Chapter 3

Understanding the Function of Functions

In This Chapter
䊳 Determining whether a function is even or odd
䊳 Introducing parent functions and how to graph them
䊳 Graphing rational functions and piece-wise functions
䊳 Performing operations on functions
䊳 Finding the domain and range of functions
䊳 Working with inverses of functions

Y ou’ve seen the coordinate plane, where two number lines meet at a 90° angle. You know
that the horizontal axis is called the x-axis, and the vertical one is called the y-axis. You
also know that each point, or ordered pair, on the plane is named (x, y). But did you know
that a relation is a set of ordered pairs? The domain of the relation is the set of all the x
values, and the range is the set of all the y values. Note: If you ever run into different vari-
ables (like m and n), domain and range will be based alphabetically.

A function is a relation where every x in the domain pairs with one (and only one) y in the
range. The symbol for a function is f(x), read “function of x,” or simply “f of x.” Think of a func-
tion as a computer. Domain is input and range is output. You can’t put input in a computer
and get out different outputs; otherwise, your computer would be broken. If you had the
world’s simplest computer and all it did was multiply by 3, if you input 2 in the computer, you
better get an output of 6. Domain and range have a similarly correspondent relationship. We
explore the idea of functions and some properties of them in this chapter. Now get computing!

Battling Out Even versus Odd

If you’ve ever taken an art class, you’ve probably heard the term symmetry. It means that the
picture is balanced, with equal or similar parts on both sides of the painting. A graph can be
symmetrical as well. Algebra has three different types of symmetry:

⻬ Y-axis symmetry: Each point on the left side of the y-axis is mirrored by a point on the
right side, and vice versa.
⻬ X-axis symmetry: Each point above the x-axis is mirrored by a point below it, and vice
versa.
⻬ Origin symmetry: If you turn the graph upside down, it looks exactly the same.

In pre-calculus, functions take this idea of symmetry and use different terms to describe the
same idea. A function whose graph is symmetrical with respect to the y-axis is called an even
function. Basically, each input x and the opposite input –x give the same y value. In symbols,
textbooks write that f(x) = f(–x). A function whose graph is symmetrical with respect to the
origin is called an odd function. In plain English, each x value gives a y value, and its opposite
–x gives the opposite –y. This means that f(x) = –f(x).
42 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Q. Determine whether f(x) = x4 – x2 is even, A. This function is even. Replace x with –x

odd, or neither. in the equation and see what happens:
f(–x) = (–x)4 – (–x)2. A negative number to
an even power is a positive number. So
f(–x) = x4 – x2. Because you get the same
exact function as the original one, this
function is even.

1. Is f(x) = x3 – 1 even, odd, or neither? 2. Determine whether the given graph is

even, odd, or neither.
Solve It
Solve It

3. Sketch half the graph of f(x) = (x 2

−4 ) 4. Sketch half the graph of f(x) = 4x3 and use
symmetry to complete the graph.
and use symmetry to complete the graph.
Solve It
Solve It
54 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

17. Graph m(x) = 18. Graph n(x) =

Solve It Solve It

Operating on Functions:
No Scalpel Necessary
You’ve come to know (and maybe to love, too?) four basic operations in math: addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Well, in pre-calc, you take functions and
add, subtract, multiply, and divide them. By doing this, you create a brand new func-
tion. This is sometimes called combining functions. In general, you probably won’t be
asked to graph a combined function because it usually won’t be based on any of the
parent functions. If you were asked to graph a combined function, you’d have to plug
and chug your way through it by picking plenty of x-values to make sure you get an
accurate representation of the graph. You may also be asked to find one specific value
for a combined function — you get an x value and you just plug it in and see what hap-
pens. Exciting, we know!

For all questions in this section, you use three functions:

f(x) = x2 – 6x + 2
g(x) = 2x2 – 5x
h(x) = 3x + 2

Q. Find (f – g)(x). is really about collecting like terms and sub-

tracting them. Just be sure to watch your
A. (f – g)(x) = –x2 – x + 2. Because these two negative signs! (f – g)(x) = (x2 – 6x + 2) –
functions are both polynomials, solving this (2x2 – 5x) = x2 – 6x + 2 – 2x2 + 5x = –x2 – x + 2.
No problem!
 Chapter 3: Understanding the Function of Functions 55
19. Find (f + h)(x). 20. Find (fg)(x).

Solve It Solve It

21. Find (h/g)(x). Does this new function have 22. Find (g + h)(2).
any undefined values?
Solve It
Solve It
56 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Evaluating Composition of Functions

Placing one function inside of another (or, actually, in itself) is called a composition of
functions. If you have two functions f(x) and g(x), then the composition f(g(x)) takes g
and places it inside of f. This is also written as , and it’s basically read right to
left; the g function goes into the f function.

You use the same three functions from the last section here as well:

f(x) = x2 – 6x + 2
g(x) = 2x2 – 5x
h(x) = 3x + 2

Q. Find f(h(x)). root and a square cancel each other:

+ 2. Then simplify
A. . Start by substituting by combining any like terms:
the entire h function for every x in the f .
function: . A square

23. Find . 24. Find .

Solve It Solve It
 Chapter 3: Understanding the Function of Functions 57
25. Find h(f(x)). 26. Find .

Solve It Solve It

27. Find f(g(–1)). 28. Find g(h(3)).

Solve It Solve It
58 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Working Together: Domain and Range

Now that you’ve been combining and composing functions in the last two sections,
you may be wondering what’s happening with the domain and the range of the new
function. Remember that domain is input, usually x, and that range is output, usually y.
The truth is that the domain of the given function totally (like, for sure!) depends on
the operation being performed and the original functions. It’s possible that something
changed, and it’s also possible that nothing did. Typically, you’ll be asked to find the
domain of a combined function and not the range.

Pre-calc teachers and textbooks talk a lot about two functions whose domains are not
all real numbers:

⻬ Rational functions: The denominator of any fraction can’t be 0, so it’s possible

that some rational functions are undefined because of this fact. Set the denomi-
nator equal to 0 and solve to find the restrictions on your domain.
⻬ Square root functions (or any even root): The radicand (what’s under the root
sign) can’t ever be negative. This affects domain; to find out how, set the radi-
cand greater than or equal to 0 and solve. The solution to this inequality is your
domain.

Undefined values are also called excluded values, so be on the lookout for your text-
book to use that terminology as well. When you’re asked to find the domain of a com-
bined function, take your time. We can’t put it into a nice, neat package and give you
one rule that works all the time for finding a combined function’s domain. Take a look
at both of the original functions and ask yourself if their domains have any restric-
tions. These restrictions carry through and combine together to the new combined
function.

You use those same three functions you’ve been using for the last two sections:

f(x) = x2 – 6x + 2
g(x) = 2x2 – 5x
h(x) = 3x + 2

Q. Find the domain of f(h(x)). A. The domain is all numbers greater than
or equal to –2⁄3. Take a look at the original
two functions first. f(x) is a polynomial;
there are no restrictions on the domain.
However, h(x) is a square root function, so
the radicand has to be positive. 3x + 2 ≥ 0;
3x ≥ –2; x ≥ –2⁄3. The new combined function
must honor this domain as well.
 Chapter 3: Understanding the Function of Functions 59
29. Find the domain of . 30. Find the domain of h(f(x)).

Solve It Solve It

31. Find the domain of (f + h)(x). 32. Find the domain of (h/g)(x).

Solve It Solve It
60 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Finding the Inverse of a Function

(Who Knew It Was Lost?)
An inverse function undoes what a function does. You’ve seen inverse operations
before: Addition undoes subtraction and division undoes multiplication. It shouldn’t
surprise you, then, that functions have inverses. If f(x) is the original function, then
f–1(x) is the symbol for the inverse. This notation is only used for the inverse function
and is never meant to represent .

You’ll be asked to do three main things with inverses:

⻬ Given a function, graph its inverse

⻬ Find the inverse of a given function
⻬ Show that two functions are inverses of each other

In any case, all you need to know is that it’s all about input and output. If (a, b) is a
point in the original function, then (b, a) is a point in the inverse function. Domain and
range swap places from a function to its inverse. If asked to graph the inverse function,
graph the original and then swap all x and y values in each point to graph the inverse.
To find the inverse of a given function, literally take x and y (or f(x)) and switch them.
After the swap, change the name to the symbol for an inverse function, f–1(x), and solve
for the inverse. Lastly, to show that two functions f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each
other, place one inside the other using composition of functions, f(g(x)), and simplify
to show that you get x. Then do it the other way around with g(f(x)) to make sure it
works both ways.

Q. Find the inverse of f(x) = 5x – 4. Q. Determine whether f(x) = 3x – 1 and

g(x) = are inverses of each other.
A. f–1(x) = . First, switch x and f(x):
x = 5f(x) – 4. Name the new function by A. These two functions are inverses. First,
its correct name, the inverse function: find : 3( ) – 1. Simplify this
x = 5f–1(x) – 4. Now solve for the inverse:
expression: x + 1 – 1 = x. That’s what it’s
x + 4 = 5f–1(x); = f–1(x). supposed to be, so move onto the next
one: : = x. That one
works, too, so these two functions are
inverses of each other.
 Chapter 3: Understanding the Function of Functions 61
33. Graph the inverse of g(x) = x−2 . 34. Find the inverse of k(x) = .

Solve It Solve It

35. Determine whether f(x) = x3 – 1 and 36. Determine whether f(x) = and
g(x) = are inverses of each other. g(x) = 1 – 2x are inverses of each other.
Solve It Solve It
62 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Answers to Questions on Functions

a Is f(x) = x3 – 1 even, odd, or neither? The answer is neither.
Find f(–x) = (–x)3 – 1 = –x3 – 1. This isn’t the same function as the original, so the answer isn’t
even. It’s also not the exact opposite of the original, so the answer isn’t odd. The answer is that
it’s neither.
b Determine whether the given graph is even, odd, or neither. The answer is odd.
If you look at the graph upside down, it looks exactly the same — that means it’s odd.
c Sketch half of the graph of f(x) = x 2 − 4 and use symmetry to complete the graph. See the
graph for the answer.
Find f(–x) first and discover that the function doesn’t change at all, which means you’ve got an
even function. If you plug and chug some negative values for x, you know that the positive
values for each corresponding x will be the same.
For example, f(–2) = 0, so you know that f(2) is also 0. f(–3) = 5 , and so does f(3). f(–5) = 21 ,
and so does f(5). Knowing these points gives you the graph.

f(x) = x2 – 4

d Sketch half the graph of f(x) = 4x3 and use symmetry to complete the graph. See the graph for
the answer.
If you find f(–x), you get –4x3, which is the exact opposite of the original function, meaning that you
have an odd graph. Each x gives you a value f(x), and each opposite –x gives the opposite –f(x).
Plug and chug some values to get the graph: f(–3) = –108, so f(3) = 108. f(2) = 32, so f(–2) = –32.
f(–1) = –4, so f(1) = 4. Put these and as many other points as you’d like on the graph.

f(x) = 4x3

e Graph the function a(x) = –2(x – 1)2. See the graph for the answer.
This function takes the parent quadratic graph and moves it to the right by 1. The vertical
transformation is 2, making each point twice as tall. The negative sign is a reflection, turning
the graph upside down. Put all these pieces together to get the graph.
68 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

x3 + 2 if x < 0
x2 + 2 if 0 < x < 2
x + 2 if x > 2

r Graph n(x) = . See the previous graph for the answer.

This piece-wise function is different because the middle piece is defined only at one point.
When x = 3, y = –3; that’s it. The first piece follows the absolute value graph that has been
shifted to the right by 1. The third piece is also an absolute value graph, but it has been shifted
down 1. Here’s the not-really-last graph.

x – 1 if x < –3
–3 if x = –3
x – 1 if x > –3

s Find (f + h)(x). The answer is x 2 − 6 x + 2 + 3 x + 2 .

Take the f function and add the h function to it. Because one is a polynomial and the other is a
square root, there are no pesky like terms. The answer is (f + h)(x) = x − 6 x + 2 + 3 x + 2 .
2

t Find (fg)(x). The answer is 2x4 – 17x3 + 34x – 10x.

Start off by writing out what you’ve been asked to find — the product of f and g: (fg)(x) =
(x2 – 6x + 2)(2x2 – 5x). Distribute each term of the left polynomial to each term of the right
polynomial to get 2x4 – 12x3 + 4x2 – 5x3 + 30x2 – 10x. Next, combine the like terms and get
(fg)(x) = 2x4 – 17x3 + 34x2 – 10x.
 Chapter 3: Understanding the Function of Functions 69
u Find (h/g)(x). Are there any undefined values for this new function? The answer is and
yes, there are undefined values: x = 0 and x = 5⁄2.
This time you’re asked to find the quotient of h and g, with h on the top and g on the bottom.
Because they’re different types of functions, they won’t simplify at all. This means your answer
is, simply, . Because the denominator now has a polynomial, there may be undefined
values. Set the denominator equal to 0 to start: 2x2 – 5x = 0. Solve by factoring out the GCF:
x(2x – 5). This has two solutions: x = 0 and x = 5⁄2. These are the undefined values.
v Find (g + h)(2). The answer is 2 x 2 − 5 x + 3 x + 2 .
Because you’re adding another polynomial and a square root, there are no like terms. The
answer is 2 x 2 − 5 x + 3 x + 2 .
w Find . The answer is 4x4 – 20x3 + 13x2 + 30x + 2.
Take the g function and start plugging into f everywhere it says x: (2x2 – 5x)2 – 6(2x2 – 5x) + 2.
Multiply everything out first: 4x4 – 20x3 + 25x2 – 12x2 + 30x + 2. Now combine like terms to get
the answer: = 4x4 – 20x3 + 13x2 + 30x + 2.
x Find . The answer is 2x4 – 24x3 + 75x2 – 18x – 2.
This time, place f into g where it says x: 2(x2 – 6x + 2)2 – 5(x2 – 6x + 2). Square the polynomial
on the left first by multiplying x2 – 6x + 2 by itself and distributing each term by each term.
This is quite long, so we show you the steps so you can follow along. 2(x4 – 6x3 + 2x2 – 6x3 + 36x2 –
12x + 2x2 – 12x + 4) – 5(x2 – 6x + 2). Combine like terms: 2(x4 – 12x3 + 40x2 – 24x + 4) – 5(x2 – 6x + 2).
Distribute the coefficients next: 2x4 – 24x3 + 80x2 – 48x + 8 – 5x2 + 30x – 10. Combine the like
terms to end up with the final answer: = 2x4 – 24x3 + 75x2 – 18x – 2.
y Find h(f(x)). The answer is 3 x 2 − 18 x + 8 .
Substitute f in for x in the h function: . Distribute that 3 inside the root:
. Combine those like terms to end up with the answer: h(f(x)) = 3 x 2 − 18 x + 8 .
A Find . The answer is x4 – 12x3 + 34x2 + 12x – 6.
This time, place f into itself everywhere it says x: (x2 – 6x + 2)2 – 6(x2 – 6x + 2) + 2. You went
through the process of squaring that polynomial once before in question 24, so we won’t do
it again here. When you multiply everything out, you get x4 – 12x3 + 40x2 – 24x + 4 – 6x2 + 36x –
12 + 2. Combine like terms to end up with the answer: = x4 – 12x3 + 34x2 + 12x – 6.
B Find f(g(–1)). The answer is 9.
You already found f(g(x)) in question 23 — it’s 4x4 – 20x3 + 13x2 + 30x + 2. Now, substitute –1
in for x: 4(–1)4 – 20(–1)3 + 13(–1)2 + 30(–1) + 2. Simplify by dealing with all the exponents first:
4(1) – 20(–1) + 13(1) + 30(–1) + 2. Simplify further by multiplying: 4 + 20 + 13 – 30 + 2. Add and
subtract to finally end up with 9.
C Find g(h(3)). The answer is 22 – 5 11 .
You didn’t find g(h(x)) in any other problem, but that doesn’t mean you have to. Remember
that these are read right to left. This question is asking you to plug 3 into h and then plug that
answer into g. Start with h(3) = . Now plug this value in g and find g ( 11 ) :
= 22 – 5 11 .
70 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

D Find the domain of . The domain is all real numbers.

You found the composition of in question 23, and you ended up with a longish
4 3 2
polynomial: = 4x – 20x + 13x + 30x + 2. Because it’s a polynomial, there’s nothing
weird about the domain. It’s all real numbers.
E Find the domain of h(f(x)). The domain is x < 0.48 and x > 5.52.
h(f(x)) = 3 x − 18 x + 8 , which you found in question 25. This puts a polynomial under a
2

square root. A square root’s radicands have to be positive. Find where 3x2 – 18x + 8 is positive by
setting it greater than or equal to 0 and solving using the quadratic formula. This gives you two
critical values: . Place these test values on a number line and look at the intervals that
are determined by them: x < 0.48, 0.48 < x < 5.52, and x > 5.52. If you plug test values from each
interval into the inequality, you discover which intervals work and which don’t. In this case,
x has to be less than 0.48 and bigger than 5.52, thus the answer x < 0.48 and x > 5.52.
F Find the domain of (f + h)(x). The domain is x ≥ –2⁄3.
(f + h)(x) = x 2 − 6 x + 2 + 3 x + 2 . This adds a square root to a polynomial, so the new com-
bined function must follow all the rules that the square root function did by itself.
G Find the domain of (h/g)(x). The domain is x ≥ –2⁄3, except x = 0 and x = 5⁄2.

(h/g)(x) = . The square root in the numerator restricts the domain to x ≥ –2⁄3. The
polynomial in the denominator has undefined values x = 0 and x = 5⁄2. These are both in the
restricted domain, so they become part of the answer. You express it as one neat sentence:
“The domain is x ≥ –2⁄3, except x = 0 and x = 5⁄2.”
H Graph the inverse of g(x) = ( x − 2 ) . See the previous graph for the answer.
No more graphing! We mean it this time . . . in this chapter anyway. Start off by graphing the
square root function shifted to the right by 2. Points on this graph include (2, 0), (3, 1), and
(6, 2). Flip them to get (0, 2), (1, 3), and (2, 6) — all points on the inverse function graph. We
show both in the graph.

f-1(x)

f(x)
 Chapter 3: Understanding the Function of Functions 71
I Find the inverse of k(x) = . The answer is f–1(x) = .

Switch x and f(x) and name the new inverse by its real name: . Notice the inverse

is in the numerator and the denominator. The only way you can solve for it is to get rid of the
fraction first by multiplying both sides by the denominator and getting x(f–1(x) – 1) = 3f–1(x).
Distribute the x and get x f–1(x) – x = 3 f–1(x). Get everything with the inverse in it to one side
and everything else to the other side: xf–1(x) – 3f–1(x) = x. Factor out the GCF on the left, the
inverse function: f–1(x)(x – 3) = x. Now divide the leftovers to solve for the inverse: f–1(x) = .

J Determine whether f(x) = x3 – 1 and g(x) = are inverses of each other. The answer is that
they’re not inverses.
First, find the composition . = . This doesn’t simplify to get x, so
you can stop. They’re not inverses.
K Determine whether f(x) = and g(x) = 1 – 2x are inverses of each other. The answer is yes,
they are inverses.

= . One down, one to go.

= . Okay, you checked both; it’s official, they’re

inverses.
72 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)