.

SLIDES BY
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.
.
.
.
.
. John Loucks
.
. St. Edward’s Univ.
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.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 1
Introduction
Body of Knowledge
Problem Solving and Decision Making
Quantitative Analysis and Decision Making
Quantitative Analysis
Models of Cost, Revenue, and Profit
Quantitative Methods in Practice

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 Body of Knowledge

The body of knowledge involving quantitative

approaches to decision making is referred to as
• Management Science
• Operations Research
• Decision Science
It had its early roots in World War II and is flourishing
in business and industry due, in part, to:
• numerous methodological developments (e.g.
simplex method for solving linear programming
problems)
• a virtual explosion in computing power

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Problem Solving and Decision Making

7 Steps of Problem Solving

(First 5 steps are the process of decision making)
1. Identify and define the problem.
2. Determine the set of alternative solutions.
3. Determine the criteria for evaluating alternatives.
4. Evaluate the alternatives.
5. Choose an alternative (make a decision).
---------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Implement the selected alternative.
7. Evaluate the results.

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 Quantitative Analysis and Decision Making

Decision-Making Process

Structuring the Problem Analyzing the Problem

Define Identify Determine Evaluate Choose

the the the the an
Problem Alternatives Criteria Alternatives Alternative

• Problems in which the objective is to find the best solution

with respect to one criterion are referred to as single-
criterion decision problems.
• Problems that involve more than one criterion are referred
to as multicriteria decision problems.

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What makes this choice phase so difficult is that the criteria are
probably not all equally important, and no one alternative is “best”
with regard to all criteria. When faced with a multicriteria decision
problem, the third step in the decision-making process often
includes an assessment of the relative importance of the criteria.
Although we will present a method for dealing with situations like
this one later in the text, for now let us suppose that after a careful
evaluation of the data in Table 1.1, you decide to select alternative
3. Alternative 3 is thus referred to as the decision.
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 Qualitative Analysis and Decision Making

Analysis Phase of Decision-Making Process

Qualitative Analysis
• based largely on the manager’s judgment and
experience
• includes the manager’s intuitive “feel” for the
problem
• is more of an art than a science

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 Quantitative Analysis and Decision Making

Analysis Phase of Decision-Making Process

Quantitative Analysis
• analyst will concentrate on the quantitative facts
or data associated with the problem
• analyst will develop mathematical expressions
that describe the objectives, constraints, and
other relationships that exist in the problem
• analyst will use one or more quantitative
methods to make a recommendation

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Quantitative Analysis and Decision Making

Potential Reasons for a Quantitative Analysis

Approach to Decision Making
• The problem is complex.
• The problem is very important.
• The problem is new.
• The problem is repetitive.

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 Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative Analysis Process

• Model Development
• Data Preparation
• Model Solution
• Report Generation

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 Model Development

Models are representations of real objects or situations

Three forms of models are:
• Iconic models - physical replicas (scalar representations)
of real objects. The model airplane and toy truck are
examples of iconic models.
• Analog models - physical in form, but do not physically
resemble the object being modeled. The speedometer of
an automobile, a thermometer are analog models.
• Mathematical models - represent real world problems
through a system of mathematical formulas and
expressions based on key assumptions, estimates, or
statistical analyses

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Advantages of Models

Generally, experimenting with models (compared to

experimenting with the real situation):
• requires less time
• is less expensive
• involves less risk
The more closely the model represents the real
situation, the more accurate the conclusions and
predictions will be.

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 Mathematical Models

Objective Function – a mathematical expression that

describes the problem’s objective, such as maximizing
profit or minimizing cost
• Consider a simple production problem. Suppose x
denotes the number of units produced and sold
each week, and the firm’s objective is to maximize
total weekly profit. With a profit of $10 per unit, the
objective function is 10x.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Mathematical Models

Constraints – a set of restrictions or limitations, such as

production capacities
To continue our example, a production capacity
constraint would be necessary if, for instance, 5
hours are required to produce each unit and only 40
hours are available per week. The production
capacity constraint is given by 5x < 40.
The value of 5x is the total time required to produce
x units; the symbol < indicates that the production
time required must be less than or equal to the 40
hours available.

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 Mathematical Models

Uncontrollable Inputs – environmental factors that are

not under the control of the decision maker
In the preceding mathematical model, the profit per
unit ($10), the production time per unit (5 hours),
and the production capacity (40 hours) are
environmental factors not under the control of the
manager or decision maker.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Mathematical Models

Decision Variables – controllable inputs; decision

alternatives specified by the decision maker, such as
the number of units of a product to produce.
In the preceding mathematical model, the
production quantity x is the controllable input to
the model.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Mathematical Models

A complete mathematical model for our simple

production problem is:

Maximize 10x (objective function)

subject to: 5x < 40 (constraint)
x>0 (constraint)

[The second constraint reflects the fact that it is not

possible to manufacture a negative number of units.]

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 Mathematical Models

Deterministic Model – if all uncontrollable inputs to

the model are known and cannot vary
Stochastic (or Probabilistic) Model – if any
uncontrollable are uncertain and subject to variation
Stochastic models are often more difficult to analyze.
In our simple production example, if the number of
hours of production time per unit could vary from
3 to 6 hours depending on the quality of the raw
material, the model would be stochastic.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Mathematical Models

Cost/benefit considerations must be made in

selecting an appropriate mathematical model.
Frequently a less complicated (and perhaps less
precise) model is more appropriate than a more
complex and accurate one due to cost and ease of
solution considerations.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Transforming Model Inputs into Output

Uncontrollable Inputs
(Environmental Factors)

Controllable
Output
Inputs Mathematical
(Projected
(Decision Model
Results)
Variables)

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Data Preparation

Data preparation is not a trivial step, due to the time

required and the possibility of data collection errors.
A moderate-sized linear programming model with 50
decision variables and 25 constraints (except sign
constraints) could have over 1300 data elements!
Often, a fairly large data base is needed.
Information systems specialists might be needed.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Model Solution

The analyst attempts to identify the alternative (the

set of decision variable values) that provides the
“best” output for the model.
The “best” output is the optimal solution.
If the alternative does not satisfy all of the model
constraints, it is rejected as being infeasible, regardless
of the objective function value.
If the alternative satisfies all of the model constraints,
it is feasible and a candidate for the “best” solution.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Model Solution

▪ Trial-and-Error Solution for Production Problem

Production Projected Total Hours Feasible
Quantity Profit of Production Solution
0 0 0 Yes
2 20 10 Yes
4 40 20 Yes
6 60 30 Yes
8 80 40 Yes
10 100 50 No
12 120 60 No

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 Model Solution

A variety of software packages are available for

solving mathematical models.
• Microsoft Excel
• LINGO

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Model Testing and Validation

Often, goodness/accuracy of a model cannot be

assessed until solutions are generated.
Small test problems having known, or at least
expected, solutions can be used for model testing and
validation.
If the model generates expected solutions, use the
model on the full-scale problem.
If inaccuracies or potential shortcomings inherent in
the model are identified, take corrective action such
as:
• Collection of more-accurate input data
• Modification of the model
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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Report Generation

A managerial report, based on the results of the

model, should be prepared.
The report should be easily understood by the
decision maker.
The report should include:
• the recommended decision
• other pertinent information about the results (for
example, how sensitive the model solution is to
the assumptions and data used in the model)

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Implementation and Follow-Up

Successful implementation of model results is of

critical importance.
Secure as much user involvement as possible
throughout the modeling process.
Continue to monitor the contribution of the model.
It might be necessary to refine or expand the model.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Models of Cost, Revenue, and Profit

Nowlin Plastics produces a variety of compact disc (CD)

storage cases. Nowlin’s bestselling product is the CD-50.
Suppose the setup cost for the CD-50 is $3000; this setup
cost is a fixed cost and is incurred regardless of the
number of units eventually produced. In addition,
suppose that variable labor and material costs are $2 for
each unit produced. The cost–volume model for
producing x units of the CD-50 is C(x) = 3000 + 2x .
Suppose that each CD-50 storage unit sells for $5. The
model for total revenue is R(x) = 5x .
The profit is P(x) = R(x) – C(x) = 3x – 3000 .

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Models of Cost, Revenue, and Profit

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Models of Cost, Revenue, and Profit

Iron Works, Inc. manufactures two products made

from steel and just received this month's allocation of b
pounds of steel. It takes a1 pounds of steel to make a unit
of product 1 and a2 pounds of steel to make a unit of
product 2.
Let x1 and x2 denote this month's production level of
product 1 and product 2, respectively. Denote by p1 and
p2 the unit profits for products 1 and 2, respectively.
Iron Works has a contract calling for at least m units
of product 1 this month. The firm's facilities are such that
at most u units of product 2 may be produced monthly.
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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Iron Works, Inc.

Mathematical Model
• The total monthly profit =
(profit per unit of product 1)
x (monthly production of product 1)
+ (profit per unit of product 2)
x (monthly production of product 2)
= p1x1 + p2x2
We want to maximize total monthly profit:
Max p1x1 + p2x2

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 Example: Iron Works, Inc.

Mathematical Model (continued)

• The total amount of steel used during monthly
production equals:
(steel required per unit of product 1)
x (monthly production of product 1)
+ (steel required per unit of product 2)
x (monthly production of product 2)
= a1x1 + a2x2
This quantity must be less than or equal to the
allocated b pounds of steel:
a1x1 + a2x2 < b

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 Example: Iron Works, Inc.

Mathematical Model (continued)

• The monthly production level of product 1 must
be greater than or equal to m :
x1 > m
• The monthly production level of product 2 must
be less than or equal to u :
x2 < u
• However, the production level for product 2
cannot be negative:
x2 > 0

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 Example: Iron Works, Inc.

Mathematical Model Summary

Max p1x1 + p2x2 Constraints

s.t. a1x1 + a2x2 < b
Objective x1 > m
Function
x2 < u
x2 > 0

“Subject to”

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 Example: Iron Works, Inc.

Question:
Suppose b = 2000, a1 = 2, a2 = 3, m = 60, u = 720,
p1 = 100, and p2 = 200. Rewrite the model with these
specific values for the uncontrollable inputs.
Answer:
Substituting, the model is:

Max 100x1 + 200x2

s.t. 2x1 + 3x2 < 2000
x1 > 60
x2 < 720
x2 > 0
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 Example: Iron Works, Inc.

Question:
The optimal solution to the current model is x1 =
60 and x2 = 626 2/3. If the product were engines,
explain why this is not a true optimal solution for the
"real-life" problem.
Answer:
One cannot produce and sell 2/3 of an engine.
Thus the problem is further restricted by the fact that
both x1 and x2 must be integers. (They could remain
fractions if it is assumed these fractions are work in
progress to be completed the next month.)

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 Example: Iron Works, Inc.
Uncontrollable Inputs
$100 profit per unit Prod. 1
$200 profit per unit Prod. 2
2 lbs. steel per unit Prod. 1
3 lbs. Steel per unit Prod. 2
2000 lbs. steel allocated
60 units minimum Prod. 1
720 units maximum Prod. 2
0 units minimum Prod. 2

60 units Prod. 1 Max 100(60) + 200(626.67) Profit = $131,333.33

626.67 units Prod. 2 s.t. 2(60) + 3(626.67) < 2000 Steel Used = 2000
60 > 60
Controllable Inputs 626.67 < 720 Output
626.67 > 0
Mathematical Model
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 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.
Ponderosa Development Corporation (PDC) is a small real estate
developer that builds only one style cottage. The selling price of the
cottage is $115,000.
Land for each cottage costs $55,000 and lumber, supplies, and other
materials run another $28,000 per cottage. Total labor costs are
approximately $20,000 per cottage.

Ponderosa leases office space for $2,000 per

month. The cost of supplies, utilities, and
leased equipment runs another $3,000 per
month. The one salesperson of PDC is paid
a commission of $2,000 on the sale of each
cottage. PDC has seven permanent office
employees whose monthly salaries
are given on the right figure.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Question:
Identify all costs and denote the variable cost
(marginal cost) and marginal revenue for each
cottage.
Answer:
The monthly salaries total $35,000 and monthly
office lease and supply costs total another $5,000.
This $40,000 is a monthly fixed cost.
The total cost of land, material, labor, and sales
commission per cottage, $105,000, is the marginal
cost for a cottage.
The selling price of $115,000 is the marginal
revenue per cottage.
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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Question:
Write the monthly cost function c(x), revenue
function r(x), and profit function p(x).
Answer:
c(x) = variable cost * the quantity + fixed cost
= 105,000 * x + 40,000
r(x) = 115,000 * x
p(x) = r(x) - c(x) = 10,000 * x - 40,000

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Question:
What is the breakeven point for monthly sales
of the cottages?
Answer:
r(x ) = c(x )
115,000x = 105,000x + 40,000
Solving, x = 4 cottages.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Question:
What is the monthly profit if 12 cottages per
month are built and sold?
Answer:
p(12) = 10,000(12) - 40,000 = $80,000 monthly profit

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

1200
Total Revenue =
Thousands of Dollars

1000
115,000x
800
600
Total Cost =
400
40,000 + 105,000x
200
Break-Even Point = 4 Cottages
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Cottages Sold (x)
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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Using Excel for Breakeven Analysis

A spreadsheet software package such as Microsoft

Excel can be used to perform a quantitative analysis of
Ponderosa Development Corporation.
We will enter the problem data in the top portion of
the spreadsheet.
The bottom of the spreadsheet will be used for model
development.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Formula Spreadsheet

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Question
What is the monthly profit if 12 cottages are built
and sold per month?

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Spreadsheet Solution

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Question:
What is the breakeven point for monthly sales
of the cottages?
Spreadsheet Solution:
• One way to determine the break-even point using a
spreadsheet is to use the Goal Seek tool.
• Microsoft Excel ‘s Goal Seek tool allows the user to
determine the value for an input cell that will cause
the output cell to equal some specified value.
• In our case, the goal is to set Total Profit to zero by
seeking an appropriate value for Sales Volume.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Spreadsheet Solution: Goal Seek Approach

Using Excel ’s Goal Seek Tool
Step 1: Select Data tab at the top of the ribbon
Step 2: Select What-If Analysis in Data Tools
group
Step 3: Select Goal Seek in What-If Analysis
Step 4: When the Goal Seek dialog box appears:
Enter B9 in the Set cell box
Enter 0 in the To value box
Enter B6 in the By changing cell box
Click OK

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 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.

Spreadsheet Solution: Goal Seek Approach

Completed Goal Seek Dialog Box

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 Example: Ponderosa Development Corp.
Spreadsheet Solution: Goal Seek Approach

Question: Find the sale volume s.t. the total profit

reaches 100,000?
Spreadsheet Solution: ???

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Quantitative Methods

Linear programming is a problem-solving approach

developed for situations involving maximizing or
minimizing a linear function subject to linear
constraints that limit the degree to which the objective
can be pursued.
Integer linear programming is an approach used for
problems that can be set up as linear programs with
the additional requirement that some or all of the
decision recommendations be integer values.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Quantitative Methods

Project scheduling: PERT (Program Evaluation and Review

Technique) and CPM (Critical Path Method) help managers
responsible for planning, scheduling, and controlling
projects that consist of numerous separate jobs or tasks
performed by a variety of departments, individuals, and so
forth.
Inventory models are used by managers faced with
the dual problems of maintaining sufficient
inventories to meet demand for goods and, at the
same time, incurring the lowest possible inventory
holding costs.

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 Quantitative Methods

Waiting line (or queuing) models help managers

understand and make better decisions concerning the
operation of systems involving waiting lines.
Simulation is a technique used to model the operation
of a system. This technique employs a computer
program to model the operation and perform
simulation computations.

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Quantitative Methods

Decision analysis can be used to determine optimal

strategies in situations involving several decision
alternatives and an uncertain or risk-filled pattern of
future events.
Forecasting methods are techniques that can be used
to predict future aspects of a business operation.
Markov-process models are useful in studying the evolution
of certain systems over repeated trials (such as describing
the probability that a machine, functioning in one period,
will function or break down in another period).

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 End of Chapter 1
Homework: 8-15 (pp. 20-22)

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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.