Chapter 4

Go Back to Your Roots

to Get Your Degree
In This Chapter
䊳 Solving quadratic equations by factoring
䊳 Exploring methods to solve quadratic equations that don’t factor
䊳 Figuring out how many roots a polynomial has
䊳 Finding the roots of a polynomial
䊳 Using roots and the leading coefficient test to graph polynomials

A polynomial is any expression with more than one term in it. The highest exponent on
any term in a polynomial is its degree. In this chapter, we review solving polynomial
equations to find the solutions, which are also called roots or zeros. We start with a review
of solving quadratic equations — polynomials where the highest exponent is two. Then we
move into equations with higher degrees and show you how to solve them. We also take a
look at using roots to factor polynomials and how to graph polynomials.

Reason Through It: Factoring a

Factorable Polynomial
Before getting started on the nitty-gritty, here’s some vocabulary you should know to be suc-
cessful in this chapter (and after):

Standard form: What most textbooks use to write a quadratic equation: ax2 + bx + c = 0
Quadratic term: The term with the second degree: ax2
Linear term: The term with the linear degree: bx
Constant: The term with zero degree: c
Leading coefficient: The number multiplying the term with the highest degree: a
74 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

In math, the process of breaking down a polynomial into the product of two polynomi-
als with a smaller degree is called factoring. In general, factoring works best on quad-
ratic equations and is always the first thing you should try when asked to solve
second-degree polynomials. Some types of factoring (like the difference of cubes or
grouping — more on those later in this section) may work on higher degree polynomi-
als, and you should always check them to see if they’re factorable first. When pre-
sented with a polynomial and asked to solve it, you should always try the following
methods of factoring, in order:

⻬ Greatest common factor: The greatest common factor, or GCF, is the biggest
expression that will divide into all the other terms. It’s a little like doing the dis-
tributive property backwards.
Break each term down into prime factors, look at all those factors to see what
they share in common (that’s your GCF), factor the GCF out from every term by
putting it in front of a set of parentheses, and leave the factors that aren’t the
GCF inside the parentheses.
⻬ The polynomial is a binomial: If the polynomial has two terms, check to see
whether it’s a difference of squares or the sum or difference of cubes.
Difference of squares a2 – b2 always factors to (a – b)(a + b)
Difference of cubes a3 – b3 always factors to (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
Sum of cubes a3 + b3 always factors to (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)
⻬ The polynomial is a trinomial: Try using the FOIL method backwards.
Some teachers teach the “guess and check method,” where you keep trying dif-
ferent pairs of binomials until you happen to stumble on the right one. This isn’t
fun by any means, and you could try all day long and never figure it out (or
maybe the polynomial is prime and won’t factor).
We recommend using the British method (also known as the FOIL method back-
wards) instead. Follow these steps to use this method:
1. Multiply the quadratic term and the constant term. You only do this in
your head (or somewhere else on your paper) and you only do it to pro-
ceed to the next step.
2. Write down all the factors of the result of Step 1, in pairs. Again, you do
this for you only and also to make sure that you list every possibility —
that’s why it’s not guess and check. If you list them all and none of them
work (see Step 3), you know your trinomial is prime.
3. Find the pair from the list in Step 2 that adds to produce the linear term.
Only one of them will work, and if none of them do, it’s prime.
4. Break up the linear term into two terms — the winning pair from Step 3.
You’ve now created a polynomial with four terms. Proceed to the next type of
factoring — a polynomial with more than three terms.
⻬ The polynomial has more than three terms: Try grouping the polynomial.
Group the polynomial into two sets of two. Find the GCF for each set and factor it
out. Find the GCF of the two remaining expressions and factor it out. You end up
with two binomials, exactly what you were looking for!

After you have the polynomial factored, you can use the zero product property to
solve it by setting each factor equal to 0 and solving.
 Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 75
Q. Solve the equation 3x2 + x – 2 = 0. Q. Solve the equation 3x3 – 3x = 0.

A. x = 2⁄3, x = –1. Multiply the quadratic term A. x = 0, 1, and –1. Always check for the GCF
and the constant term: (3x2)(–2) = –6x2. first and factor it out: 3x(x2 – 1) = 0. Now
Write down all factors of this, in pairs: –x recognize the “leftovers” as a difference of
and 6x, x and –6x, –2x and 3x, 2x and –3x. squares which factors again: 3x(x – 1)(x +
The pair that adds up to the linear term is 1) = 0. Set each factor equal to 0 and solve:
–2x and 3x. Split the middle term into two 3x = 0, x = 0. x – 1 = 0, x = 1. x + 1 = 0, x = –1.
using this pair: 3x2 – 2x + 3x – 2 = 0. Now
that you have four terms instead of three,
use grouping to factor it: x(3x – 2) + 1(3x –
2) = 0. Notice that the second two factors
only have a GCF of one; you still factor it
out. Now there’s a GCF again — both sets
of terms share (3x – 2) so that can factor
out to the front: (3x – 2)(x + 1) = 0. Finally,
use the zero product property to solve
the equation. If 3x – 2 = 0, then x = 2⁄3; and if
x + 1 = 0, then x = –1.

1. Solve the equation 2y2 + 5y = 12. 2. Solve the equation 16m2 – 8m + 1 = 0.

Solve It Solve It

3. Solve the equation x3 + x2 = 9x + 9. 4. Solve the equation .

Solve It Solve It
76 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Get Your Roots Done while Solving

a Quadratic Polynomial
What happens when a quadratic equation doesn’t factor? You’re done, right? Well, not
quite. You have two more methods you can use. One we always recommend (the quad-
ratic formula) and the other we don’t (completing the square). However, your teacher
may require you to use both, so we include both here. When you get to graph quadrat-
ics in Chapters 3 and 12, it’s easiest to do by completing the square and then using the
rules of transforming a parent function to get the graph.

Completing the square

Completing the square is the technique to use when you’re specifically told to do so.
Other than that, save it for graphing. Here are the steps:

1. Make sure the quadratic is written in standard form: ax2 + bx + c = 0.

2. Add (or subtract) the constant term from both sides: ax2 + bx = –c.
3. Factor out the leading coefficient from the quadratic term and the linear term:
.

4. Divide the new linear coefficient by two: ; square this: ;

and add this inside the parentheses: .

5. Keep the equation balanced by multiplying the leading coefficient by the

term you just added in Step 4: , and adding it to the other side:
.

6. Divide the leading coefficient from both sides: .

7. Factor the trinomial on the left side of the equation: .

8. Take the square root of both sides: .

9. Solve for x: .

Quadratic formula
Of course, those of you who know the quadratic formula should vaguely recognize the
steps above — they’re the derivation of the quadratic formula. All you have to do is
find the common denominator of both the fractions inside the square root, add them
together, and watch the square root simplify. Ultimately, you end up with the quadratic
formula:
 Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 77
Q. Solve the equation 5x2 – 12x – 2 = 0. . Don’t forget to

A. x= . This equation doesn’t factor, check your square roots and simplify them

so you use the quadratic formula to as well: . Finally, 2 goes into

solve it. a = 5, b = –12, c = –2. Plug these
every coefficient and constant in the answer,
values into the quadratic formula:
so it simplifies even further to .
. Now simplify it:

5. Solve x2 – 10 = 2x. 6. Solve 7x2 – x + 2 = 0.

Solve It Solve It

7. Solve x2 – 4x – 7 = 0 by completing the 8. Solve –2.31x2 – 4.2x + 6.7 = 0.

square.
Solve It
Solve It
86 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Answers to Questions on Finding Roots

a Solve the equation 2y2 + 5y = 12. The answer is y = 3⁄2, –4.
Begin with any quadratic equation by getting 0 on one side of the equation. In this case, sub-
tract 12 from both sides: 2y2 + 5y – 12 = 0. Now, begin factoring by multiplying the leading
term (2y2) and the constant term (–12) to get –24y2. List all the factors of this, in pairs: –y
and 24y, y and –24y, –2y and 12y, 2y and –12y, –3y and 8y, 3y and –8y, –4y and 6y, 4y and –6y.
The correct pair that adds up to the linear term is –3y and 8y. Split up the trinomial
into a polynomial using this magic pair: 2y2 – 3y + 8y – 12 = 0. Factor by grouping:
y(2y – 3) + 4(2y – 3) = 0. Look at both terms and notice that each contains (2y – 3) —
that’s a greatest common factor! Factor out the GCF: (2y – 3)(y + 4) = 0. Use the zero
product property: 2y – 3 = 0, 2y = 3, y = 3⁄2 and y + 4 = 0, y = –4.
b Solve the equation 16m2 – 8m + 1 = 0. The answer is m = 1⁄4.
How come there’s only one answer? Oh right, it’s a double root, probably. Let’s factor it and
find out: (16m2)(1) = 16m2, whose factors are m and 16m, –m and –16m, 2m and 8m, –2m and
–8m, 4m and 4m, and –4m and –4m. The winning pair is the last one. Now, create the poly-
nomial 16m2 – 4m – 4m + 1 = 0 and group it to get 4m(4m – 1) – 1(4m – 1) = 0. Next, factor
out the GCF: (4m – 1)(4m – 1) = 0. Notice that both factors are the same. Your answer is the
same root twice! 4m – 1 = 0, 4m = 1, m = 1⁄4.
c Solve the equation x3 + x2 = 9x + 9. The answer is x = –3, –1, and 3.
You need to get 0 on one side first: x3 + x2 – 9x – 9 = 0 will do. If you group the polynomial
into two sets of two, you get two greatest common factors: x2(x + 1) – 9(x + 1) = 0. This also
has a GCF in it: (x + 1)(x2 – 9) = 0. Notice that the right factor is a difference of squares and
will factor again: (x + 1)(x – 3)(x + 3) = 0. Set each factor equal to 0 and solve: x + 1 = 0,
x = –1; x – 3 = 0, x = 3; x + 3 = 0, x = –3.
d Solve the equation . The answer is x = 2 and x = –6.
We decided to make things different and get 0 on one side first. We’re kidding, of course!
You always have to get 0 on one side to solve polynomials that are second degree or higher.
. Next, we multiply every term by the least common multiple of 6 to get rid of
those pesky fractions. This gives you the polynomial x2 + 4x – 12 = 0. This factors to
(x + 6)(x – 2) = 0. The zero product property gets you to the two solutions: x = –6 and x = 2.
e Solve x2 – 10 = 2x. The answer is .
2
Get 0 on one side first: x – 2x – 10 = 0. This equation doesn’t factor, so use the quadratic
formula to solve.

x= = .

f Solve 7x2 – x + 2 = 0. The answer is no solution.

This equation also doesn’t factor, so use the quadratic formula to solve.

x= .

That negative sign under the square root tells you that you can stop — no solution exists.
 Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 87
g Solve x2 – 4x – 7 = 0 by completing the square. The answer is .
This time you’re asked to complete the square. Make sure you always follow your teacher’s dir-
ections. Begin by adding the 7 to both sides: x2 – 4x = 7. Now factor out the leading coefficient:
1(x2 – 4x) = 7. Take half of –4 and square it, and add that inside the parentheses to get 1(x2 – 4x +
4) = 7. You need to keep the equation balanced by multiplying the coefficient and the new term you
just added inside the parentheses and adding that to the opposite side. Because the coefficient
is 1, that’s not that hard: 1(x2 – 4x + 4) = 7 + 4. Now factor the trinomial: 1(x – 2)2 = 11, and divide
the leading coefficient: (x – 2)2 = 11. Square root both sides: x – 2 = ± 11 . Add the 2: x = .
h 2
Solve –2.31x – 4.2x + 6.7 = 0. The solutions are approximately –2.36 and 6.56.
Those ugly decimals should make you reach immediately for a calculator and plug away at the
quadratic formula.

x= .

Take your time through these types of problems. Simplify to get the final two answers: –2.36
and 6.56.
i Solve the equation 2x3 + 3x2 – 18x + 8 = 0. The zeros are x = –4, 1⁄2, and 2.
This third-degree equation has at most three real roots. The two changes in sign in f(x) show
two or zero positive roots, and the one change in sign in f(–x) shows one negative root. The list
of possible rational zeros is: ± 1, ± 1⁄2, ± 2, ± 4, ± 8.
Start off by testing x = 2.

2 2 3 –18 8
4 14 –8
2 7 –4 0
The depressed polynomial is 2x2 + 7x – 4, which factors to (2x – 1)(x + 4), which tells you that
the other two roots are x = 1⁄2 and –4.
j Solve the equation 12x4 + 13x3 – 20x2 + 4x = 0. The roots are x = 0, 1⁄4, –2, and 2⁄3.
Factor out the GCF in all the terms first: x(12x3 + 13x2 – 20x + 4) = 0. The first factor gives you
one solution immediately: x = 0. Now concentrate on the leftover polynomial inside the paren-
theses and solve: 12x3 + 13x2 – 20x + 4 = 0. This has three real roots, two or zero of which are
positive and one of which is negative. The list of possibilities is: ± 1, ± 1⁄2, ± 1⁄3, ± 1⁄4, ± 1⁄6, ± 1⁄12, ± 2,
± 2⁄3, ± 4, and ± 4⁄3.
Start off by testing x = –2.

–2 12 13 –20 4
–24 22 –4
12 –11 2 0
The depressed polynomial this time is 12x2 – 11x + 2. This factors to (4x – 1)(3x – 2), which gets
you to the last two roots: x = 1⁄4 and x = 2⁄3.
k Solve the equation x3 + 7x2 + 13x + 4 = 0. The answers are x = –4 and .
This cubic has a maximum of three real roots. None of them are positive and three or one of
them are negative. The list of possibilities this time (ignoring all the positives) is: –1, –2, and –4.