School of Electrical Engineering and Computing

Department of Electrical Power and Control Engineering

Introduction to Control System

Prepared by: Urgo H.

May 2023, Adama
1
 Chapter Six
Controller Design Techniques
 Introduction
• All the control systems are designed to achieve specific objectives. The certain requirements are defined for the
control system.
• A well-designed control system must have less error, good accuracy, good speed of response, good relative stability,
good damping so that undue overshoots etc. can be avoided. Usually, first priority is given to gain, adjustment.
• Practically, it has been found that adjusting the gain alone, it is very difficult to obtain a satisfactory result. A higher
value of gain improves the steady-state behavior, but transient response of the system becomes poor. Therefore,
design of a control system is a challenging task for a control system engineer.
• To fulfill the required specification, it is required to redesign a control system. An external device, is added to the
system.
• This process of redesign by adding an external device is called compensation of control system, whereas the external
device is known as a compensator.
 TYPES OF COMPENSATION

• An external device termed compensator can be added in a system anywhere depending upon the
requirement. Depending upon the introduction of a compensator, there are the following types of
compensation:
1. Series compensation
2. Parallel compensation.
3. Series-parallel compensation
 Cont.…

1. Series compensation
• When the compensator is placed in series with the forward path transfer function of the plant, the
scheme is known as series compensation. It is also termed as cascade compensation.

R(s) + C(s)
Compensator Plant
-

(a) Cascade Compensation

• In this scheme, the signal flows from lower energy level towards a higher energy level. Therefore,
additional amplifiers are required to increase the gain as well as to provide necessary isolation. A
series scheme has more number of components compared to a parallel scheme.
 Cont.…

2. Parallel compensation
• If the feedback is taken from some internal element and a compensator is introduced in such a
feedback path to provide an additional internal feedback loop, this scheme is known as feedback
compensation or parallel compensation.
+ + C(s)
Original Part
- -

Compensator

(b) Parallel compensation

• In this scheme the flow of signal is from a higher energy level to a lower energy level point.
Therefore, the additional amplifiers are not required.
 Cont.…

3. Series-Parallel compensation
• Sometimes a situation demands to provide both types of compensations, series as well as feedback.
This scheme is known as series-parallel compensation.
R(s) + Compensator + C(s)
1 Original Part
- -

Compensator
2

c Series-Parallel compensation

• To select the proper compensation scheme, the nature of the signals available in the system, the
power levels at the various points, available components, the economic considerations, and the
designer's experience are important.
 Compensator Network

• A compensator is a physical device which may be an electrical network, mechanical unit, pneumatic,
hydraulic, or a combination of various types of devices. Here we discuss only the electrical networks
which are used for series compensation. The following electrical compensating networks are
generally used:
1. Lead network or lead compensator
2. Lag network or lag compensator
3. Lag-lead network or lag-lead compensator
• If a sinusoidal input is applied to a network, a sinusoidal steady-state output having a phase is
obtained.
• If the steady-state output leads the input, the network is called lead network.
 Cont.…

• If the steady-state output lags behind the input, the network is called lag network.
• Both phase lag and lead occur in the lag-lead network in different frequency regions. The phase lag occurs
in the low frequency region, whereas the phase lead occurs in the high frequency region.

R1 R1

C R2
Ei R2 Eo Ei
Eo
C

Phase Lead Network Phase lag network

 Cont.…

Methods for Compensator Design

1. Frequency Response Based Method
Main idea：By inserting the compensator, the Bode diagram of the original system is altered to achieve
performance requirements.
2. Root Locus Based Method
Main idea: Inserting the compensator introduces new open-loop zeros and poles to change the closed-loop
root locus to satisfy the requirement.
 Cont.…
• Frequency response based compensation
a. Phase lead compensation
b. Phase lag compensation
c. Phase lead-lag compensation
Fundamental rule for control design：
Each requirement relates to a different region of the frequency axis in the Bode diagram.
1. The steady-state error relates to the magnitude at low frequency.
2. The transient response requirement relates to the gain crossover frequency, which usually occurs at
higher frequencies.
 Frequency-Response specification

r  n 1  2 2
Resonant frequency
1
Mr 
Resonant peak 2 1  2

Bandwidth b   n 1  2 2  (1  2 2 ) 2  1

Gain crossover frequency c   n 4 4  1  2 2

2
  arctg
Phase margin 4 4  1  2 2
 Cont.…

Percentage overshoot 

1 2
%  e  100%

Settling time
3 4
tS  ,
n n
 Frequency-Response Approach for compensator design
Lead compensator
Cont.…
Cont.…
 Cont.…
Example: Design a lead compensator such that a closed loop system satisfies the following specification.
Static velocity constant 24/sec
phase margin 55 degree
Gain margin greater than 13dB
 Root-locus approach for compensator design
Lead compensator
Step 1: From the given specifications, find the desired locations of the dominant closed loop poles.
𝟏+𝑻𝒔
Step 2: Assume the lead compensator as, 𝑮𝒄 𝒔 = 𝑲𝒄 𝜶 𝟏+𝜶𝑻𝒔
,𝜶 < 𝟏

𝑲𝒄 is determined from the requirement of open loop gain

Step 3: Find the sum of angles at the desired location of one of the dominant closed loop poles with the open
loop poles and zeros of the original system. This angle must be odd multiple of 180. If it is not, calculate the
necessary angle 𝝓 to be added to get the sum as an odd multiple of 80. This 𝝓 must be contributed by lead
compensator. If 𝝓 is more than 60 then two or more lead networks may be needed . This 𝝓 , helps to
determine value of 𝜶 and T.
 Cont.…
Step 4: To determine 𝜶 and T for known 𝝓 draw the horizontal
line from dominant closed loop pole say P. Join origin to P, as
shown in figure below . Bisect the angle between the lines PA
𝝓
and PO. Draw the two line PC and PD that makes angle 𝟐 with

the bisector PB. The intersection of PC and PD with the

negative real necessary pole and zero of compensator.

Step 5: The open loop gain can be determined by applying the magnitude condition at point P.
Step 6: Chuck compensated systems satisfies adjust the compensator pole and zero till all the specifications
the satisfied.
Cont.…

Example:
 Cont.…
Lag compensator
Step 1: Draw the root locus of the uncompensated system and locate the dominant closed loop poles on the
root locus.
𝟏
(𝐬+ )
Step 2: As the lag compensator having transfer function, 𝑮𝒄 𝒔 = 𝑲𝒄 𝜶 𝑻
𝟏 ,𝜷 > 𝟏
(𝒔+ )
𝜷𝑻

Step 3: Calculate the static error constant specified in the problem.

Step 4: Determine amount of increase in static error constant necessary to satisfy the specification.
Step 5: Determine pole and zero of the compensator, such that they do not produce appreciable change in
the original locus but produce necessary increase in static error constant.
Step 6: Draw the root locus of compensated system. Locate dominant closed loop poles
Step 7: Adjust 𝑲𝒄 , from the magnitude condition so as to place the dominant closed loop poles at the desired
location
Cont.…

Example:
Cont.…
Cont.…
Cont.…
Cont.…
Cont.…
Phase lead compensation Phase lag compensation
Main Improve transient performance by using Improve the steady-state performance by
Idea phase lead characteristics using magnitude attenuation at the high-
frequency part
(1) Around ωc, the absolute value of slope is (1) Keep relative stability unchanged, but
reduced. Phase margin γ and gain margin reduce the steady-state error.
GM are increased. (2) Reduce ωc and then closed-loop
Effect (2) Increase the bandwidth bandwidth
(3) With bigger γ, overshoot is reduced. (3) For specific open-loop gain, γ, GM and
(4) Take no effect on the steady-state resonant peak Mr are all improved due to
performance. magnitude attenuation around ωc
(1) Broad bandwidth reduces the filtering Narrow Bandwidth increase the response
Weak for noise. time.
ness (2) For passive network implementation,
need an extra amplifier.
(1) Extra phase lead compensation is less (1) The phase lag of the uncompensated
than 550. system is fast around ωc.
(2) Require broad bandwidth and fast (2) Bandwidth and transient response are
Applic
ation
response satisfactory.
(3) No matter the noise at high-frequency (3) Require attenuation of noise
part. (4) The phase margin can be satisfied at
the low frequency.
PID Controller
 Cont.….
• It’s the simplest conventional controller
• The usefulness of PID controls lies in their general applicability to most control systems. In particular,
when the mathematical model of the plant is not known and therefore analytical design methods cannot
be used, PID controls prove to be most useful.
• In the field of process control systems, it is well known that the basic and modified PID control schemes
have proved their usefulness in providing satisfactory control, although in many given situations they
may not provide optimal control.
• It is interesting to note that more than half of the industrial controllers in use today are PID controllers
or modified PID controllers
 Cont.….
• The proportional mode (P): This produces a control action that is proportional to the error. The correcting
signal thus becomes bigger the bigger the error. Therefore, the error is reduced the amount of correction
is reduced and the correcting process slows down. A summing operational amplifier with an inverter can
be used as a proportional controller.
• The derivative mode(D): This produces a control action that is proportional to the rate at which the error
is changing. When there is a sudden change in the error signal the controller gives a large correcting signal.
When there is a gradual change only a small correcting signal is produced. An operational amplifier
connected as a differentiator circuit followed by another operational amplifier connected as an inverter
make an electronic derivative controller circuit.
 Cont.….
• The integral mode (I): This produces a control action that is proportional to the integral of the error
with time. Therefore, a constant error signal will produce an increasing correcting signal. The correction
continues to increase as long as the error persists.
• It is interesting to note that more than half of the industrial controllers in use today are PID controllers
or modified PID controllers. Because most PID controllers are adjusted on-site, many different types of
tuning rules have been proposed in the literature. Using these tuning rules, delicate and fine tuning of
PID controllers can be made on-site.
 Cont.….
• There are many ways by which a control unit can react to an error and supply an output for correcting
elements.
1. On-Off (Bang Bang) Control
2. Proportional (P)
3. Proportional plus Integral (PI)
4. Proportional plus Derivative (PD)
5. Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID)
 Cont.….
• The two-step mode: The controller is just a switch which is activated by the error signal and supplies
just an on-off correcting signal. Example of such mode is the bimetallic thermostat.
 Cont.….
2. Proportional Control (P)
• In proportional mode, there is a continuous linear relation between value of the controlled variable and
position of the final control element.
 Cont.….
• As the gain is increased the system responds faster to changes in set-point but becomes progressively
under damped and eventually unstable.
 Cont.….
3. Proportional Plus Integral Controllers (PI)
• Integral control describes a controller in which the output rate of change is dependent on the
magnitude of the input.
• Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a slower rate of change of the output. Integral signal is
sum of all instantaneous values, so when integral and proportional terms are added the movement get
accelerated towards the set point.
 Cont.….

4. Proportional Plus derivative Control (PD)

• The stability and overshoot problems that arise when a proportional controller is used at high gain can

be reduced by adding a term proportional to the time-derivative of the error signal.

• The value of the damping can be adjusted to achieve a critically damped response.

• The higher the error signal rate of change, the sooner the final control element is positioned to the

desired value.
Cont.….
 Cont.….
• The added derivative action reduces initial overshoot of the measured variable, and therefore aids in
stabilizing the process sooner.
• This control mode is called proportional plus derivative (PD) control because the derivative section responds
to the rate of change of the error signal.
• You can think of derivative control as a crude prediction of the error in future, based on the current slope of
the error.
 Cont.….
5. Proportional Integral Derivative Control (PID)
• Although PD control deals neatly with the overshoot and ringing problems associated with proportional
control it does not cure the problem with the steady-state error.
• Fortunately it is possible to eliminate this while using relatively low gain by adding an integral term to
the control function which becomes
Cont.….
Cont.….
 Cont.….
Tips for Designing a PID Controller
1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved
2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time
3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error
5. Adjust each of K, K₁, and K₁ until you obtain a desired overall response.
• Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three controllers (proportional,
derivative, and integral) into a single system, if not necessary.
• For example, if a PI controller gives a good enough response (like the above example), then you don't
need to implement derivative controller to the system. Keep the controller as simple as possible.
PID Tuning
 Cont.….
The tuning parameters essentially determine:
• How much correction should be made? The magnitude of the correction (change in controller output) is
determined by the proportional mode of the controller.
• How long the correction should be applied? The duration of the adjustment to the controller output is
determined by the integral mode of the controller.
• How fast should the correction be applied? The speed at which a correction is made is determined by
the derivative mode of the controller.
 Cont.….
• The process of selecting the controller parameters (Kp, Ti and Ta) to meet given performance
specifications is known as controller tuning
• Users of control systems are frequently faced with the task of adjusting the controller parameters to
obtain a desired behavior.
• There are many different ways to do this.
• One approach is to go through the conventional steps of modeling and control design as described in
the previous section.
• Since the PID controller has so few parameters, a number of special empirical methods have also been
developed for direct adjustment of the controller parameters.
 Cont.….
• The first tuning rules were developed by Ziegler and Nichols.
• Their idea was to perform a simple experiment, extract some features of process dynamics from the
experiment and determine the controller parameters from the features
• PID Tuning Such rules suggest a set of values of Kp, Ti and Ta that will give a stable operation of the
system. However, the resulting system may exhibit a large maximum overshoot in the step response,
which is unacceptable.
• In such a case we need series of fine tunings until an acceptable result is obtained. In fact, the Ziegler-
Nichols tuning rules give an educated guess for the parameter values and provide a starting point for
fine tuning, rather than giving the final settings for Kp, Ti and Td in a single shot.
 Cont.….
• Zeigler-Nichol's PID Tuning Methods Ziegler and Nichols proposed rules for determining values of the
Kp, Ti and Ta based on the transient response characteristics of a given plant.
• Such determination of the parameters of PID controllers or tuning of PID controllers can be made by
engineers on- site by experiments on the plant.
• There are two methods called Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules:
 First method (open loop Method)
 Second method (Closed Loop Method)
 Cont.….
Zeigler-Nichol's First Method
• In the first method, we obtain experimentally
the response of the plant to a unit-step input.
• If the plant involves neither integrator(s) nor
dominant complex- conjugate poles, then such
a unit-step response curve may look S-shaped
 Cont.….
• This method applies if the response to a step input exhibits an S-shaped curve.
• Such step-response curves may be generated experimentally or from a dynamic simulation of the plant.
 Cont.….
Zeigler-Nichol's Second Method
• In the second method, we first set Ti = ∞ and Td = 0. Using the proportional control action only (as
shown in figure), increase Kp, from 0 to a critical value Kcr at which the output first exhibits sustained
oscillations.

• Plant If the output does not exhibit sustained oscillations for whatever value Kp, may take, then this
method does not apply.
 Cont.….
Thus, the critical gain K cr and the corresponding period P cr are determined.
 Cont.….
Example: Design a PID controller for a system with open loop transfer function given below to meet the
following specification.
a. Closed loop dominant pole at s=-4+j
b. Steady state error for unit ramp input < 0.05

100
𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 20)
The End