLE INEQUALITY AND AMBIGUITY

TRIANGLE INEQUALITY - is a fundamental theorem in geometry that states that;

“For any triangle, the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than the
length of the third side”.

This inequality ensures that a triangle can be formed with given side lengths.

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AMBIGUITY IN TRIANGLES

Ambiguity arises in triangles when given information about the sides and angles is not sufficient
to uniquely determine the triangle. This can occur in two primary cases:

1. The Ambiguous Case of the Law of Sines: This occurs when we are given two sides and
an angle opposite one of them (SSA). If the given angle is acute and the opposite side is
shorter than the adjacent side, there are two possible triangles that can be formed.

2. The Side-Side-Side (SSS) Case: While the SSS case typically determines a unique triangle,
there can be ambiguity if the given side lengths satisfy the triangle inequality but do not form
a triangle with the specified angles.

Problem: Given triangle ABC, how many possible triangles can be formed for the following
conditions?

a. BC = 15 cm, AC = 7 cm, AB = 8 cm
b. BC = 17 cm, AC = 12 cm, AB = 7cm
c. BC = 16 cm, AC = 26 cm, angle A = 42.3°
d. AB = 35 cm, AC = 24 cm, angle A = 62°
e. AB = 37 cm, AC = 26 cm, angle B = 32.5°

Problem: Given a triangle ABC with side BC=3, AB=5 and C=900. Find the number of possible
triangles formed.
A. One B. Two C. None D. ∞

Problem: Given a triangle ABC with side AC=30, BC=18 and A=250. Find the number of possible
triangles formed.
A. One B. Two C. None D. ∞

PLANE TRIANGLES

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Problem: The boat is traveling on a course N 30° E. When it is at point A, a rock is due north. After
the boat has gone 500 feet to B, the bearing of the rock is N 25° W. How close will the boat get to the
rock if it continues the course?
Ans: 484.57ft

Problem: An airplane flies 𝑁 26°35 𝑊 for 137.2 miles, then 𝑆 53°25 𝑊 for 62.4 miles. In what
direction should it then fly to return to the starting point in a straight line, and how far must it go?
Ans: 140.51𝑚𝑖 𝑆 52.52° 𝐸

Problem: A surveyor runs a line 𝑁 35°30′30" 𝐸 from A to B, the length of AB being 1246.5 ft. From
B he runs a line 𝑆 25°14′05" 𝐸 to C, and measures BC as 1729.6 feet long. How long is AC?
Ans: 1561.39 ft

Problem: Three circles of radii 115, 150 and 225 m are tangent to each other externally. Find the
angles of the triangle formed by joining the centers of the circles.
Ans: 75.47; 43.16; 61.36

Problem: Points A and B are on the same horizontal plane as point C which is the foot of tower CD.
The distance AB is 200m. The angles of elevation to the top of the tower (D) as observed from A and
B are 26° and 36° respectively. If the horizontal angle subtended by A and B is 90°, how high is the
tower?
Ans: 81 m

Problem: From a point on a level plain the angle of elevation of the top of the hill is 23° 46’, and a
tower 45m high standing on top of the hill subtends an angle of 5° 16’. Find the height of the hill.
Ans: 172.7 m
Problem: The angle of elevation of the tower from A is 25°. From another point B, the angle of
elevation of the top of the tower is 56° if the distance between A and B is 300 m and on the same
horizontal plane as the foot of the tower. The horizontal angle subtended by A and B at the foot of
the tower is 70°. What is the height of the tower?
Ans: 148.81m

Problem: A tripod is made of three sticks, each 5ft long, by tying together the ends of the sticks, the
other ends resting on the ground 3ft apart. Find the height of the tripod.
Ans: 4.69 ft

SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

Spherical triangles are triangles formed by the intersection of three great circles on a sphere.
Unlike plane triangles, the sides of spherical triangles are arcs of circles, not straight lines.

Key properties of spherical triangles:

 Sides (Terrestrial Angles): The sides of a spherical triangle are

measured in degrees of arc, not linear units. (a, b, c)

 Angles (Surface Angles): The angles of a spherical triangle are

also measured in degrees of arc. (A, B, C)

 Sum of angles: Unlike plane triangles, the sum of the angles of a

spherical triangle is always greater than 180 degrees.
𝑨 + 𝑩 + 𝑪 > 𝟏𝟖𝟎

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 Area: The area of a spherical triangle is proportional to the excess of the sum of its angles
over 180 degrees.
𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝑬
𝑨=
𝟏𝟖𝟎

Spherical Excess, E:
𝐸 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 − 180

SINE Law
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶

COSINE Law
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶

Problem: Given the parts in a spherical triangle 𝐴 = 120°, 𝐵 = 135°, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 30°. 𝑅 = 1,000𝑘𝑚

a. Determine the surface angle C.

Ans: 79.82

b. Determine the sum of terrestrial angles a, b and c.

Ans: 26.1+21.05+30=77.15

c. Determine the area of the spherical triangle.

Ans: E=154.82; Area = 2,702,082.67 km2

Problem: Find the area of a spherical triangle of whose angles are 112°, 67°, and 36°. The radius of
the sphere is 45m.
A. 86.4m2 B. 7088 C. 7599 D. 1237

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GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM

A geographic coordinate system is a system used to specify the precise location of a point
on the Earth's surface. It is based on a spherical coordinate system, using latitude and longitude to
determine the position.

Latitude and Longitude

 Latitude: Measures the north-south position of a point, expressed in degrees (from 0° at the
equator to 90° at the North or South Pole).

 Longitude: Measures the east-west position of a point, expressed in degrees (from 0° at the
Prime Meridian to 180° east or west).

Special Formula:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑫 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑩 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑩𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑪
Where:
A = Latitude 1
B = Latitude 2
C = Longitude 2 - Longitude 1

Note: Use negative (-) for W or S directions, use positive (+) for E or N directions.

Problem: Find the distance from Brazil (14°15 𝑆, 51°55 𝑊) to Philippines (12°50 𝑁, 121°45 𝐸).
Ans: 173.69 deg = 10,421.17 Nautical-mile

Problem: Find the distance in Nautical Mile from Moscow (550 45’N, 370 36’E) to London (510 25’N,
00).
A. 1245.7 B. 1436.8 C. 1346.8 D. 1524

Problem: Approximate the distance from Philippines (12°30’ N, 121°30’ E) to the North Pole.
A. 7000 km B. 7400 km C. 8000 km D. 8700 km

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