ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L.

CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
___________________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 9. INTRODUCTION

9.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Antiderivative of functions is also known as integral. When the antiderivative of a
function is differentiated, the original function is obtained. Integration is the opposite process
of differentiation and hence the name "anti" derivatives.

Antiderivatives are usually known as indefinite integrals. However, using the

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus antiderivatives can also be related to definite integrals. In
this article, we will learn about antiderivatives, their formulas, rules, and various applications.

An antiderivative, F, of a function, f, can be defined as a function that can be

differentiated to obtain the original function, f. i.e., an antiderivative is mathematically
defined as follows: ∫ f(x) dx = F(x) + C, where

● the derivative of F(x) is f(x). i.e., F'(x) = f(x) and

● C is the integration constant

Antiderivatives can be further classified into two types :

● indefinite antiderivatives
● definite antiderivatives

INDEFINITE DERIVATIVE
When the general antiderivative of a function is determined it is known as an
indefinite antiderivative (or) indefinite integral. Such an antiderivative does not have any
limits/bounds. Integration, which is the reverse process of differentiation, is used to calculate
the indefinite antiderivative of a function.

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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DEFINITE DERIVATIVE
If the antiderivative of a function is evaluated between two endpoints then it is known
as a definite antiderivative (or) definite integral. The definite integral of a function is used to
compute the area under a curve. Such an antiderivative will have a definite value.

ANTIDERIVATIVES FORMULA
There are several different antiderivative formulas that help to find the antiderivative
of a given function using the process of integration. These help to increase the speed and
accuracy of performing calculations. Some antiderivative formulas are given below:

9.2 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

Integration by substitution is a method used to simplify integrals by making a
substitution that transforms the integrand into a simpler form. It's especially useful when the
integrand involves a composition of functions. If u = g(x), then du = g’(x) dx This allows us
to rewrite: ∫ f (g(x)) g′(x) dx = ∫ f(u) du. After finding the antiderivative with respect to u,
substitute back u = g(x) to return to the original variable.
Example: evaluate ∫ x (x² + 1)³ dx
Let u = x² + 1; du = 2x dx or ½ du = x dx

2 3 3 1 1 3
∫ 𝑥 · (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑢) · 2
𝑑𝑢 = 2
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

4 4
1 3 1 𝑢 𝑢
2
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2
· 4
= 8

4 2 4
𝑢 (𝑥 +1)
Substitute back u = x² + 1: 8
= 8

2 4
2 3 (𝑥 +1)
∫ 𝑥 · (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 8
+ 𝐶

Final answer:
2 4
𝑋 +1)
8
+𝐶

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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9.3 ANTIDERIVATIVE RULES
There are certain important rules that need to be followed while integrating a function
to obtain its antiderivatives. These rules are listed as follows:

Sum Rule: The antiderivative of a sum is equal to the sum of the antiderivatives. If f(x) and
g(x) are two functions then ∫ [f(x) + g(x)]dx = ∫ f(x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx
Example: find the antiderivative of f(x)=3x²+4x
∫ (3x²+4x) dx = ∫ 3x² dx + ∫ 4x dx

∫ (3x² + 4x) dx = x³ + 2x² + C

Final answer: x³ + 2x² + C

Difference Rule: This rule states that the antiderivative of a difference is equal to the
difference of the antiderivatives. This can be expressed as ∫ [f(x) - g(x)]dx = ∫ f(x)dx - ∫
g(x)dx
Example: find the antiderivative of f(x)=5x³ − 2x²

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BSGE 2B
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Final answer:

Constant Rule: A scalar can be taken out of an integral under the constant rule. If k is a
scalar or a constant then ∫ k f(x)dx = k∫ f(x)dx
Example: Find the antiderivative of f(x)=7
∫ 7 dx = 7x + C
Final answer: 7x + C
The reasoning behind this is that the derivative of 7x is 7, and the constant C accounts for any
other constant term that might have been present before differentiation.

Power Rule: The antiderivative power rule is also the general formula that is used to solve
simple integrals. It shows how to integrate a function of the form xn, where n ≠ -1. This rule
can also be used to integrate expressions with radicals in them. The power rule for
antiderivatives is given as follows:

Example: Find the antiderivative of f(x)=x³

n= 3

If n = −1, the power rule does not apply because division by zero would occur. Instead, the
antiderivative is:

Final answer:

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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9.4 ANTIDERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
There are six basic trigonometric functions. These are sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent
(tan), cosecant (cosec), secant (sec), and cotangent (cot). cosec, sec and cot are reciprocal
functions of sin, cos and tan respectively. The antiderivatives of trigonometric functions are
given below:
● ∫ sin x dx = -cos x + C
● ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
● ∫ tan x dx = -In |cos x| + C = ln |sec x| + C
● ∫ cot x dx = ln |sin x| + C = -ln |cosec x| + C
● ∫ sec x dx = ln |sec x + tan x| + C
● ∫ cosec x dx = - ln |cosec x + cot x| + C
● ∫ cos (ax + b)x dx = (1/a) sin (ax + b) + C
● ∫ sin (ax + b)x dx = -(1/a) cos (ax + b) + C

Examples:
Antiderivative of cos ⁡(x): ∫ cos (x) dx = sin (x) + C
Antiderivative of sec⁡² (x): ∫sec² (x) dx = tan (x) + C
Find ∫ sin⁡⁡²(x) dx:

Final answer:

9.5 ANTIDERIVATIVE OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

Exponential functions are widely used to model situations such as financial growth,
population growth., etc. This is because, e, is usually associated with accelerating or
compounding growth. An exponential function, ex, is its own antiderivative and derivative.

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BSGE 2B
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The power rule cannot be used to integrate an exponential function. The antiderivative of an
exponential function is given as follows:
x
● Antiderivative of e is, ∫ ex dx = ex + C

● ∫ ecx dx = (1/c) ecx + C

Examples:
∫ e3x dx
k=3

∫ 25x dx
a=2k=5

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BSGE 2B
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9.6 INTEGRATION FORMULAS
The integration formulas have been broadly presented as the following sets of
formulas. The formulas include basic integration formulas, integration of trigonometric
ratios, inverse trigonometric functions, the product of functions, and some advanced set of
integration formulas. Basically, integration is a way of uniting the part to find a whole. It is
the inverse operation of differentiation. Thus the basic integration formula is ∫ f'(x) dx = f(x)
+ C. Using this, the following integration formulas are derived.

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BSGE 2B
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Examples:

● Example 1: Calculate the antiderivative of e-x.

Solution: Using substitution t = -x.
dt = -dx or dx = -dt
∫ e-x dx = ∫ -et dt = -et + C = -e-x + C
Answer: ∫ e-x dx = -e-x + C

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● Example 2: Find the antiderivative of f(x) = 2x cos (x + 1). Also, verify the

antiderivative by differentiation.
2
Solution: Using substitution t = x + 1.

dt = 2x dx
2
∫ 2x cos (x +1)dx = ∫ cos t dt = sin t + C

2
= sin (x + 1) + C

Verification:
Let us find the derivative of the above result.
2 2 2
d/dx (sin (x + 1) + C) = cos (x + 1) d/dx (x + 1) (by chain rule)

2
= 2x cos (x + 1)

= f(x)
Hence, the antiderivative is verified.
2 2
Answer: ∫ 2x cos (x +1) = sin (x + 1) + C

● Example 3: Calculate the antiderivative of 5x4.

Solution: Using the antiderivative power rule,
∫ xn dx = xn + 1/(n + 1) + C
∫ 5x4 dx = 5x4 + 1/ (4+1) + C
= x5 + C
Answer: ∫ 5x4 dx = = x5 + C

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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CHAPTER 10. METHODS OF INTEGRATION

10.1 PRODUCT OF SINES AND COSINES

When integrating products of sine and cosine functions, it’s often useful to apply
trigonometric identities to simplify the integrand. Here are the key methods and examples for
handling such integrals.
Key Identities for simplification:
1. Product-to-Sum Formulas:
● sin(A)cos(B) = ½ [sin(A+B) + sin(A-B)]
● sin(A)sin(B) = ½ [cos(A-B) - cos(A+B)]
● cos(A)cos(B) = ½ [cos(A+B) + cos(A-B)]
2. Power-Reduction Formulas (if powers of sine or cosine appear):
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)
sin²(x) = 2

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)
cos²(x) = 2

Example 1: ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Use the identity sin(x)cos(x) = ½ sin(2x):

1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Integrate:

1 1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)
∫ 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2
· 2
+𝐶 = − 4
+𝑐

𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)
Final answer: − 4
+ 𝐶

10.2 POWER OF SINES AND COSINES

When integrating powers of sines and cosines, there are several techniques depending
on the form of the integrand. Let’s explore step-by-step approaches for both even and odd
powers of sine and cosine.
1. When One Power is odd
If either sin⁡ⁿ(x) or cos⁡ⁿ(x) has an odd power, split off one factor of that function and
use the Pythagorean identity sin⁡²(x)+cos⁡²(x)=1 to simplify.

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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3 2
Example: ∫𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3 2
Split 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥) as 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥) · 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥):
3 2 2 2
∫𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥))(𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥))𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2 2
Use 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥) = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥):
2 2
∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥))𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
Let u = cos (x), so du = -sin(x) dx:
2 2
− ∫(1 − 𝑢 )𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3 5
2 4 𝑢 𝑢
simplify and integrate: − ∫(𝑢 − 𝑢 )𝑑𝑢 =− ( 3
​− 5
​) + 𝐶
3 5
𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)
Final answer: − 3
+ 5
+ 𝐶

2. When both powers are even

When sin⁡ⁿ(x) or cos⁡ⁿ(x) have even powers, use the power-reduction formulas:

Example:

Use the identity

Apply the power-reduction formula:

Substitute and integrate:

Solve each term:

Combine:

Final Answer:

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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10. 3 POWERS OF TANGENT AND SECANTS

Integrating powers of tangent (tan⁡⁡ⁿ(x)) and secant (sec⁡⁡ⁿ(x)) functions relies on specific
reduction formulas and trigonometric identities. Let's break down the strategies for these
cases.
1. Powers of Secant
Strategy:
● When n is even, use the identity:
2 2
Split off sec (x) and substitute u= tan(x), du=sec (x) dx
● When n is odd, use integration by parts or reduction formulas

Example:

2. Powers of Tangent
Strategy:
● When n is odd, split off
● When n is even, use the identity:
Reduce the power of tan(x) step by step

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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Example:

10.4 POWER OF COTANGENTS AND COSECANTS

When dealing with powers of cotangent (cotⁿ(x)) and cosecant (csc⁡ⁿ(x)), we use specific
strategies and trigonometric identities similar to those for tangent and secant functions. Here's
a breakdown:

1. Powers of Cosecant
Strategy:
● For even powers of csc(x), use identity:
Split off
● For odd powers, use a reduction formula or integration by parts.

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BSGE 2B
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Example:

Final answer:

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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2. Powers of Cotangent
Strategy:
2
● For odd powers of cot⁡(x), split off cot⁡(x) csc (x) and use u= csc(x), du=
-cot(x) csc(x) dx
● For even powers, use the identity:

Example:

Final answer:

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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10.5 TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

Trigonometric substitution is a technique for evaluating integrals by substituting
trigonometric functions for variables to simplify expressions, especially those involving
square roots of quadratic expressions. The goal is to transform the integral into one that
involves basic trigonometric functions, which are easier to handle.
Key substitution forms - Use the appropriate trigonometric substitution based on
the type of square root in the integral:

Steps for Trigonometric Substitution:

1. Identify the substitution: Based on the form of the square root of quadratic expression,
choose the appropriate substitution.
2. Substitute: Replace x and dx with their expressions in terms of θ.
3. Simplify: Use trigonometric identities to simplify the integrand.
4. Integrate: Perform the integration in terms of θ.
5. Back-substitute: Use the original substitution to return to the variable x.

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BSGE 2B
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Example:

Summary of Trigonometric Substitution

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BSGE 2B
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10.6 ADDITIONAL STANDARD FORMULAS

Basic Trigonometric Integrals Inverse Trigonometric Integrals

Logarithmic Integrals Exponential Integrals

Hyperbolic Function Integrals Power Formulas

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BSGE 2B
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Rational Function Integrals

Reduction For Formulas

10.7 INTEGRANDS INVOLVING QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS

Integrals involving quadratic expressions often require simplification using techniques

like completing the square, trigonometric substitution, or standard formulas for common
quadratic forms. Below is a comprehensive guide to solving integrals with quadratic
expressions.

Common Forms and Techniques:

1. Quadratic in the Denominator

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BSGE 2B
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2. Quadratic in the Numerator and Denominator

3. Quadratic Under a Square Root

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BSGE 2B
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4. Rational Functions with Quadratics

10.8 ALGEBRAIC SUBSTITUTIONS

Algebraic substitution is a powerful technique used to simplify integrals by

transforming the variable of integration to a more manageable form.

General Steps for Algebraic Substitution:

1. Choose a Substitution: Select a substitution u=g(x) to simplify the integrand.
Typically:
● Choose u such that it eliminates a complex term, such as a radical or a
composite function.
● For rational expressions, u is often the denominator or a key polynomial.\
2. Differentiate: Compute , or equivalently
3. Rewrite the Integral: Replace g(x) and dx in the integral using the substitution.
Rewrite everything in terms of u.
4. Evaluate the New Integral: Solve the simplified integral in terms of u.

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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5. Back-Substitute: Replace u with g(x) to express the result in terms of the original
variable.

Common Algebraic Substitutions

1. Substitution for Polynomial Expressions

2. Substitution for Roots

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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3. Rational Function Substitution

4. Substitution for Products

5.

6. Substitution for Trigonometric Forms

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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10. 9 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF SINX AND COSX

Integrating rational functions of sin⁡x and cos⁡x\ involves strategies that simplify the
expression into manageable forms, often using trigonometric identities or substitutions.

Common Forms and Substitutions

● Simple Rational Functions

● Only Sines or Cosines

● Simplifying Using Tangent

Examples:

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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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10.10 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

Integration by Parts is a technique based on the Product Rule of differentiation. It
is useful when the integrand is a product of two functions, and we can decompose the integral
into simpler parts. The method is derived from the following formula:

Where:

● u is the function you will differentiate (i.e., du).

● dv is the function you will integrate (i.e., v).

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BSGE 2B
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ABITRIA, SOPHIA KATE L. CALCULUS 2
BSGE 2B
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10.11 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Integration of Rational Functions refers to the process of integrating a function that
can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials. In general, a rational function is of the
form:

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BSGE 2B
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where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials. The methods to integrate rational functions can vary
depending on the degree of the numerator P(x) and the denominator Q(x). Below are the key
techniques used in integrating rational functions:

Polynomial Long Division (for Improper Rational Functions) - If the degree of the
numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator, you should first apply
polynomial long division to rewrite the rational function into a simpler form. After dividing,
the integral is split into a polynomial term and a proper rational function (where the degree of
the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator).

Decomposition into Partial Fractions (for Proper Rational Functions) - If the degree of
the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, the rational function is a proper
rational function. You can integrate it using partial fraction decomposition, which breaks the
function into simpler fractions that can be integrated easily.

Steps for Partial Fraction Decomposition:

1. Factor the denominator (if possible).

2. Set up the decomposition based on the factors of the denominator.
3. Solve for the unknown constants by equating coefficients.
4. Integrate each term in the decomposition.

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BSGE 2B
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Integration by Substitution (for Special Forms) - For some rational functions, you may
need to apply substitution to simplify the integrand. This method is often useful when the
denominator is a complicated expression that can be simplified by substitution.

Special Forms of Rational Functions

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