A

TEXT BOOK
OF
MECHANICAL OPERATION
FOR
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
(DIPLOMA COURSES)

WRITTEN BY

Sh.VIVEK KUMAR SINGH

Lecturer M K Government Polytechnic Jattal (Panipat)
 MECHANICAL OPERATION

SYLLABUS

RATIONALE
The operations of chemical plants require use of material handling and size reduction
equipments, screens, agitator, mixers, centrifuges, cyclones, filters and other mechanical
separation equipments. Therefore students must have information about the principles,
construction and working of these equipments so that they can plan for their efficient use in
plants.
COURSE OUTCOMES
After successful completion of the course the students will able to:
CO1: Explain different properties of particulates solids and carry out their analysis
CO2: Use different types of size reduction equipments used in chemical industries.
CO3: Apply the concept of screen analysis and different screening equipments.
CO4: Use filtration and sedimentation operations and their equipments.
CO5: Apply concept of centrifuge and cyclone separator used in chemical industries.
CO6: Describe the concept of liquid-liquid and solid -liquid mixing and their equipments.
DETAILED CONTENTS
UNIT I
Characterization of Solid Particles
Particle shape, particle size, mixed particle sizes and size analysis, expressions for specific
surface of mixture, average particle size, number of particles in mixture (no derivation).
UNIT II
Size Reduction
Size reduction, Necessity of size reduction, Principle of size reduction, expression for power
required by machines, Rittinger’s law, Bond’s law and Kick’s law, Work index.
Size reduction equipment: classification and names; study of machines: Crushers: - Jaw crusher,
Smooth roll crusher. Grinders: - Hammer mill, Ball mill. Ultrafine Grinder: - Fluid energy mill.
Cutting Machines: - Rotary knife cutter.
UNIT III
Screening
Screen analysis:- Tyler standard screen series (or U.S sieve series), Define screening,
classification of screen, mesh no., screen opening, Types of Screening equipment: their
construction, working; Grizzlies and Trommels, comparison of Grizzlies and Trommels.,
vibrating screens.
UNIT IV
Mechanical separations
Definition of filtration, filter media, characteristics of filter media, filter aids and its
characteristics, Types of filtration: (i) cake filtration (ii) deep bed filtration. Classification of
filter equipment: (i) clarifying filter (ii) cake filter. Clarifying filter- principle, construction,
working and industrial application of pressure filters: plate and frame filter press, rotary drum
filter, Centrifugal filters:- Suspended batch centrifuge.
Separation based on the motion of particles through fluids: Sedimentation:- Batch sedimentation,
rate of sedimentation, Gravity classifiers, Thickener, centrifugal settling process: Cyclone
separator, disc centrifuge.
UNIT V
Mixing equipments
Utility of mixing, mixing equipment used for liquid-liquid: impeller, propeller & turbine, flow
pattern in agitated vessels, vortex formation and its prevention. Mixing of solids-liquid: Double
arm kneader.

MECHANICAL OPERATION

Mechanical operations in chemical engineering refer to various processes and techniques used to
handle, manipulate, and transform solid materials and fluids in industrial operations. These
operations involve mechanical equipment and devices to facilitate the desired physical changes
in the materials. Here are some key aspects of mechanical operations in chemical engineering:

1. Particle Handling and Size Reduction: Mechanical operations are involved in handling
solid particles, including storage, transportation, and size reduction. Size reduction
processes such as grinding, crushing, and milling are used to reduce the size of solid
particles to facilitate further processing or improve material properties.

2. Mixing and Agitation: Mechanical operations play a crucial role in mixing and agitating
materials to achieve homogeneity, reactant contact, and mass transfer. Mixing equipment,
such as agitators, impellers, propellers, and turbines, are used to promote effective mixing
and blending of fluids and solid particles.

3. Filtration and Separation: Mechanical operations are employed in filtration and

separation processes to separate solids from liquids or gases. Filtration equipment, such
as filters, filter presses, and centrifuges, are used to remove solid particles from fluids
based on size, shape, or density differences.

4. Solid-Liquid Separation: Mechanical operations are used for solid-liquid separation

processes, including sedimentation, thickening, and clarification. Techniques such as
gravity settling, centrifugation, and filtration are applied to separate solid particles from
liquid phases.

5. Solid-Solid Separation: Mechanical operations are also employed for solid-solid

separation processes. Techniques such as sieving, cyclone separation, and magnetic
separation are used to separate solid particles based on their size, density, or magnetic
properties.
 6. Fluid Flow and Transport: Mechanical operations involve the study and analysis of fluid
flow and transport phenomena. This includes the design and operation of pipelines,
pumps, valves, and other fluid handling equipment to ensure efficient and controlled
movement of fluids within a chemical process.

7. Size Enlargement: Mechanical operations are used for size enlargement processes, such
as granulation and pelletization, to form larger particles or aggregates from fine powders
or particles.

8. Material Handling: Mechanical operations encompass various aspects of material

handling, including conveying, storage, and transportation of materials within a chemical
plant. Equipment like conveyors, elevators, and silos are utilized for efficient material
handling.

Overall, mechanical operations in chemical engineering involve the application of principles and
techniques from mechanical engineering to handle, process, and transform solid materials and
fluids in chemical and industrial operations. These operations are essential for the production of
a wide range of products across various industries, including chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food
processing, mining, and many others.

UNIT I

Particle shape

Particle shape refers to the geometric form or morphology of individual particles. It describes the
overall appearance and structure of particles, including their size, symmetry, roughness, and
angularity. Particle shape plays a significant role in various fields, including material science,
particle technology, powder processing, and many industrial applications. Here are some key
points about particle shape:

1. Types of Particle Shapes: Particle shapes can vary widely and can be classified into
different categories:

 Spherical: Perfectly round particles with smooth surfaces, such as droplets or

bubbles.

 Angular: Particles with sharp edges, corners, or irregular surfaces, such as crushed
rocks or fractured materials.

 Fibrous: Elongated or fiber-like particles, such as asbestos or cellulose fibers.

 Plate-like: Particles with a flat or plate-like structure, such as flakes or mica

particles.

 Needle-like: Particles with a long and thin shape, resembling needles or rods.
2. Influence on Particle Properties: Particle shape affects various physical, chemical, and
mechanical properties of materials, including:

 Flowability: Irregular or angular particles tend to interlock, reducing flowability

compared to spherical particles.

 Packing Density: Spherical particles have the highest packing density, while
irregular shapes may result in lower packing efficiency.

 Surface Area: Irregular shapes typically have a higher surface area compared to
spherical particles of the same size.

 Mechanical Strength: Angular or irregular particles often exhibit higher

mechanical strength due to interlocking or contact points.

 Fluid Dynamics: Particle shape affects the behavior of particles in fluid flow,
including sedimentation, fluidization, and particle transport.

3. Measurement and Characterization: Various techniques are used to measure and analyze
particle shape:

 Optical Microscopy: Visual examination using microscopes to observe particle

morphology.

 Image Analysis: Image processing and analysis software to measure particle

shape parameters, such as aspect ratio, roundness, or convexity.

 Laser Diffraction: Provides information on particle size and shape based on light
scattering patterns.

 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): High-resolution imaging technique to

visualize particle morphology and surface features.

4. Industrial Applications: Understanding particle shape is crucial in several industrial

processes and applications:

 Powder Handling: Particle shape influences flow behavior, compaction, and

segregation of powders in industries such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and food
processing.

 Construction Materials: Particle shape affects the workability, strength, and

durability of concrete, asphalt, and building materials.

 Pharmaceuticals: Particle shape influences drug dissolution, bioavailability, and

performance in formulation and delivery systems.
  Mineral Processing: Particle shape affects the efficiency of separation, grinding,
and classification processes in mining and mineral industries.

In summary, particle shape is an important parameter that impacts the behavior, properties, and
performance of materials in various industries. Understanding and controlling particle shape can
lead to improved product quality, process efficiency, and tailored material properties for specific
applications.

Particle size

Particle size refers to the dimensions of individual particles in a material, typically measured in
terms of their diameter, length, or width. It is a fundamental characteristic of particulate matter
and plays a crucial role in determining the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of
materials. Here are some key points about particle size:

1. Measurement of Particle Size: Particle size can be measured using various techniques,
depending on the size range and nature of the particles. Some common methods include:

 Sieving: Particles are separated based on size using a series of sieves with
different mesh sizes.

 Laser Diffraction: Measures particle size distribution by analyzing the scattering

pattern of laser light passing through the particles.

 Sedimentation: Determines particle size by observing the settling rate of particles

in a liquid medium.

 Microscopy: Optical or electron microscopy techniques are used to visualize and

measure particle dimensions.

 Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS): Measures the Brownian motion of particles to

determine their size distribution in a fluid.

2. Particle Size Distribution: Particle size distribution refers to the range of particle sizes
present in a sample or material. It describes the relative proportions of particles at
different size intervals. Particle size distributions can be narrow (with particles
concentrated around a specific size) or wide (with particles spanning a broad range of
sizes). The distribution of particle sizes impacts the overall behavior and properties of the
material.

3. Importance of Particle Size:

 Physical Properties: Particle size influences properties such as density, porosity,

surface area, and permeability of materials.
  Chemical Reactivity: Particle size affects the reactivity and surface activity of
particles in chemical reactions, dissolution, and surface interactions.

 Mechanical Behavior: Particle size influences the mechanical strength,

flowability, compaction, and packing density of granular materials.

 Surface-to-Volume Ratio: As particle size decreases, the surface area-to-volume

ratio increases, leading to enhanced surface-related phenomena such as
adsorption, catalysis, and surface reactions.

 Product Performance: Particle size can impact the performance of products in

various industries, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, coatings, and food
processing.

4. Control and Applications:

 Particle Size Reduction: Techniques such as grinding, milling, and comminution

are used to reduce particle size.

 Particle Size Classification: Size classification methods, including sieving, air

classification, and centrifugation, are employed to separate particles into different
size ranges.

 Industrial Applications: Particle size control is critical in industries such as

pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, paints, coatings, cement, mining, agriculture, and
many others where particle size influences product quality, performance, and
process efficiency.

Understanding and controlling particle size is essential in a wide range of industries and
applications. It enables the optimization of material properties, process performance, and product
quality, leading to improved efficiency, functionality, and consistency in various manufacturing
processes.

Mixed particle sizes and size analysis

Mixed particle sizes refer to a sample or material that contains particles of various sizes. The
presence of multiple particle sizes in a sample can have significant implications for various
applications, processes, and analyses. Size analysis, also known as particle size distribution
analysis, is the process of determining the relative proportions of different particle sizes within a
sample. Here's some information about mixed particle sizes and size analysis:

1. Mixed Particle Sizes:

  In many natural and industrial systems, particles often exhibit a range of sizes due
to various factors such as material processing, mechanical fragmentation, or
natural variability.

 Mixed particle sizes can impact the overall behavior and properties of materials,
including their flowability, packing density, mechanical strength, surface area,
and reactivity.

 Particle size distribution analysis is crucial to understand the composition and

characteristics of materials with mixed particle sizes.

2. Size Analysis Techniques:

 Sieving: Sieving is a commonly used method to separate particles based on size.

The sample is passed through a series of sieves with different mesh sizes, and
particles larger than the sieve openings are retained.

 Sedimentation: Sedimentation techniques, such as the use of settling columns or

centrifuges, measure the settling velocity or sedimentation rate of particles in a
liquid medium to determine their size distribution.

 Laser Diffraction: Laser diffraction is a widely used technique that analyzes the
scattering pattern of laser light passing through a particle suspension to determine
the particle size distribution.

 Imaging Techniques: Image analysis software can analyze images of particles

captured through microscopy or other imaging methods to measure their sizes and
generate size distribution data.

 Coulter Counter: A Coulter counter uses electrical impedance to measure the size
and count particles as they pass through a small aperture.

3. Interpretation of Size Analysis Results:

 Size analysis provides information about the relative proportions of different

particle sizes within a sample, typically presented as a cumulative or differential
size distribution.

 The results of size analysis can help understand the particle size range, identify
dominant size fractions, and assess the presence of fine or coarse particles.

 Size analysis data can be used to characterize materials, optimize processes,

control product quality, evaluate particle size changes during manufacturing, and
meet specific size requirements for different applications.
 4. Challenges in Size Analysis:

 Accurate size analysis can be challenging, particularly when dealing with a wide
range of particle sizes or irregularly shaped particles.

 Sample preparation, dispersion, and instrument calibration are critical to obtaining

reliable size analysis results.

 Some techniques may have limitations in terms of the measurable size range or
the ability to differentiate between very similar particle sizes.

Size analysis of mixed particle sizes provides valuable insights into the composition, behavior,
and performance of materials. It helps in understanding particle size distribution, optimizing
processes, and ensuring the desired properties and quality of the final products.

Expressions for specific surface of mixture:

The specific surface area (SSA) of a mixture, which represents the total surface area per unit
mass of the mixture, can be expressed using the following equation:

SSA = (Σ(SA_i * m_i)) / M

where:

 SSA is the specific surface area of the mixture (in units of surface area per unit mass,
such as m²/g).

 SA_i is the specific surface area of each individual component in the mixture (in units of
surface area per unit mass, such as m²/g).

 m_i is the mass of each individual component in the mixture.

 M is the total mass of the mixture.

In this equation, the specific surface area of each component is multiplied by its mass, and the
summation is taken over all components present in the mixture. The resulting value is then
divided by the total mass of the mixture to obtain the specific surface area per unit mass.

It's important to note that the specific surface area of each component in the mixture can be
determined experimentally using techniques such as gas adsorption (e.g., BET analysis) or
particle size analysis (e.g., laser diffraction). These techniques measure the surface area or
particle size distribution of individual components, which can then be used in the above equation
to calculate the specific surface area of the mixture.

Average particle size

Average particle size refers to the average diameter or size of particles in a sample or material. It
is a measure of the central tendency of particle sizes and provides an overall indication of the
particle size distribution. The average particle size can be calculated using various methods,
including:

1. Arithmetic Mean: The arithmetic mean is calculated by summing the sizes of all particles
in the sample and dividing by the total number of particles. It provides a simple average
of particle sizes but can be influenced by outliers or extreme values.

2. Volume Mean (Dv): The volume mean is determined by analyzing the cumulative
volume distribution of particles and finding the size at which 50% of the total volume is
smaller and 50% is larger. It represents the median particle size in terms of volume.

3. Surface Mean (D): The surface mean is calculated based on the cumulative surface area
distribution of particles. It represents the median particle size in terms of surface area.

4. Number Mean (Dn): The number mean is determined by analyzing the cumulative
number distribution of particles and finding the size at which 50% of the total number of
particles is smaller and 50% is larger. It represents the median particle size in terms of
particle count.

5. Weighted Mean: The weighted mean takes into account the relative mass or weight of
particles. It is calculated by summing the products of each particle size and its
corresponding weight, and then dividing by the total weight of all particles.

The choice of the average particle size calculation method depends on the specific application,
the particle size distribution characteristics, and the available data. It's important to note that the
average particle size provides a summary measure and may not fully capture the complexity or
variability of the particle size distribution. Therefore, additional information such as particle size
distribution graphs or cumulative distribution curves is often used to complement the average
particle size data.

Number of particles in mixture

The number of particles in a mixture can be estimated based on the total mass of the mixture and
the average mass or size of individual particles. The calculation depends on the assumptions
made about the particle size distribution and the nature of the particles (e.g., spherical, uniform
shape). Here are two common approaches to estimating the number of particles in a mixture:

1. Discrete Particle Count:

 Divide the total mass of the mixture by the average mass of individual particles to
obtain the approximate number of particles.
  This approach assumes that all particles have the same mass or size and that there
is no size distribution within the mixture.

2. Particle Size Distribution:

 If the particle size distribution is known or measured, it is possible to estimate the

number of particles using mathematical integration or summation methods.

 This approach takes into account the size distribution of particles within the
mixture, considering the relative proportion of particles at different size intervals.

 It involves integrating or summing the number of particles in each size range to

obtain the total number of particles in the mixture.

It's important to note that the accuracy of the estimation depends on the assumptions made about
the particle size distribution and the homogeneity of the mixture. Additionally, if the mixture
contains particles of different sizes or shapes, or if the size distribution is complex, more
sophisticated techniques, such as particle counting instruments or image analysis, may be
required to accurately determine the number of particles in the mixture.

UNIT II

Size Reduction

Size reduction refers to the process of reducing the size of solid materials, either by physical or
mechanical means. It is a fundamental operation in various industries, including chemical
engineering, pharmaceuticals, food processing, and mining. The purpose of size reduction is to
achieve specific particle size distribution, increase surface area, improve handling characteristics,
or facilitate subsequent processing or analysis. Here are some commonly used methods for size
reduction:

1. Crushing: Crushing involves the application of force to break down large particles into
smaller particles. It is typically achieved through compression or impact forces using
equipment such as jaw crushers, gyratory crushers, or impact crushers.

2. Grinding: Grinding is the process of reducing the particle size of a material by applying
mechanical forces through the use of grinding mills. The material is subjected to friction,
compression, and impact forces between the grinding media and the material itself.
Common grinding mills include ball mills, rod mills, and SAG mills.

3. Pulverization: Pulverization is the process of reducing materials to fine powders through

grinding or milling. It is often used for materials that require a high degree of fineness,
 such as pharmaceuticals or fine chemicals. Jet mills, hammer mills, and fluid energy mills
are commonly used for pulverization.

4. Milling: Milling refers to the process of reducing particle size through the use of milling
machines. It involves the removal of material layers from a solid object to achieve the
desired size reduction. Milling machines, such as vertical mills and horizontal mills,
utilize rotating cutters or tools to remove material.

5. Cutting: Cutting involves the separation of materials by mechanical means using sharp
tools or blades. It is commonly used for size reduction of softer materials or fibrous
materials. Examples include cutting with scissors, shearing with knives, or slicing with
slicers.

6. Shredding: Shredding is a size reduction method used for bulky or large-sized materials.
It involves the tearing or cutting of materials into smaller pieces or particles using
shredders or granulators. Shredding is often used for waste disposal, recycling, or
preparing materials for further processing.

7. Micronization: Micronization is the process of reducing the particle size to the micron or
sub-micron range. It is achieved through specialized techniques such as air jet milling or
fluid energy milling, which utilize high-speed air or gas streams to impact and reduce
particle size.

The selection of the appropriate size reduction method depends on the properties of the material,
desired particle size distribution, production requirements, and energy considerations. Proper
size reduction can significantly impact the efficiency and effectiveness of subsequent processes
and the overall quality of the final product.

Necessity of size reduction

Size reduction is necessary in various industries for several reasons:

1. Improved Process Efficiency: Size reduction increases the surface area of solid materials,
which enhances their reactivity and allows for faster and more efficient chemical
reactions. It facilitates the mixing and contact between different components, leading to
improved process efficiency and reaction rates.

2. Enhanced Material Handling: Large-sized particles or materials with irregular shapes can
be challenging to handle, transport, and store. Size reduction helps in reducing the size
and uniformizing the shape of particles, making them easier to handle, pour, and feed into
downstream processes or equipment.

3. Increased Surface Area: Size reduction increases the surface area of solid materials,
which is beneficial in processes where surface interactions are important, such as
 dissolution, absorption, adsorption, and catalysis. The larger surface area allows for better
contact and interaction with other substances, leading to improved performance and
efficiency.

4. Improved Product Performance: In many industries, the desired properties or

performance of a product are closely related to the particle size or particle size
distribution. Size reduction can help achieve the desired particle size range, ensuring
consistent product quality, improved texture, enhanced solubility, increased
bioavailability, or better dispersibility.

5. Uniformity and Consistency: Size reduction helps in achieving a more uniform and
consistent particle size distribution, reducing variations in product quality and
performance. This is particularly important in industries such as pharmaceuticals, where
precise dosing, dissolution, and absorption characteristics are required.

6. Ease of Processing: Certain manufacturing processes, such as mixing, compaction,

extrusion, and coating, require materials with a specific particle size range. Size reduction
allows for the customization and control of particle size to meet the process requirements,
ensuring smooth and efficient processing operations.

7. Economical and Environmental Considerations: Size reduction can contribute to cost

savings and improved resource utilization. Smaller particle sizes often lead to reduced
material consumption, shorter processing times, and lower energy requirements.
Moreover, size reduction can facilitate recycling and waste management by breaking
down bulky or oversized materials into more manageable sizes.

Overall, size reduction is necessary in various industries to optimize processes, improve product
performance, enhance material handling, and achieve desired particle size characteristics. It
enables greater control, efficiency, and consistency in manufacturing operations while offering
economic and environmental benefits.

Principle of size reduction

The principle of size reduction is based on the concept of breaking down larger particles or
materials into smaller particles. It involves the application of mechanical forces to overcome the
cohesive forces and intermolecular bonds holding the particles together. The primary objective is
to reduce the particle size, either to achieve a specific particle size distribution or to enhance the
material's properties or process performance. Here are the fundamental principles underlying
different methods of size reduction:

1. Impact: In impact-based size reduction, mechanical forces such as striking, collision, or

rapid acceleration are applied to the material, causing it to fracture or break into smaller
 pieces. Impact-based methods include techniques such as crushing, grinding, and hammer
milling.

2. Compression: Compression-based size reduction involves subjecting the material to high-

pressure forces, compressing it between two surfaces or within a confined space. This
compression results in the fracturing or deformation of the material, leading to size
reduction. Compression-based methods include techniques such as roll crushing, roll
compaction, and compression milling.

3. Attrition: Attrition-based size reduction relies on the friction and rubbing action between
particles or between the particles and the equipment surfaces. This continuous rubbing
causes the particles to wear down or break apart into smaller sizes. Attrition-based
methods include techniques such as milling, grinding, and abrasive cutting.

4. Shear: Shear-based size reduction involves subjecting the material to shear forces that
cause it to deform and separate along planes or surfaces. This deformation and separation
result in the reduction of particle size. Shear-based methods include techniques such as
cutting, shearing, and slicing.

5. Abrasion: Abrasion-based size reduction occurs when the material is subjected to

abrasive forces, such as rubbing against a rough surface or abrasive particles. The
abrasion causes the material to wear down and reduce in size. Abrasion-based methods
include techniques such as attrition milling and sanding.

6. Impact and Shear: Some size reduction methods combine both impact and shear forces to
achieve particle size reduction. For example, in the case of a hammer mill, the material is
impacted by rapidly moving hammers and also experiences shear forces as it is forced
through the mill's screen or perforations.

The choice of the size reduction method depends on various factors, including the properties of
the material, desired particle size distribution, required throughput, energy considerations, and
equipment availability. Different methods may be suitable for different materials and
applications. It is important to select the most appropriate method to achieve the desired size
reduction efficiently and effectively while maintaining the desired material properties.

Expression for power required by machines, Rittinger’s law, Bond’s law and Kick’s law:

Expression for Power Required by Machines:

The power required by machines for size reduction processes can be expressed using the
following general equation:

P = (Q * dp * ρ * N * √(d₁/d₂)) / (K * η)
Where: P = Power required (in watts or kilowatts) Q = Throughput or feed rate of material (in
kg/s or t/h) dp = Particle size after size reduction (in meters or millimeters) ρ = Density of the
material (in kg/m³) N = Machine speed (in revolutions per minute, RPM) d₁ = Initial particle size
before size reduction (in meters or millimeters) d₂ = Desired or target particle size after size
reduction (in meters or millimeters) K = Constant specific to the type of machine and material η
= Efficiency of the machine (expressed as a decimal between 0 and 1)

Rittinger's Law: Rittinger's Law states that the energy required for size reduction is directly
proportional to the new surface area generated. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

E = Kr * (1/d₁ - 1/d₂)

Where: E = Energy required for size reduction (in joules or kilojoules) K r = Rittinger's constant
specific to the material being processed d₁ = Initial particle size before size reduction (in meters
or millimeters) d₂ = Desired or target particle size after size reduction (in meters or millimeters)

Bond's Law: Bond's Law states that the energy required for size reduction is proportional to the
square root of the ratio of the particle sizes before and after size reduction. It can be expressed
as:

E = Kb * √(1/d₁ - 1/d₂)

Where: E = Energy required for size reduction (in joules or kilojoules) K b = Bond's constant
specific to the material being processed d₁ = Initial particle size before size reduction (in meters
or millimeters) d₂ = Desired or target particle size after size reduction (in meters or millimeters)

Kick's Law: Kick's Law states that the energy required for size reduction is proportional to the
ratio of the logarithms of the particle sizes before and after size reduction. It can be expressed as:

E = Kk * ln(d₁/d₂)

Where: E = Energy required for size reduction (in joules or kilojoules) K k = Kick's constant
specific to the material being processed d₁ = Initial particle size before size reduction (in meters
or millimeters) d₂ = Desired or target particle size after size reduction (in meters or millimeters)

These laws provide mathematical relationships to estimate the energy or power requirements for
size reduction processes based on the initial and final particle sizes. The constants (Kr, Kb, Kk)
are determined experimentally for specific materials and machines.

Work index

The work index is a parameter used to estimate the energy requirements for size reduction
processes, particularly in mineral processing and ore beneficiation. It is a measure of the
resistance of a material to crushing and grinding. The work index is typically determined through
laboratory testing using specialized equipment.

The most commonly used work index is the Bond Work Index, developed by Fred C. Bond in
the 1950s. The Bond Work Index is defined as the kilowatt-hour per short ton required to reduce
a given material from a specified feed size to a specific product size.

The formula to calculate the Bond Work Index is:

W_i = (10 √(P₈₀) - 10 √(F₈₀)) / √(P₈₀) - √(F₈₀)

Where: W_i = Bond Work Index (kWh/short ton) P₈₀ = Size in micrometers (µm) at which 80%
of the product passes F₈₀ = Size in micrometers (µm) at which 80% of the feed passes

The Bond Work Index provides an indication of the energy required to reduce a material's size
and is often used as a basis for selecting grinding equipment, designing grinding circuits, and
estimating power requirements in various mineral processing operations.

It's important to note that the Bond Work Index is material-specific and can vary significantly for
different types of ores and minerals. Other modified versions of the work index, such as the
Hardgrove Grindability Index for coal, have been developed to assess the grindability of specific
materials.

Size reduction equipment:

Size reduction equipment is used in various industries to reduce the size of particles or materials.
The choice of equipment depends on the desired particle size range, the properties of the
material, and the specific application requirements. Here are some common types of size
reduction equipment:

1. Crushers: Crushers are used to reduce large solid materials into smaller particles. They
operate by applying compressive or impact forces to break down the material. Common
types of crushers include jaw crushers, gyratory crushers, cone crushers, and impact
crushers.

2. Grinders: Grinders, also known as mills or pulverizers, are used to reduce the particle size
of solid materials through mechanical forces such as grinding, crushing, or cutting. They
can be classified into various types, including ball mills, rod mills, hammer mills, pin
mills, and attrition mills.

3. Shredders: Shredders are designed to break down large, bulky materials into smaller,
more manageable pieces. They are commonly used in waste management and recycling
applications to process materials such as plastics, paper, wood, and metal.
 4. Granulators: Granulators are used for size reduction and recycling of plastic materials.
They typically involve a combination of cutting blades and grinding or shearing action to
reduce plastic waste into smaller particles or granules.

5. Pulverizers: Pulverizers are specialized grinding mills used to reduce the size of materials
into fine powders. They are commonly used in industries such as pharmaceuticals,
chemicals, and food processing to pulverize materials into uniform particle sizes.

6. Micronizers: Micronizers, also known as fluid energy mills or jet mills, are used for fine
grinding and micronization of materials. They utilize high-speed jets of compressed air or
gas to impact particles and reduce them to very fine sizes.

7. Cutting Machines: Cutting machines, such as knife cutters or slicers, are used to cut solid
materials into smaller pieces or slices. They are commonly used in food processing,
woodworking, and other industries.

8. Homogenizers: Homogenizers are used to reduce the particle size and achieve uniform
dispersion of substances in liquids. They are commonly used in the food, pharmaceutical,
and biotechnology industries to process liquids or emulsions.

9. Sieves and Screens: Sieves and screens are used for particle size classification and
separation. They consist of a mesh or perforated surface that allows particles of specific
sizes to pass through while retaining larger particles.

10. Agitated Media Mills: Agitated media mills use grinding media (such as beads or balls)
and an agitator to provide efficient grinding and particle size reduction. They are
commonly used in the pharmaceutical, chemical, and ink industries.

These are just some examples of size reduction equipment commonly used in various industries.
The selection of the appropriate equipment depends on factors such as the material properties,
required particle size range, throughput capacity, energy efficiency, and maintenance
considerations.

Study of machines: Crushers: - Jaw crusher, Smooth roll crusher

Certainly! Let's take a closer look at jaw crushers and smooth roll crushers, which are commonly
used crushers in the field of size reduction.

1. Jaw Crusher: A jaw crusher is a primary crusher that uses compressive force to break
down materials into smaller particles. It consists of a fixed jaw and a movable jaw, with
the material being fed between them. The movable jaw exerts force against the fixed jaw,
crushing the material in a "rock-on-rock" motion.
Construction: A typical jaw crusher consists of a sturdy frame, an eccentric shaft, toggle plates, a
fixed jaw plate, and a movable jaw plate. The jaws have a V-shaped design, with the narrower
bottom opening to allow for smaller-sized materials to be crushed.

Working Principle: The motor drives the eccentric shaft to rotate, which in turn moves the
movable jaw back and forth along a predetermined path. As the material enters the crusher, it is
crushed between the fixed and movable jaws, gradually reducing its size. The crushed material
exits through the discharge opening at the bottom.

Applications: Jaw crushers are widely used in mining, quarrying, recycling, and construction
industries. They are suitable for various materials, including hard and abrasive rocks, ores, and
recycled concrete.

Advantages:

 High crushing ratio, providing a uniform product size.

 Efficient operation with low energy consumption.

 Versatile application for a wide range of materials.

 Simple structure and easy maintenance.

Disadvantages:

 Can be noisy and generate dust.

 Limited capacity compared to some other types of crushers.

 Not suitable for materials with high moisture content.

2. Smooth Roll Crusher: A smooth roll crusher is a secondary or tertiary crusher that
utilizes smooth-rolling cylinders to crush materials. It is typically used for fine and
intermediate crushing of materials with compressive strength up to 150MPa.

Construction: A smooth roll crusher consists of two smooth-rolling cylinders mounted

horizontally and parallel to each other. The cylinders rotate in opposite directions, with the
material being fed between them. The crushing action occurs as the material passes through the
narrow gap between the cylinders.

Working Principle: The material is fed into the gap between the rotating cylinders, and it is
crushed and compacted as it moves through the crushing zone. The smooth surfaces of the
cylinders minimize friction and provide a consistent crushing action. The crushed material exits
through the discharge opening at the bottom.
Applications: Smooth roll crushers are commonly used in the coal, mining, and cement
industries, as well as in the chemical and power plant sectors. They are suitable for materials
such as coal, limestone, gypsum, trona, and more.

Advantages:

 Efficient for fine and intermediate crushing of materials.

 Smooth operation with low noise and vibration.

 Minimal fines generation.

 Compact design and relatively simple maintenance.

Disadvantages:

 Limited capacity compared to some other types of crushers.

 May generate more fines compared to other crushers.

 Not suitable for hard or abrasive materials.

It's important to note that the performance and suitability of crushers can vary depending on the
specific application and material being processed. Proper selection and understanding of the
crusher's capabilities are crucial for achieving the desired size reduction and product quality.

Grinders: - Hammer mill, Ball mill. Ultrafine Grinder: - Fluid energy mill.

Certainly! Let's delve into the details of grinders and ultrafine grinders, including the hammer
mill, ball mill, and fluid energy mill.

1. Hammer Mill: A hammer mill is a type of grinder that uses high-speed rotating hammers
to impact and shatter materials. It is widely used in various industries for coarse-to-fine
grinding or crushing operations.

Construction: A typical hammer mill consists of a horizontal rotor assembly, fitted with
hammers, and a grinding chamber. The material is fed into the grinding chamber through a feed
chute and is struck by the rapidly rotating hammers. The impact and collision between the
hammers and the particles result in size reduction.

Working Principle: As the rotor rotates at high speed, the hammers attached to it swing and
impact the material. The hammers transfer kinetic energy to the particles, causing them to break
apart. The size of the final product is determined by the size of the openings in the screen or
grate located at the bottom of the grinding chamber.
Applications: Hammer mills are widely used in the agricultural, mining, pharmaceutical, and
chemical industries. They are suitable for grinding a wide range of materials, including grains,
biomass, wood chips, spices, and minerals.

Advantages:

 Versatile for a variety of materials and applications.

 High production capacity.

 Relatively low maintenance requirements.

 Adjustable particle size through screen or grate selection.

Disadvantages:

 Produces a wide particle size distribution.

 Generates dust and noise during operation.

 May require frequent screen or grate changes for different applications.

2. A ball mill is a type of grinding equipment used to grind and blend materials for use in
mineral processing, ceramics, paints, and other industries. It works on the principle of
impact and attrition: the size reduction is achieved by the collision between the balls and
the material being ground.

Construction: A ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell that rotates on its axis. The inner
surface of the cylinder is lined with abrasion-resistant materials such as steel or rubber to protect
it from wear. The length of the cylinder is typically longer than its diameter to create a tumbling
motion of the grinding media.

Inside the cylinder, there are one or more compartments or chambers. The material to be ground
is fed into the chambers through a feed chute, and the grinding media, usually steel balls, are
added to the chambers. The size and composition of the grinding media may vary depending on
the application and desired particle size.

Working Principle: When the ball mill rotates, the grinding media and the material inside the
chambers are subjected to centrifugal force and are lifted to a certain height and then cascade
down, causing the material to be ground by impact and attrition. The rotation of the mill and the
cascading motion of the grinding media generate a grinding action, resulting in size reduction.

The critical speed of the ball mill is the speed at which the centrifugal force is equal to the
gravitational force acting on the grinding media. At this speed, the grinding media are in a state
of centrifugation, and the grinding action is most efficient.
The final product is discharged through a discharge grate at the end of the mill, while the
oversize material is retained inside the mill and continues to be ground until it reaches the
desired particle size.

Applications: Ball mills are used in various industries for grinding and blending materials. Some
common applications include:

 Mineral processing: Grinding ores and minerals to liberate valuable minerals for further
processing.

 Ceramics: Mixing and grinding ceramic materials to produce ceramic powders or glazes.

 Paints and coatings: Grinding pigments and additives to produce paint or coating
formulations.

 Pharmaceutical industry: Grinding active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to achieve

desired particle size for drug formulation.

 Cement industry: Grinding clinker and additives to produce cement.

Advantages:

 Versatile for a wide range of materials and applications.

 High grinding efficiency and low energy consumption.

 Ability to grind materials to a fine or ultrafine size.

 Can operate in wet or dry conditions.

 Relatively simple operation and maintenance.

Disadvantages:

 High initial cost and installation requirements.

 Consumes a significant amount of energy.

 Requires periodic maintenance and replacement of grinding media.

 May generate heat, which can affect the properties of heat-sensitive materials.

 Noise and dust generation during operation.

In summary, ball mills are widely used grinding equipment in various industries. They offer
efficient size reduction by the impact and attrition of grinding media, and they can be customized
to suit different material properties and desired particle size distributions
 3. Fluid Energy Mill, also known as an air jet mill or micronizer, is a type of size reduction
equipment that utilizes high-speed airflow to achieve particle size reduction. It is widely
used in various industries for producing fine and ultrafine powders.

Construction: A fluid energy mill typically consists of the following components:

1. Grinding Chamber: A cylindrical chamber where the size reduction process takes place.
It is typically made of stainless steel and has no moving parts.

2. Air Inlet: An inlet through which high-pressure compressed air or gas is introduced into
the grinding chamber.

3. Nozzles: Supersonic nozzles located inside the grinding chamber. These nozzles
accelerate the air or gas to high velocities, creating a high-velocity jet stream.

4. Feed Inlet: An inlet through which the material to be ground is introduced into the
grinding chamber. The material is usually fed in a controlled manner to ensure proper
dispersion and contact with the high-velocity jet stream.

5. Classification System: A mechanism for separating the fine particles from the air or gas
stream. This can include cyclones, bag filters, or other types of separators.

Working Principle: The fluid energy mill operates based on the principles of fluid mechanics and
particle-particle interaction. The working principle can be summarized as follows:

1. High-pressure compressed air or gas is introduced into the grinding chamber through the
air inlet.

2. The compressed air or gas passes through the supersonic nozzles, which accelerate it to
high velocities.

3. The high-velocity air or gas forms a turbulent jet stream inside the grinding chamber.

4. The material to be ground is introduced into the grinding chamber through the feed inlet.

5. The high-velocity jet stream impinges on the material, causing it to break into fine
particles through high-speed impact and attrition.

6. The fine particles are entrained in the air or gas stream and are carried out of the grinding
chamber.

7. The classification system separates the fine particles from the air or gas stream, allowing
the collected particles to be collected as the desired product.

Applications: Fluid Energy Mills are widely used in various industries for the production of fine
and ultrafine powders. They are suitable for grinding and classifying a wide range of materials,
including pharmaceuticals, chemicals, minerals, pigments, food products, and more. They are
particularly useful when a narrow particle size distribution and precise control of particle size are
desired.

Advantages:

1. Ability to produce fine and ultrafine powders with a narrow particle size distribution.

2. High-speed impact and attrition result in efficient size reduction.

3. Suitable for heat-sensitive materials as the grinding process is conducted at low

temperatures.

4. Can handle both dry and wet materials.

5. Relatively simple design and operation.

6. Minimal contamination and easy cleaning.

7. Adjustable particle size through control of process parameters.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited to materials that are relatively soft and friable.

2. High energy consumption due to the use of compressed air or gas.

3. Initial setup and optimization may require expertise and experimentation.

4. Risk of particle aggregation or agglomeration.

Overall, fluid energy mills are valuable tools for achieving precise and controlled particle size
reduction, particularly in industries where fine powders are required. The specific design and
configuration of fluid energy mills can vary, but they all operate based on the principles of high-
speed airflow and particle-particle interaction.

Cutting Machines: - Rotary knife cutter.

1. Rotary Knife Cutter: A rotary knife cutter is a type of cutting machine that utilizes
rotating knives or blades to cut or slice materials. It is commonly used in various
industries for precision cutting of soft to semi-rigid materials.

Construction: A typical rotary knife cutter consists of a rotating drum or disc that houses
multiple sharp blades or knives. The drum or disc is mounted horizontally and is powered by a
motor. The material to be cut is fed into the machine either manually or through an automated
feeding mechanism.
Working Principle: As the drum or disc rotates, the sharp blades or knives attached to it make
contact with the material. The material is sliced or cut as it passes between the rotating blades
and a stationary cutting edge, such as a cutting bed or anvil. The cutting action is achieved
through the shearing force exerted by the sharp edges of the blades.

Applications: Rotary knife cutters find applications in various industries, including food
processing, textile, paper, packaging, plastics, and rubber. They are suitable for cutting materials
such as fabric, film, paper, cardboard, plastic sheets, rubber, and similar soft to semi-rigid
materials.

Advantages:

 Precise and clean cutting of materials.

 High cutting speed and efficiency.

 Versatile for a wide range of materials.

 Ability to handle continuous or batch cutting processes.

 Can be integrated into automated production lines.

 Adjustable cutting thickness or depth.

 Low maintenance requirements.

Disadvantages:

 Limited to cutting soft to semi-rigid materials.

 Not suitable for hard or rigid materials.

 Risk of blade wear and dulling over time, requiring periodic maintenance and
replacement.

 Noise and vibration during operation.

 Potential safety hazards if not used properly.

It's important to note that the specific design and features of rotary knife cutters can vary
depending on the intended application and industry requirements. The cutting blades may be
straight or serrated, and the machine may have additional features such as adjustable speed,
feeding mechanisms, safety guards, and collection systems for cut materials.

Proper setup, maintenance, and operator training are essential to ensure safe and efficient
operation of rotary knife cutters. Regular blade sharpening or replacement and adherence to
safety protocols are crucial for maintaining cutting precision and ensuring worker safety.
UNIT III

Screening

Screening is a mechanical process used to separate particles or materials based on their size or
other physical properties. It is commonly employed in industries such as mining, construction,
agriculture, pharmaceuticals, recycling, and food processing. The goal of screening is to separate
particles into different size fractions or remove unwanted materials.

Principle of Screening: The principle of screening involves passing a mixture of particles and
materials through a vibrating or rotating screen surface. The screen surface has openings or
apertures of specific sizes that allow particles of certain sizes to pass through while retaining
larger particles or unwanted materials.

Working Process:

1. Feeding: The material to be screened is typically fed onto the screen surface. It can be
introduced at a controlled rate using a conveyor belt, chute, or other feeding mechanisms.

2. Separation: As the material flows over the screen surface, particles smaller than the
screen openings pass through and are collected as the "undersize" fraction. Larger
particles or unwanted materials that cannot pass through the openings are retained on the
screen surface and collected as the "oversize" fraction.

3. Screening Surface: The screening surface can be made of various materials, such as
woven wire mesh, perforated plates, or synthetic media. The choice of screen surface
depends on the specific application, desired separation efficiency, and the characteristics
of the material being screened.

4. Motion: Screens are typically designed to have a vibrating or gyrating motion, which
helps to facilitate the separation process. The motion can be created by an electric motor
with eccentric weights, pneumatic actuators, or mechanical drives.

5. Deck Configuration: Screens may have multiple screen decks stacked on top of each
other, each with different-sized openings. This allows for multiple separation steps,
creating different size fractions or separating materials with different particle sizes.

6. Screening Efficiency: The efficiency of screening is influenced by various factors,

including the size and shape of the screen openings, amplitude and frequency of
vibration, feed rate, and the properties of the material being screened (such as particle
size distribution, moisture content, and bulk density).

Applications of Screening:
  Sizing: Screening is commonly used to classify materials into different size fractions. For
example, in mining operations, screens are used to separate ore into various size ranges
for further processing.

 Scalping: Scalping screens remove oversized particles or contaminants from the feed
material to protect downstream equipment and improve overall process efficiency.

 Sorting: Screens can be used to sort materials based on their physical properties, such as
density, shape, or color. This is utilized in recycling operations to separate different types
of recyclables.

 Grading: Screening is employed to grade materials based on their size distribution,

ensuring that products meet specific size specifications or standards.

 Dewatering: Screens with fine openings can be used to remove moisture from materials,
such as in wastewater treatment or sand dewatering applications.

Overall, screening is a versatile and essential process in various industries, allowing for the
separation and classification of materials based on their size or physical properties. It helps
optimize processes, improve product quality, and ensure efficient material handling and
utilization.

Screen analysis:

Screen analysis, also known as particle size analysis or sieve analysis, is a method used to
determine the particle size distribution of a granular material. It involves passing the material
through a series of screens with progressively smaller openings and measuring the amount of
material retained on each screen. The results provide valuable information about the size range,
uniformity, and distribution of particles within the material.

Here is an overview of the screen analysis process:

1. Sample Preparation: A representative sample of the material is collected and properly

prepared for analysis. The sample should be large enough to ensure accurate results while
still being manageable. It is important to ensure the sample is well-mixed to account for
any potential segregation.

2. Selection of Sieves: A set of sieves with different-sized openings is chosen based on the
desired range of particle sizes to be analyzed. The sieves are typically stacked in
ascending order of opening size, with the largest opening at the top and the smallest at the
bottom. The sieves can be made of various materials, such as wire mesh or perforated
plates, and conform to specific size standards (e.g., ASTM, ISO).

3. Sieving Process: The sample is placed on the top sieve of the stack, and the entire stack is
then mechanically or manually shaken for a specified duration. The shaking action causes
 the smaller particles to pass through the openings of the sieves, while the larger particles
are retained on the respective sieves.

4. Weighing and Recording: After the sieving process is complete, the material retained on
each sieve is carefully collected, weighed, and recorded. The weight of each fraction is
typically expressed as a percentage of the total sample weight or as a cumulative
percentage.

5. Data Analysis: The collected data is then used to construct a particle size distribution
curve or histogram. The curve represents the percentage of material retained versus the
particle size (usually presented on a logarithmic scale). The curve can be analyzed to
determine parameters such as the mean particle size, median particle size, and span (a
measure of particle size distribution width).

It's important to note that screen analysis has limitations. It is suitable for granular materials
within a certain particle size range and may not accurately measure particles outside of that
range. Additionally, the method may not capture irregularly shaped particles or account for
particle shape factors that can influence material behavior.

Screen analysis is widely used in various industries, including mining, construction,

pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and food processing. It provides valuable insights into the particle
size characteristics of materials, which are crucial for process optimization, quality control, and
determining the suitability of materials for specific applications.

Tyler standard screen series (or U.S sieve series)

The Tyler Standard Screen Series includes a range of sieves with mesh sizes that follow a
logarithmic progression. The series starts with a coarse mesh size at the top and progresses to
finer mesh sizes as you move down the series. Each sieve in the series has a designated number
and an associated opening size. The standard series typically includes the following sieve sizes:

The Tyler Standard Screen Series provides a standardized method for describing particle size
ranges, facilitating consistent communication and comparison of particle size data among
different laboratories and industries. By conducting sieve analysis using the Tyler Standard
Screen Series, the particle size distribution of a material can be determined, enabling various
applications such as quality control, material characterization, and process optimization.

Classification of screen:

Screens can be classified based on various factors, including their design, construction,
application, and mode of operation. Here are some common classifications of screens:

1. Based on Design:
  Flat Screen: A flat screen consists of a flat surface with evenly spaced openings. It
is commonly used for coarse screening applications.

 Inclined Screen: An inclined screen is tilted at an angle, typically between 15 to

30 degrees. It facilitates the movement of material across the screen surface and is
suitable for medium to fine screening.

 Trommel Screen: A trommel screen consists of a cylindrical drum with perforated

openings. It rotates to separate materials based on size as they pass through the
drum.

 Grizzly Screen: A grizzly screen has robust, heavy-duty bars or grates to remove
oversized materials before they reach the primary crusher or processing
equipment.

2. Based on Construction:

 Wire Mesh Screen: Wire mesh screens are made of woven or welded wire mesh
with uniform openings. They are versatile and commonly used in various
industries.

 Perforated Plate Screen: Perforated plate screens have holes or slots punched
through metal plates. They provide high strength and are suitable for heavy-duty
applications.

 Synthetic Media Screen: Synthetic media screens are made of synthetic materials
such as polyurethane or rubber. They offer high wear resistance and can be
designed with specific opening shapes and patterns.

3. Based on Application:

 Scalping Screen: Scalping screens are used to remove large particles or oversize
materials from the feed stream.

 Sizing Screen: Sizing screens classify materials into different size fractions based
on the opening size of the screen surface.

 Dewatering Screen: Dewatering screens remove moisture from the material by

draining or drying the undersize fraction.

 Trash Screen: Trash screens are used to remove debris, such as leaves or large
particles, from wastewater or industrial processes.

4. Based on Mode of Operation:

  Vibrating Screen: Vibrating screens use vibration to move the material across the
screen surface. They can have linear or circular motion and are efficient for high-
capacity screening.

 Gyratory Screen: Gyratory screens use gyratory or circular motion to separate

materials. They are suitable for fine screening and high-speed applications.

 Static Screen: Static screens have a fixed screen surface and rely on gravity or
airflow to separate materials. They are commonly used for basic separation or
preliminary screening.

These classifications provide a general overview of the types of screens available. The selection
of the appropriate screen depends on the specific application requirements, material
characteristics, desired separation efficiency, and capacity considerations

Mesh No:

Mesh number, also known as mesh size or mesh count, is a measurement used to describe the
size of the openings in a screen or sieve. It indicates the number of openings per linear inch or
centimeter of the screen. The mesh number determines the size of the particles that can pass
through the screen and is commonly used in sieve analysis and particle size determination.

Mesh numbers are typically expressed as a whole number or a range, such as 10 mesh, 60 mesh,
or 80-100 mesh. The higher the mesh number, the finer the screen and smaller the openings.
Conversely, a lower mesh number indicates a coarser screen with larger openings.

The relationship between mesh number and opening size can vary depending on the standard or
specification being followed. Different countries and industries may have their own mesh size
standards. However, the most commonly used mesh size standards are the U.S. Standard Sieve
Series (ASTM E11) and the Tyler Standard Screen Series.

In the U.S. Standard Sieve Series, the mesh number represents the number of openings per inch.
For example, a 10 mesh screen has 10 openings per linear inch, while a 60 mesh screen has 60
openings per linear inch. The opening sizes decrease as the mesh number increases.

In the Tyler Standard Screen Series, the mesh number corresponds to the approximate opening
size in micrometers (µm). For instance, a 10 mesh screen has an approximate opening size of
2,000 micrometers, while a 60 mesh screen has an approximate opening size of 250 micrometers.

It's important to note that mesh number alone does not provide a precise measurement of particle
size. The relationship between mesh size and particle size can be affected by factors such as the
shape and distribution of particles, as well as the specific design and construction of the screen.
For accurate particle size analysis, sieve analysis is conducted using standardized sieves with
known mesh sizes, and the results are typically reported in terms of the percentage of material
retained on each sieve.

Screen opening:

Screen opening refers to the size of the individual openings or apertures in a screen or sieve. It
determines the maximum size of particles that can pass through the screen and is an important
parameter in sieve analysis and particle size determination.

The screen opening is typically defined as the distance between adjacent wires or bars in the
screen. In wire mesh screens, it is the clear space between the intersecting wires. In perforated
plate screens, it is the diameter or size of the holes punched through the plate.

The screen opening size is usually expressed in terms of the linear dimension of the openings,
such as inches or millimeters. For example, a screen may have an opening size of 1/4 inch or 6
mm.

The screen opening directly influences the size distribution of particles that can pass through the
screen. Smaller openings allow only smaller particles to pass, while larger openings permit larger
particles to pass. The selection of the appropriate screen opening depends on the specific
application, desired particle size range, and the characteristics of the material being screened.

It's important to note that the actual particle size passing through a screen opening may not be
exactly equal to the opening size. The shape and size distribution of particles, as well as other
factors like moisture content and agglomeration, can affect the particle behavior and the passage
through the screen.

Sieve analysis is commonly used to determine the particle size distribution of a material by
passing it through a series of screens with different opening sizes. The amount of material
retained on each screen is measured, and the data is used to construct a particle size distribution
curve or histogram.

The screen opening plays a critical role in controlling the size and quality of the separated or
classified materials in various industries, including mining, construction, pharmaceuticals,
agriculture, and food processing. Proper selection and maintenance of screens are essential to
achieve accurate and efficient particle size separation.

Types of screening equipment:

There are several types of screening equipment available, each designed for specific applications
and operating conditions. Here are some common types of screening equipment:

1. Vibrating Screens: Vibrating screens are widely used in various industries and are
characterized by their vibrating motion. They consist of a screen surface that vibrates in a
 circular, linear, or elliptical motion, allowing for efficient screening of a wide range of
materials.

2. Trommel Screens: Trommel screens, also known as rotary screens or drum screens, have
a cylindrical shape and rotate to separate materials based on size. They are commonly
used in mining, construction, and waste management applications.

3. Inclined Screens: Inclined screens have a tilted or inclined screen surface, typically at an
angle of 15 to 30 degrees. This design promotes the movement of material across the
screen and enhances the screening efficiency.

4. Static Screens: Static screens have a fixed screen surface and rely on gravity or airflow to
separate materials. They are commonly used for preliminary or basic screening.

5. Flip-Flow Screens: Flip-flow screens use elastic mesh or rubber panels that alternately
flex and release to create a "flip-flow" motion. This design is effective for screening
materials with high moisture content, sticky or fine particles, or difficult-to-screen
materials.

6. Gyratory Screens: Gyratory screens use gyratory or circular motion to separate materials.
They are suitable for fine screening and high-speed applications, offering high screening
efficiency and accuracy.

7. Scalping Screens: Scalping screens are designed to remove oversized materials or

contaminants from the feed stream. They typically have large openings or grid-like
structures to facilitate the removal of coarse materials.

8. Dewatering Screens: Dewatering screens are used to remove moisture from the material,
often in conjunction with other screening equipment. They can employ various methods
such as vibration, gravity, or mechanical pressure to dewater the material.

9. Disc Screens: Disc screens consist of rotating discs with specific-sized openings that
separate materials based on size. They are commonly used in waste management and
recycling applications.

10. Finger Screens: Finger screens have multiple finger-like projections or decks that vibrate
to separate materials. They are particularly effective in handling sticky or difficult-to-
screen materials.

These are just a few examples of screening equipment types available in the industry. The
selection of the appropriate screening equipment depends on factors such as the material
characteristics, desired particle size range, capacity requirements, and specific application needs.

Construction, working; Grizzlies:

Grizzlies, also known as grizzly screens or grizzly feeders, are robust screening devices
commonly used in mining, quarrying, and aggregate industries. They are primarily designed to
handle large-sized materials and act as a coarse separation mechanism.

Construction of Grizzlies: Grizzlies typically consist of a series of parallel steel bars or rails
arranged in a grid pattern. The bars are spaced apart to allow smaller materials to pass through
while retaining larger rocks or debris. The bars are usually made of heavy-duty steel to withstand
the impact and abrasion from the incoming material.

Working Principle of Grizzlies: The working principle of grizzlies involves the material being
fed onto the top of the grizzly screen. The larger rocks or oversize material cannot pass through
the gaps between the bars and are retained on top of the grizzly. Meanwhile, the smaller-sized
material and fines can pass through the openings and continue down the screening process.

Grizzlies are typically inclined at an angle to encourage the material to move along the screen
surface. This inclination aids in the movement of the material and prevents blockages or
bridging.

Industrial Application of Grizzlies: Grizzlies find extensive use in various industries, including
mining, quarrying, and construction. Some specific applications of grizzlies include:

1. Primary Crushing: Grizzlies are often used at the primary stage of crushing operations to
remove oversized rocks before they enter the crusher. This helps protect the crusher from
damage and ensures efficient operation.

2. Sorting and Scalping: Grizzlies are used to separate different sizes of materials and scalp
off the fines. By removing the larger rocks and debris, grizzlies help improve the
downstream processing efficiency and prevent equipment clogging.

3. Vibrating Grizzlies: Some grizzlies are equipped with vibrating mechanisms, such as an
eccentric shaft or vibratory motors, to enhance the separation process. Vibrations help
agitate the material, improving the flow and separation efficiency.

4. Underground Mining: In underground mining operations, grizzlies are commonly used as

part of the ore pass systems. They act as a coarse filter to prevent oversized rocks from
entering the ore pass and clogging the transport system.

Overall, grizzlies play a crucial role in the initial stage of material processing by separating and
removing oversized material. Their robust construction and efficient working principle make
them suitable for handling heavy-duty applications and coarse separation requirements.

Construction, working Trommels:

Trommels, also known as rotary screens or drum screens, are cylindrical screening devices used
in various industries for separating and classifying materials based on size. They are commonly
employed in mining, construction, waste management, and composting applications.

Construction of Trommels: Trommels consist of a cylindrical drum or barrel that is inclined or

mounted horizontally. The drum is usually made of metal or plastic and is perforated with screen
openings of different sizes. The screen openings can be circular, square, or rectangular,
depending on the specific application and desired screening outcome. The size and arrangement
of the openings determine the separation efficiency and the range of particle sizes that can be
screened.

The drum is supported by a frame and is typically driven by a motor or gearbox. The rotational
speed of the drum can be adjusted to control the residence time of the material inside the
trommel.

Working Principle of Trommels: The working principle of trommels involves the material being
fed into the inlet end of the drum. As the drum rotates, the material moves along the length of the
drum due to the inclination or rotational motion. The smaller particles or fines pass through the
screen openings and are discharged through the lower end of the drum. Meanwhile, the larger
particles, rocks, or oversize material are retained inside the drum and are discharged at the end of
the screening process.

The rotation of the drum, combined with the inclination and the screen openings, facilitates the
separation of different-sized particles. The tumbling action of the material inside the drum helps
to break up agglomerates, promote screening efficiency, and prevent blockages.

Industrial Application of Trommels: Trommels are used in a variety of industrial applications,

including:

1. Mining and Aggregate Processing: Trommels are commonly used in mining and
aggregate operations to screen and classify ores, rocks, gravel, and other bulk materials.
They can separate materials into different size fractions, helping to improve processing
efficiency and product quality.

2. Waste Management and Recycling: Trommels are utilized in waste management facilities
to separate and sort different types of waste, such as municipal solid waste, construction
and demolition debris, and compost. They help in recovering recyclable materials and
separating fines and oversize materials.

3. Biomass and Composting: Trommels are employed in the biomass industry and
composting facilities to classify and screen organic materials. They help remove
contaminants and ensure the desired particle size distribution for further processing.
 4. Soil Screening: Trommels are used in soil remediation projects and landscaping
applications to screen and separate soil, rocks, and other debris. They help in preparing
soil for gardening, construction, or land reclamation.

The versatility of trommels, combined with their efficient screening capabilities and ability to
handle various materials, makes them a popular choice for many industries requiring effective
size separation.

Comparison of Grizzlies and Trommels:

Certainly! Here's a comparison of grizzlies and trommels in a table form:

Aspect Grizzlies Trommels

Cylindrical drum or barrel with perforated

Construction Consist of parallel steel bars or rails screen openings

Screening Material is retained on top of the Smaller particles pass through the screen
Principle grizzly openings

Separation and classification of various

Application Coarse separation, primary crushing materials

Particle Size
Range Suitable for larger-sized materials Can handle a wide range of particle sizes

Good for removing oversized Effective in screening and classifying

Efficiency material materials

Movement Stationary Rotating drum

Limited adaptability to different Can be designed with different screen

Flexibility materials openings

Drum maintenance and screen

Maintenance Relatively simple replacement may be required

Space
Requirement Generally larger footprint Requires less space compared to grizzlies

Limited applications, primarily for Wide range of applications, versatile

Versatility coarse separation screening capabilities
It's important to note that the specific characteristics and performance of grizzlies and trommels
may vary depending on the design, size, and application requirements. This table provides a
general overview of the main differences between the two types of screening equipment.

Vibrating screens:

Vibrating screens are widely used in various industries for the screening and sorting of materials.
They utilize vibrating motion to separate particles based on size, shape, and other properties.
Here's some information about vibrating screens:

Construction:

 Vibrating screens consist of a screen box, which houses the screen media and the drive
unit.

 The screen box is supported by springs or suspension devices to allow for vibration and
movement.

 The screen media, commonly made of woven wire mesh or synthetic materials, is
stretched over the screen frame.

Working Principle:

 Vibrating screens generate vibration through a vibratory motor or eccentric shaft that is
mounted on the screen box.

 The vibration causes the screen media to vibrate, allowing the material to pass through
the openings in the screen media.

 The material is fed onto the screen surface, and the vibrating motion separates it into
different size fractions.

 The inclination angle and vibration characteristics can be adjusted to optimize the
screening process.

Types of Vibrating Screens:

 Circular Vibrating Screens: The screen box has a circular motion, which helps to
efficiently separate and classify materials. They are commonly used in mining, quarrying,
and aggregate industries.

 Linear Vibrating Screens: The screen box has a linear motion, providing efficient
screening of linearly arranged materials. They are often used in industries such as
chemical, pharmaceutical, and food processing.
  Elliptical Vibrating Screens: These screens have an elliptical motion, combining the
advantages of both circular and linear motion. They provide high screening efficiency
and are suitable for fine particle separation.

Screening Efficiency and Control:

 The efficiency of vibrating screens is influenced by factors such as the size and shape of
the screen openings, amplitude and frequency of vibration, material feed rate, and
moisture content.

 Additional features like screen inclination, deck inclination, and screening media
selection can be adjusted to optimize screening performance.

 Some vibrating screens come with multiple decks, allowing for multiple stages of
screening and precise control over particle size distribution.

Industrial Applications:

 Mining and Quarrying: Vibrating screens are extensively used in the mining and
quarrying industry to separate and classify minerals and aggregates.

 Recycling and Waste Management: They are used to separate different fractions of waste
materials, such as plastics, paper, and metals, for recycling purposes.

 Construction and Aggregates: Vibrating screens are utilized to separate construction

materials, such as sand, gravel, and crushed stones, for various applications.

 Chemical and Pharmaceutical: They are employed for particle size classification,
separation of bulk materials, and quality control in chemical and pharmaceutical
processes.

 Food and Beverage: Vibrating screens are used for grading, sorting, and dewatering food
products, such as grains, powders, and beverages.

Vibrating screens offer efficient and precise screening capabilities for a wide range of materials.
Their versatility, adjustable parameters, and high throughput make them an essential tool in
many industries.

UNIT IV

Definition of filtration:
Filtration is a process used to separate solids or suspended particles from a fluid or gas by
passing it through a porous medium, known as a filter. The filter retains the solid particles while
allowing the fluid or gas to pass through, resulting in the separation of the desired components.

Filtration is commonly employed in various industries and applications, including water

treatment, air purification, pharmaceutical manufacturing, chemical processing, oil refining, and
many others. It serves to remove impurities, contaminants, or unwanted particles from the fluid
or gas, thereby improving the quality or purity of the end product or ensuring the proper
functioning of equipment.

The filtration process typically involves the following steps:

1. Filtration Medium/Filter: A filter is selected based on the specific requirements of the

process. Filters can be made of various materials such as paper, cloth, metal, or synthetic
membranes. They are designed with specific pore sizes to retain particles of desired sizes.

2. Filtration Mechanism: The fluid or gas to be filtered is passed through the filter medium.
The medium captures and retains solid particles, while allowing the fluid or gas to pass
through.

3. Retention and Cake Formation: As the fluid or gas flows through the filter, solid particles
are trapped on the surface of the filter medium, forming a layer called the filter cake. This
cake helps to enhance the filtration efficiency by creating an additional barrier for finer
particles.

4. Filtrate Collection: The filtered fluid or gas that has passed through the filter is known as
the filtrate. It is collected separately from the retained particles.

5. Cleaning or Replacement: Over time, the filter medium may become clogged with
retained particles, reducing its effectiveness. The filter may need to be cleaned or
replaced periodically to maintain efficient filtration.

Filtration is a widely used process to separate solids from fluids or gases, and its efficiency
depends on factors such as the filter medium's properties, pore size, flow rate, pressure, and the
characteristics of the particles or contaminants being removed.

Filter media

Filter media refers to the material or substance used in a filtration system to capture and retain
particles while allowing the fluid or gas to pass through. The choice of filter media depends on
the specific application and the type of particles or contaminants that need to be removed.

There are various types of filter media available, each with its own characteristics and suitability
for different filtration purposes. Some common types of filter media include:
 1. Paper: Paper filters are commonly used in air and liquid filtration. They are often made of
cellulose or a combination of cellulose and synthetic fibers. Paper filters can effectively
capture solid particles and offer good filtration efficiency.

2. Cloth: Cloth filters, also known as fabric filters, are made of woven or non-woven
materials such as cotton, polyester, or nylon. They are used in applications where high
strength and resistance to chemical or thermal degradation are required. Cloth filters are
commonly used in liquid filtration processes.

3. Membranes: Membrane filters are thin, porous films made of materials like polymer,
ceramic, or metal. They have precise pore sizes and are used for fine filtration or
separation of particles, microorganisms, or macromolecules. Membrane filters are widely
used in laboratory settings, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and water treatment.

4. Activated Carbon: Activated carbon filters are effective in removing impurities, odors,
and certain chemicals from gases or liquids. Activated carbon has a large surface area
with adsorptive properties, allowing it to trap and retain contaminants through adsorption.

5. Sand or Gravel: Sand and gravel are commonly used as filter media in water treatment
processes. They help in the removal of larger particles and sediment through physical
filtration.

6. Metal or Synthetic Mesh: Mesh filters consist of a woven or knitted metal or synthetic
mesh with specific pore sizes. They are used in applications where particles of a
particular size need to be retained while allowing fluid or gas to pass through. Mesh
filters are commonly used in industries such as oil and gas, automotive, and food
processing.

These are just a few examples of filter media. The selection of filter media depends on factors
such as the filtration requirements, particle size distribution, chemical compatibility, temperature,
and pressure conditions of the filtration process. Each type of filter media has its advantages and
limitations, and it's important to choose the appropriate media for the specific filtration
application.

Characteristics of filter media

Filter media used in filtration systems possess certain characteristics that determine their
effectiveness and suitability for different applications. Here are some key characteristics of filter
media:

1. Pore Size: Filter media have specific pore sizes that determine the size range of particles
they can effectively capture and retain. The pore size can range from macroscopic (larger
than 50 microns) to microscopic (sub-micron and nanoscale). The selection of the
 appropriate pore size depends on the desired level of filtration and the size distribution of
particles to be removed.

2. Filtration Efficiency: The filtration efficiency refers to the ability of the filter media to
capture and retain particles of a specific size or within a certain range. It is typically
expressed as a percentage and indicates the proportion of particles removed by the filter
media. The filtration efficiency can vary depending on the pore size, filter media
thickness, surface area, and other factors.

3. Flow Rate: The flow rate is the speed at which the fluid or gas passes through the filter
media. Filter media with larger pore sizes generally allow for higher flow rates, while
smaller pores may result in slower flow rates. The flow rate is an important consideration
to ensure adequate filtration while maintaining efficient fluid or gas throughput.

4. Physical Strength and Durability: Filter media should possess sufficient physical strength
and durability to withstand the filtration process without disintegrating or degrading. The
media must be able to resist rupture, tearing, or clogging during operation. The strength
and durability of filter media depend on factors such as the material composition,
thickness, and manufacturing process.

5. Chemical Compatibility: Filter media should be chemically compatible with the fluid or
gas being filtered. They should resist degradation, swelling, or chemical reactions when
exposed to the specific substances present in the filtration process. Chemical
compatibility ensures the longevity and performance of the filter media.

6. Temperature Resistance: Some filtration applications involve high temperatures,

requiring filter media that can withstand thermal stress without degradation or loss of
filtration efficiency. Temperature resistance is an important characteristic for filter media
used in applications such as hot gases, oil processing, or industrial processes involving
elevated temperatures.

7. Adsorption Capacity: Certain filter media, such as activated carbon or specialized

adsorbent materials, have the ability to adsorb contaminants or impurities from fluids or
gases. The adsorption capacity of the filter media determines their ability to remove
specific chemicals, odors, or dissolved substances.

8. Regenerability: In some cases, filter media can be regenerated or cleaned for reuse. This
characteristic is particularly valuable in applications where the filter media is exposed to
frequent or significant contamination and replacement is not practical or cost-effective.
Regenerability can help extend the lifespan and reduce the operating costs associated
with filtration.
These characteristics collectively influence the performance, efficiency, and lifespan of filter
media in various filtration applications. It's important to consider these factors when selecting the
appropriate filter media for a specific filtration process.

Filter aids and its characteristics

Characteristics of filter aids may include:

 High porosity and permeability: Filter aids typically have a high porosity, allowing fluid
or gas to pass through while retaining particles.

 Particle retention: Filter aids enhance particle retention by forming a filter cake or by
increasing the effective filtration surface area.

 Filtration efficiency: Filter aids improve the overall efficiency of the filtration process by
capturing smaller particles and reducing the load on the filter media.

 Compatibility: Filter aids should be compatible with the filter media and the fluid or gas
being filtered to ensure optimal performance and avoid any adverse reactions.

 Regenerability: Some filter aids can be regenerated or cleaned for reuse, reducing
operating costs and waste generation.

 Chemical and thermal stability: Filter aids should exhibit stability and resist chemical
degradation or breakdown under the operating conditions of the filtration process.

The specific characteristics of filter aids can vary depending on the type of aid used and the
intended application. It's important to select the appropriate filter aid based on the filtration
requirements and the characteristics of the substances being filtered.

Types of filtration

There are several types of filtration used in various industries and applications. The choice of
filtration method depends on the nature of the substances being filtered, the desired level of
filtration, and the specific requirements of the process. Here are some common types of
filtration:

1. Gravity Filtration: This is a simple filtration method where gravity is used to pass the
liquid or gas through a filter medium. The substance to be filtered is poured into a
container with a filter medium, and gravity pulls the liquid or gas through the filter,
leaving behind the solid particles or impurities.

2. Pressure Filtration: In pressure filtration, external pressure is applied to force the liquid or
gas through the filter medium. This method is often used when a higher filtration rate is
 required or when dealing with viscous liquids. It is commonly employed in industries
such as chemical processing, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and water treatment.

3. Vacuum Filtration: Vacuum filtration involves applying a vacuum or negative pressure to

draw the liquid or gas through the filter medium. This method is particularly useful for
filtering solids from liquids or for separating precipitates from a solution. Vacuum
filtration is commonly used in laboratory settings and in industries such as food and
beverage, pharmaceuticals, and wastewater treatment.

4. Centrifugal Filtration: Centrifugal filtration utilizes centrifugal force to separate particles

from a liquid or gas. The substance to be filtered is introduced into a spinning centrifuge
or centrifugal filter, and the centrifugal force causes the particles to move towards the
outer edge while the filtrate moves towards the center. This method is effective for
separating solid particles from liquids with high solids content.

5. Membrane Filtration: Membrane filtration involves the use of a semi-permeable

membrane to separate particles or molecules based on size or molecular weight.
Membrane filters have precise pore sizes, allowing for selective separation of substances.
This method is commonly used for sterile filtration, separation of microorganisms,
removal of fine particles, and concentration or purification of solutions.

6. Adsorptive Filtration: Adsorptive filtration involves the use of adsorbent materials, such
as activated carbon, to remove impurities or contaminants from a fluid or gas. The
adsorbent material captures the impurities through adsorption onto its surface, effectively
purifying the substance. Adsorptive filtration is often used in air purification, water
treatment, and the removal of organic compounds or odors.

7. Depth Filtration: Depth filtration involves passing the substance through a filter medium
with a complex structure, such as a fibrous or granular material. The filter medium has
varying pore sizes throughout its thickness, allowing for the retention of particles at
different levels. Depth filtration is effective for removing a wide range of particle sizes
and is commonly used in applications like oil filtration, air filtration, and beer or wine
filtration.

These are just a few examples of the different types of filtration methods available. Each method
has its advantages and is suitable for specific applications and filtration requirements. The
selection of the appropriate filtration method depends on factors such as the nature of the
substances being filtered, desired filtration efficiency, throughput, and the characteristics of the
filtration process.

Cake filtration
Cake filtration is a type of filtration process that involves the formation of a layer of filter cake
on the surface of a filter medium. The filter cake is composed of the particles or solids that are
being retained and separated from the fluid or gas being filtered. The cake acts as an additional
filtration layer, enhancing the efficiency of the filtration process.

The cake filtration process typically involves the following steps:

1. Pre-coat or Formation: Before the filtration process begins, a pre-coat may be applied to
the filter medium. The pre-coat is a thin layer of filter aid or other substances that helps
improve the filtration efficiency and provides a base for the filter cake to form. The pre-
coat can assist in capturing smaller particles and preventing the filter medium from
clogging.

2. Filter Medium and Filter Cake Formation: The fluid or gas to be filtered is passed
through the filter medium, which can be a porous material like a cloth, paper, or a
membrane. As the particles or solids are carried by the fluid or gas, they start
accumulating on the surface of the filter medium, gradually forming a layer known as the
filter cake. The filter cake acts as a barrier and retains the particles while allowing the
filtrate to pass through.

3. Filtrate Collection: The filtrate, which is the filtered fluid or gas that has passed through
the filter cake and the filter medium, is collected separately from the retained particles.
The filtrate is typically cleaner and free from the particles or solids that were captured by
the filter cake.

4. Cake Drying or Washing: Depending on the specific application, the filter cake may
undergo further treatment after filtration. In some cases, the filter cake may be dried to
remove moisture or washed to remove any remaining impurities. These additional steps
can help improve the quality of the filter cake or prepare it for further processing or
disposal.

Cake filtration is commonly used in various industries, including chemical processing,

pharmaceutical manufacturing, mining, wastewater treatment, and food and beverage production.
It is particularly suitable for applications where the particles or solids to be separated are
relatively large or when a high level of particle retention is required. The filter cake's formation
and accumulation enhance the filtration efficiency and extend the lifespan of the filter medium
by providing an additional filtration layer.

Deep bed filtration

Deep bed filtration is a type of filtration process that involves the passage of a fluid through a
thick layer of filter media. It is characterized by a high depth or thickness of the filter bed, which
allows for effective removal of particles and impurities from the fluid.
In deep bed filtration, the fluid to be filtered flows through the filter media in a perpendicular or
downward direction. The filter media can consist of various materials, such as sand, activated
carbon, anthracite, or other granular substances with different particle sizes and properties.

The process of deep bed filtration typically involves the following steps:

1. Loading the Filter Bed: The filter bed is loaded with the filter media, forming a thick
layer. The media particles are usually graded in size, with larger particles at the bottom
and smaller particles toward the top, creating a gradient in the filter bed.

2. Inlet and Outlet: The fluid to be filtered is introduced into the filter bed through an inlet,
allowing it to percolate or pass through the media. The fluid flows vertically or
horizontally through the bed, depending on the design of the filtration system.

3. Particle Capture: As the fluid passes through the filter media, particles, suspended solids,
or impurities are captured within the deep bed. The depth and thickness of the filter bed
provide ample surface area for the particles to be trapped and retained.

4. Filtrate Collection: The filtered fluid, called the filtrate, exits the filter bed through an
outlet or drainage system. The filtrate typically undergoes further processing or is
collected for use, while the captured particles remain in the filter bed.

5. Backwashing or Regeneration: Over time, the filter bed accumulates captured particles
and may become clogged or less efficient. To maintain the filtration performance, the
filter bed may undergo backwashing or regeneration. This process involves reversing the
flow of fluid through the filter bed to dislodge and remove the trapped particles, restoring
the filter bed's effectiveness.

Deep bed filtration is widely used in various industries, including water treatment, wastewater
treatment, oil and gas, chemical processing, and pharmaceutical manufacturing. It offers several
advantages, such as high particle retention capacity, long operational life, and the ability to
handle high flow rates. The depth and thickness of the filter bed allow for effective removal of a
wide range of particle sizes and impurities, making deep bed filtration suitable for applications
where stringent filtration requirements are necessary.

Classification of filter equipment:

Filter equipment can be classified into various categories based on different criteria. Here are
some common classifications of filter equipment:

1. Filtration Mechanism:

 Gravity Filtration: Filtration relies on the force of gravity to pass the fluid through
a filter medium.
  Pressure Filtration: Filtration is achieved by applying external pressure to force
the fluid through the filter medium.

 Vacuum Filtration: Filtration involves the application of a vacuum or negative

pressure to draw the fluid through the filter medium.

 Centrifugal Filtration: Filtration is accomplished by utilizing centrifugal force to

separate the fluid from the particles or solids.

2. Filter Medium:

 Depth Filters: Utilize a porous filter medium with varying pore sizes throughout
its thickness to trap particles at different levels.

 Membrane Filters: Employ a semi-permeable membrane with precise pore sizes to

separate particles based on size or molecular weight.

 Granular Filters: Consist of a bed of granular filter media, such as sand or

activated carbon, through which the fluid passes, trapping particles.

 Fabric Filters: Use woven or non-woven fabric as the filter medium to capture
particles and solids.

3. Filter Configuration:

 Plate and Frame Filters: Comprise a series of plates and frames with filter media
in between, allowing the fluid to pass through the media and be collected.

 Cartridge Filters: Consist of cylindrical filter cartridges, usually made of fabric or

membrane, through which the fluid flows, retaining particles.

 Bag Filters: Employ a bag-shaped filter media made of fabric or synthetic

materials to capture particles while allowing the fluid to pass through.

 Drum Filters: Use a rotating drum with a filter medium, allowing the fluid to pass
through the drum while retaining particles on the surface.

4. Application and Industry:

 Water Filtration: Equipment designed specifically for water treatment and

purification, including sediment filters, activated carbon filters, and reverse
osmosis systems.

 Air Filtration: Devices used to remove particles, pollutants, or contaminants from

the air, such as HVAC filters, air purifiers, and industrial dust collectors.
  Oil Filtration: Equipment employed in oil processing and lubrication systems to
remove impurities, contaminants, and water from oils, such as oil filters and oil
purifiers.

 Pharmaceutical Filtration: Specialized filtration equipment used in the

pharmaceutical industry to ensure the sterility and purity of pharmaceutical
products, including membrane filters, sterile filters, and filter presses.

These are general classifications of filter equipment, and there may be additional categories
based on specific filtration requirements, industries, or applications. The selection of filter
equipment depends on the desired filtration mechanism, the nature of the fluid or gas being
filtered, the particle size distribution, and the specific filtration objectives.

Clarifying filter

Filter equipment can be classified into various categories based on different criteria. Here are
some common classifications of filter equipment:

1. Filtration Mechanism:

 Gravity Filtration: Filtration relies on the force of gravity to pass the fluid through
a filter medium.

 Pressure Filtration: Filtration is achieved by applying external pressure to force

the fluid through the filter medium.

 Vacuum Filtration: Filtration involves the application of a vacuum or negative

pressure to draw the fluid through the filter medium.

 Centrifugal Filtration: Filtration is accomplished by utilizing centrifugal force to

separate the fluid from the particles or solids.

2. Filter Medium:

 Depth Filters: Utilize a porous filter medium with varying pore sizes throughout
its thickness to trap particles at different levels.

 Membrane Filters: Employ a semi-permeable membrane with precise pore sizes to

separate particles based on size or molecular weight.

 Granular Filters: Consist of a bed of granular filter media, such as sand or

activated carbon, through which the fluid passes, trapping particles.

 Fabric Filters: Use woven or non-woven fabric as the filter medium to capture
particles and solids.
 3. Filter Configuration:

 Plate and Frame Filters: Comprise a series of plates and frames with filter media
in between, allowing the fluid to pass through the media and be collected.

 Cartridge Filters: Consist of cylindrical filter cartridges, usually made of fabric or

membrane, through which the fluid flows, retaining particles.

 Bag Filters: Employ a bag-shaped filter media made of fabric or synthetic

materials to capture particles while allowing the fluid to pass through.

 Drum Filters: Use a rotating drum with a filter medium, allowing the fluid to pass
through the drum while retaining particles on the surface.

4. Application and Industry:

 Water Filtration: Equipment designed specifically for water treatment and

purification, including sediment filters, activated carbon filters, and reverse
osmosis systems.

 Air Filtration: Devices used to remove particles, pollutants, or contaminants from

the air, such as HVAC filters, air purifiers, and industrial dust collectors.

 Oil Filtration: Equipment employed in oil processing and lubrication systems to

remove impurities, contaminants, and water from oils, such as oil filters and oil
purifiers.

 Pharmaceutical Filtration: Specialized filtration equipment used in the

pharmaceutical industry to ensure the sterility and purity of pharmaceutical
products, including membrane filters, sterile filters, and filter presses.

These are general classifications of filter equipment, and there may be additional categories
based on specific filtration requirements, industries, or applications. The selection of filter
equipment depends on the desired filtration mechanism, the nature of the fluid or gas being
filtered, the particle size distribution, and the specific filtration objectives.

Clarifying filter

A clarifying filter, also known as a clarification filter or a clarifier, is a type of filter equipment
used to remove fine particles, sediments, and impurities from a liquid, typically water or
wastewater. The primary purpose of a clarifying filter is to improve the clarity and quality of the
liquid by reducing its turbidity and removing suspended solids.

The operation of a clarifying filter involves the following steps:

 1. Inlet and Distribution: The liquid to be clarified enters the filter system through an inlet.
It is then evenly distributed across the filter media to ensure uniform flow and filtration.

2. Filtration Media: The clarifying filter utilizes a filter media with specific characteristics
to capture and retain particles and impurities. The filter media can consist of various
materials, such as sand, anthracite, activated carbon, or specialized filter media designed
for fine particle removal.

3. Particle Capture: As the liquid passes through the filter media, suspended solids, fine
particles, and impurities are trapped within the media bed. The filter media's porous
structure and the depth of the media allow for effective particle capture and retention.

4. Filtrate Collection: The filtered liquid, known as the filtrate, exits the clarifying filter
through an outlet or drainage system. The filtrate is clearer and has a reduced
concentration of suspended solids and impurities.

5. Backwashing or Cleaning: Over time, the accumulation of captured particles can reduce
the efficiency of the clarifying filter. To maintain its performance, the filter media is
periodically cleaned through a backwashing process. Backwashing involves reversing the
flow of liquid or introducing a fluid (typically water or air) to dislodge and remove the
trapped particles, restoring the filter's effectiveness.

Clarifying filters are commonly used in water treatment plants, wastewater treatment facilities,
and various industrial processes where the removal of suspended solids is essential. They play a
vital role in ensuring the quality, clarity, and cleanliness of the treated water or liquid. The
specific design, size, and filter media selection of a clarifying filter depend on factors such as the
flow rate, particle size distribution, required filtration efficiency, and the characteristics of the
liquid being treated.

Cake filter

A cake filter, in the context of filtration, refers to a filtration process where a cake-like layer of
solids forms on the surface of a filter medium, typically in a porous or permeable form. The cake
acts as a filtration layer that helps to capture and retain particles, impurities, or solids from a
liquid or gas stream.

The cake formation occurs as the particles or solids present in the fluid accumulate on the surface
of the filter medium. Over time, this layer thickens and becomes the filter cake. The filter cake
acts as a physical barrier, preventing the passage of particles while allowing the liquid or gas to
pass through.

Cake filtration is commonly used in various applications, including water treatment, wastewater
treatment, chemical processing, mining, and food and beverage industries. It is particularly
effective in separating fine particles or solids from a liquid stream.
The cake filter process typically involves the following steps:

1. Pre-coat (optional): In some cases, a pre-coat layer is applied to the filter medium before
filtration begins. The pre-coat layer can consist of filter aid materials, such as
diatomaceous earth or activated carbon, which help enhance the filtration efficiency and
support cake formation.

2. Filtration: The fluid containing particles or solids is passed through the filter medium,
and the particles start accumulating on the surface, gradually forming the filter cake. The
cake traps the particles while allowing the filtrate to pass through.

3. Cake Drying or Washing (optional): Depending on the specific requirements, the filter
cake may undergo additional treatment after filtration. It can be dried to remove moisture
or washed to remove any remaining impurities. These steps aim to improve the quality of
the filter cake or prepare it for further processing or disposal.

Cake filtration is a widely used and effective method for separating solids from liquids or gases.
The filter cake's formation and accumulation on the filter medium contribute to the overall
filtration efficiency and aid in achieving the desired separation or purification of the fluid stream.

Clarifying filter- principle, construction, working and industrial application of pressure

filters:

A clarifying filter, also known as a pressure filter, is a type of filtration equipment used for solid-
liquid separation. It operates on the principle of forcing a liquid under pressure through a filter
medium to separate the suspended solids or impurities from the liquid. Here's an overview of the
principle, construction, working, and industrial applications of pressure filters:

Principle: The principle behind a pressure filter involves applying pressure to a liquid
suspension, forcing it through a filter medium. The filter medium can be a porous material, such
as cloth, mesh, or a membrane, that allows the liquid to pass through while retaining the solid
particles or impurities. The pressure promotes efficient separation by facilitating the flow of the
liquid and enhancing the cake formation on the filter medium.

Construction: A pressure filter typically consists of the following components:

1. Filter Housing: The filter housing is a sturdy structure that encloses the filter medium and
holds the liquid under pressure.

2. Filter Medium: The filter medium is selected based on the specific application and
desired filtration efficiency. It is placed within the filter housing and acts as a barrier to
capture the suspended solids.

3. Inlet and Outlet Ports: The filter is equipped with inlet and outlet ports to allow the entry
and exit of the liquid being filtered.
 4. Pressure Source: A pressure source, such as a pump or compressed air system, is
connected to the filter to provide the required pressure for the filtration process.

5. Controls and Valves: Pressure filters may have controls and valves to regulate the
pressure, flow rate, and timing of the filtration process.

Working: The working of a pressure filter involves the following steps:

1. Loading: The liquid suspension, also called the slurry, is introduced into the filter under
pressure through the inlet port.

2. Filtration: The slurry flows through the filter medium, and the solid particles or
impurities are retained on the surface of the filter medium, forming a filter cake.

3. Filtrate Collection: The clarified liquid, known as the filtrate, passes through the filter
medium and is collected from the outlet port. The filtrate is free from the retained
particles or impurities.

4. Cake Removal and Cleaning: After the filtration process, the filter cake needs to be
removed from the filter medium. This can be accomplished by disassembling the filter
and manually removing the cake. The filter medium may also require cleaning or
replacement to maintain its effectiveness.

Industrial Applications: Pressure filters find extensive applications in various industries,

including:

1. Water Treatment: Pressure filters are used for municipal and industrial water treatment to
remove suspended solids, turbidity, and contaminants.

2. Chemical Processing: Pressure filters are employed in chemical manufacturing processes

to separate solids from liquid solutions or suspensions.

3. Mining and Mineral Processing: Pressure filters are used in mining operations for
dewatering of slurries, recovery of valuable minerals, and separation of tailings.

4. Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology: Pressure filters play a role in pharmaceutical and

biotechnology applications for clarification and purification of process liquids.

5. Food and Beverage: Pressure filters are utilized in the food and beverage industry for
removing particulates, clarification of liquids, and sterilization of liquids.

The selection of a pressure filter depends on factors such as the nature of the liquid, desired
filtration efficiency, particle size distribution, and throughput requirements. Different designs
and sizes of pressure filters are available to accommodate varying industrial needs

Plate and frame filter press:

A plate and frame filter press is a type of pressure filter commonly used for solid-liquid
separation. It consists of a series of filter plates and frames stacked together and held tightly with
a hydraulic or mechanical mechanism. The filter plates are equipped with a filter medium, such
as cloth or membrane, which allows the liquid to pass through while retaining the solid particles.
Here's a detailed explanation of the plate and frame filter press:

Construction:

1. Filter Plates: The filter plates are flat, rectangular plates with a central hole and are made
of rigid materials like polypropylene or stainless steel. They are typically covered with a
filter medium, such as filter cloth or filter membrane, on both sides to capture the solid
particles.

2. Filter Frames: The filter frames surround the filter plates and provide support and rigidity
to the filter press. They are also equipped with sealing elements, such as rubber gaskets
or O-rings, to prevent leakage between the plates.

3. Closure Mechanism: The closure mechanism, often hydraulic or mechanical, is used to

apply pressure and hold the plates and frames tightly together during filtration.

4. Inlet and Outlet Ports: The filter press has inlet and outlet ports for the introduction of the
slurry to be filtered and the collection of the filtrate, respectively.

5. Filtrate Channels: Channels or grooves are present on the plates and frames to guide the
filtrate flow towards the outlet ports.

6. Filtrate Collection Tray: A tray or basin is placed beneath the filter press to collect the
filtrate as it exits the outlet ports.

Working: The operation of a plate and frame filter press involves the following steps:

1. Loading and Pre-coating (optional): The filter press is prepared by placing a filter cloth or
pre-coat material, such as diatomaceous earth or activated carbon, onto the filter plates.
This pre-coat layer enhances filtration efficiency and aids in cake formation.

2. Filling: The slurry or suspension to be filtered is introduced into the filter press through
the inlet port. The slurry enters the space between the plates and frames, and the filtration
process begins.

3. Filtration: The slurry flows through the filter cloth or membrane on the filter plates, and
the solid particles are retained, forming a filter cake. The filtrate passes through the filter
medium and enters the filtrate channels, which direct it towards the outlet ports.
 4. Pressure Application: Once the filter press is filled with the slurry, pressure is applied to
enhance the filtration process. This can be achieved by using a hydraulic system to exert
pressure on the plates, forcing the slurry through the filter medium.

5. Filtrate Collection: The clarified liquid, called the filtrate, exits the filter press through
the outlet ports and is collected in the filtrate collection tray.

6. Cake Removal: After filtration, the filter cake needs to be removed from the filter plates.
This can be done by manually scraping or washing the cake from the plates. Some filter
presses have automatic cake discharge mechanisms to facilitate the removal process.

7. Cleaning and Maintenance: The filter plates and frames are cleaned, and the filter cloth or
membrane may be replaced or cleaned to maintain the filtration efficiency for subsequent
cycles.

Plate and frame filter presses are widely used in industries such as chemical processing,
pharmaceuticals, mining, wastewater treatment, and food and beverage. They are preferred when
a high filtration area, efficient cake formation, and easy cake removal are required. The size,
number of plates, filtration area, and operating pressure of a plate and frame filter press can vary
depending on the specific application and filtration requirements.

Rotary drum filter:

A rotary drum filter, also known as a rotary vacuum drum filter, is a type of continuous filtration
equipment used for solid-liquid separation. It consists of a rotating drum covered with a filter
medium, which allows the liquid to pass through while retaining the solid particles. The filter
medium can be a cloth, mesh, or porous membrane. Here's a detailed explanation of the rotary
drum filter:

Construction:

1. Drum: The drum is a cylindrical vessel that rotates on its horizontal axis. It is typically
made of stainless steel or a similar material and is divided into multiple compartments or
sectors.

2. Filter Medium: The filter medium is attached to the surface of the drum. It can be a cloth,
mesh, or porous membrane, depending on the specific application and filtration
requirements. The filter medium captures and retains the solid particles while allowing
the liquid to pass through.

3. Drive System: A motor and gear system are used to rotate the drum at a constant speed.
The drive system ensures the continuous movement of the drum during the filtration
process.
 4. Vacuum System: A vacuum system, usually consisting of a vacuum pump, is connected
to the interior of the drum. It creates a pressure differential across the filter medium,
assisting in liquid drainage and cake formation.

5. Scraper Mechanism: A scraper mechanism, such as a doctor blade, is positioned against

the surface of the drum to remove the accumulated filter cake during the filtration
process.

6. Discharge System: A discharge system, typically a chute or conveyor, is used to collect

and remove the discharged filter cake from the drum.

Working: The operation of a rotary drum filter involves the following steps:

1. Pre-coating (optional): Prior to the filtration process, a pre-coat material, such as

diatomaceous earth or perlite, can be applied to the surface of the drum. This pre-coat
layer improves filtration efficiency and aids in cake formation.

2. Filtration: The slurry or suspension to be filtered is introduced onto the surface of the
rotating drum. As the drum rotates, the liquid passes through the filter medium, and the
solid particles are retained, forming a filter cake on the outer surface of the drum. The
vacuum system assists in drawing the liquid through the filter medium, promoting
efficient liquid drainage.

3. Cake Formation: The retained solid particles accumulate on the filter medium, gradually
forming a filter cake. The vacuum applied to the interior of the drum helps in dewatering
the filter cake by drawing out the liquid.

4. Cake Removal: As the drum continues to rotate, the filter cake approaches the scraper
mechanism. The scraper mechanism scrapes the filter cake from the surface of the drum,
and it falls into the discharge system for further processing or disposal.

5. Cleaning and Maintenance: After the filter cake is removed, the filter medium is cleaned
to remove any remaining particles or impurities. This can be done by rinsing,
backwashing, or other cleaning methods.

Rotary drum filters are commonly used in various industries, including wastewater treatment,
mining, chemical processing, food and beverage, and pharmaceuticals. They are particularly
suitable for applications requiring continuous filtration, high filtration rates, and effective cake
formation. The size, drum speed, filtration area, and selection of the filter medium depend on
factors such as the nature of the slurry, particle size distribution, desired filtration efficiency, and
throughput requirements.

Centrifugal filters:
Centrifugal filters, also known as centrifugal separators or cyclone separators, are filtration
devices that utilize centrifugal force to separate solid particles from a liquid or gas stream. They
operate based on the principle that when a mixture is subjected to high-speed rotation, the denser
particles are forced towards the outer walls while the lighter fluid or gas remains in the center.
Here's a detailed explanation of centrifugal filters:

Construction: Centrifugal filters typically consist of the following components:

1. Inlet and Outlet Ports: The mixture to be filtered enters the centrifugal filter through an
inlet port, and the separated components are discharged through an outlet port.

2. Rotor: The rotor is a rotating component that imparts the centrifugal force to the mixture.
It can be a disk, cone, or cylindrical shape, and it is typically driven by an electric motor.

3. Housing: The housing surrounds the rotor and provides a controlled environment for the
separation process. It contains the necessary channels and chambers to guide the flow of
the mixture and separate the solid particles.

4. Collection Chamber: The separated solid particles accumulate in a collection chamber or

container, which can be periodically emptied or cleaned.

Working: The operation of a centrifugal filter involves the following steps:

1. Inlet and Acceleration: The mixture to be filtered is introduced into the centrifugal filter
through the inlet port. The rotor rapidly rotates, generating centrifugal force that pushes
the mixture towards the outer walls of the filter.

2. Separation: As the mixture moves towards the outer walls of the filter, the denser solid
particles are forced outward and settle on the inner surface of the filter housing. The
lighter liquid or gas remains in the central region.

3. Collection: The separated solid particles accumulate in the collection chamber or

container, which can be periodically emptied or cleaned.

4. Outlet: The clarified liquid or gas exits the centrifugal filter through the outlet port,
typically located near the center of the rotor.

Characteristics and Applications: Centrifugal filters offer several advantages and are used in
various industrial applications:

1. High Separation Efficiency: Centrifugal force provides efficient separation of solid

particles from the fluid or gas stream.

2. Compact and Space-saving: Centrifugal filters have a relatively small footprint and can
be integrated into existing systems easily.
 3. Continuous Operation: They can operate continuously without the need for frequent
maintenance or downtime.

4. Versatility: Centrifugal filters can handle a wide range of particle sizes and fluid
viscosities.

5. Scalability: They can be scaled up or down to accommodate different flow rates and
processing requirements.

Centrifugal filters find applications in industries such as wastewater treatment, oil and gas,
chemical processing, food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, and power generation. They are used
for tasks such as solid-liquid separation, particle removal, clarification, and gas-solid separation.
The specific design and configuration of a centrifugal filter may vary depending on the
application and desired performance parameters.

Suspended batch centrifuge:

A suspended batch centrifuge, also known as a suspended basket centrifuge or a peeler

centrifuge, is a type of centrifugal separation equipment used for the separation of solid and
liquid components in a batch process. It operates by subjecting the mixture to high-speed
rotation, causing the denser solid particles to settle on the inner wall of a perforated basket while
the lighter liquid or clarified liquid is collected in the surrounding space. Here's a detailed
explanation of a suspended batch centrifuge:

Construction: A suspended batch centrifuge typically consists of the following components:

1. Perforated Basket: The perforated basket is a cylindrical or conical vessel with numerous
holes or slots on its surface. It is made of a durable material, such as stainless steel, and is
designed to hold the mixture during the centrifugation process. The perforations allow the
liquid to pass through while retaining the solid particles.

2. Suspension Mechanism: The basket is suspended from the centrifuge housing using a
mechanical or hydraulic suspension mechanism. This allows the basket to rotate freely at
high speeds.

3. Drive System: A motor or an external drive system provides the necessary rotational
force to the basket. The drive system is typically located at the top of the centrifuge and is
connected to the basket through a shaft.

4. Discharge Mechanism: A discharge mechanism, such as a plow or scraper, is used to

remove the settled solid cake from the inner wall of the basket after the centrifugation
process is complete.

Working: The operation of a suspended batch centrifuge involves the following steps:
 1. Loading: The mixture to be separated is loaded into the perforated basket of the
centrifuge. The mixture can contain a solid-liquid or solid-liquid-liquid phase.

2. Centrifugation: The motor or external drive system rotates the basket at high speeds,
typically ranging from a few hundred to several thousand rotations per minute (RPM). As
the basket rotates, centrifugal force is generated, causing the solid particles to migrate
towards the inner wall of the basket.

3. Separation: The denser solid particles settle and accumulate on the inner wall of the
perforated basket, forming a cake. Meanwhile, the liquid or clarified liquid component
flows through the perforations and collects in the surrounding space, often referred to as
the liquid chamber.

4. Discharge: After the centrifugation process is complete, the rotational speed is reduced,
and the discharge mechanism is activated. The discharge mechanism removes the solid
cake from the basket by scraping or plowing it off the inner wall. The solid cake is then
collected for further processing or disposal.

Characteristics and Applications: Suspended batch centrifuges offer several advantages and are
used in various industrial applications:

1. Efficient Separation: The centrifugal force generated by the rotation of the basket ensures
effective separation of solid and liquid components.

2. Flexibility: Suspended batch centrifuges can handle a wide range of solid particle sizes
and can be adjusted to accommodate different process requirements.

3. Batch Processing: They are particularly suitable for batch processing applications, where
a specific quantity of mixture is processed at a time.

4. Versatility: Suspended batch centrifuges are used in industries such as chemical

processing, pharmaceuticals, food and beverage, and wastewater treatment for tasks such
as solid-liquid separation, crystallization, dewatering, and cake washing.

5. Scalability: They can be scaled up or down to handle varying batch sizes and processing
volumes.

It's important to note that the specific design and configuration of a suspended batch centrifuge
may vary depending on the application and desired separation efficiency.

Separation based on the motion of particles through fluids:

Separation based on the motion of particles through fluids refers to the process of separating
particles or components within a fluid mixture by exploiting their different behaviors or
characteristics during motion. This type of separation can be achieved through various
mechanisms, such as sedimentation, flotation, and cyclonic separation. Here are the explanations
of these separation methods:

1. Sedimentation: Sedimentation is a separation process that relies on the gravitational force

to separate particles of different densities. In a settling tank or clarifier, the mixture is
allowed to stand undisturbed, allowing the denser particles to settle down due to gravity
while the lighter particles remain suspended in the fluid. This results in the formation of
distinct layers or zones in the tank, with the settled particles forming a sediment or sludge
at the bottom.

2. Flotation: Flotation is a separation technique that exploits the differences in the buoyancy
of particles in a fluid. It is often used to separate lighter or less dense particles from a
denser fluid. In flotation cells, air bubbles are introduced into the mixture, causing the
less dense particles to adhere to the bubbles and rise to the surface, forming a froth layer.
The froth can then be skimmed off, separating the desired particles from the bulk fluid.

3. Cyclonic Separation: Cyclonic separation utilizes the centrifugal force generated by the
swirling motion of a fluid within a cyclone separator. The fluid mixture enters the
cyclone through an inlet and is subjected to a high-speed rotation. Due to the centrifugal
force, the denser particles move towards the outer wall of the cyclone, while the lighter
particles and fluid remain closer to the center. The separated particles are collected in a
separate chamber or discharged through an outlet, while the clarified fluid exits through
another outlet.

These separation methods based on particle motion through fluids are widely used in various
industries and applications. Sedimentation is commonly employed in water treatment plants,
wastewater treatment, and mineral processing to remove solid particles from liquids. Flotation is
extensively used in mineral processing, as well as in industries such as paper recycling and oil-
water separation. Cyclonic separation is employed in gas-solid separation, dust collection
systems, and particle size classification in industries ranging from chemical processing to air
pollution control.

The specific choice of separation method depends on the properties of the particles and the fluid
mixture, as well as the desired separation efficiency and throughput requirements.

Sedimentation:- Batch sedimentation, rate of sedimentation:

Sedimentation refers to the process of separating solid particles from a liquid by allowing them
to settle under the influence of gravity. It is commonly used in various industries, such as water
treatment, wastewater treatment, and mineral processing. There are two types of sedimentation
processes: batch sedimentation and continuous sedimentation.
 1. Batch Sedimentation: Batch sedimentation involves allowing a finite volume of mixture
to settle in a vessel without any additional inflow or outflow during the settling process.
The mixture is left undisturbed, allowing gravity to act on the particles and cause them to
settle to the bottom of the vessel. The settled particles form a sediment or sludge that can
be removed after a certain period of time.

2. Rate of Sedimentation: The rate of sedimentation refers to the speed at which particles
settle in a liquid during the sedimentation process. It depends on several factors,
including particle size, particle density, liquid viscosity, and the force of gravity. The rate
of sedimentation can be estimated using Stoke's law, which is applicable to spherical
particles in a dilute suspension. Stoke's law states that the settling velocity (Vs) of a
particle in a fluid is proportional to the square of the particle radius (r), the density
difference between the particle and the fluid (Δρ), and the acceleration due to gravity (g),
and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid (η). The equation is given as:

Vs = (2/9) * ((r^2) * g * Δρ) / η

In practice, sedimentation rates may deviate from Stoke's law due to factors like particle shape,
particle concentration, and the presence of other forces (e.g., fluid turbulence). Additionally,
sedimentation can be affected by the presence of flocculated or agglomerated particles, which
settle at a different rate compared to individual particles.

The rate of sedimentation is an important parameter in designing sedimentation tanks or

clarifiers used in water treatment plants and wastewater treatment facilities. By understanding
the settling characteristics of the particles in a particular liquid, engineers can determine the
required tank size and settling time to achieve the desired level of solid-liquid separation.

It's worth noting that sedimentation is a time-dependent process, and achieving complete
separation may require extended settling times. For more efficient separation, other techniques
such as coagulation, flocculation, or the use of chemicals called flocculants can be employed to
enhance the aggregation and settling of particles, thereby improving the sedimentation process.

Gravity classifiers, also known as gravity sedimentation classifiers or hydraulic classifiers, are
equipment used for particle size classification based on the principle of gravity sedimentation.
They utilize the gravitational force to separate particles of different sizes and densities, allowing
finer particles to be carried upwards by water or air while coarser particles settle downwards.
Gravity classifiers are commonly used in mineral processing, sand and aggregate industries, and
other applications where particle size separation is required. Here's how gravity classifiers work:

Gravity classifiers:

Principle: Gravity classifiers work on the principle of different settling velocities of particles in a
fluid medium. The fluid medium can be water or air, depending on the specific application. The
classifier consists of a tank or chamber where the mixture of particles and fluid is introduced.
The fluid flow and the gravitational force acting on the particles cause them to settle or rise
based on their size and density.

Working: The operation of a gravity classifier typically involves the following steps:

1. Inlet: The mixture of particles and fluid is introduced into the classifier through an inlet at
one end of the tank or chamber. The fluid flow may be controlled using valves or pumps
to achieve the desired flow rate.

2. Settling: As the mixture enters the classifier, it starts to flow slowly, allowing the
particles to settle due to gravity. Coarser and heavier particles settle more quickly and
move towards the bottom of the tank.

3. Overflow: Finer and lighter particles that have not settled completely continue to be
carried upward by the fluid flow. At a certain point, an overflow or discharge mechanism
allows these finer particles to exit the classifier from the top or side.

4. Underflow: The settled coarser particles form an underflow or discharge at the bottom of
the classifier, which is collected for further processing or disposal.

Characteristics and Applications: Gravity classifiers offer several advantages and are suitable for
various applications:

1. Particle Size Separation: They are effective in separating particles based on their size,
with coarser particles settling and finer particles overflowing.

2. Simple Operation: Gravity classifiers have a relatively simple design and require minimal
maintenance. They can operate continuously or in batch mode, depending on the specific
configuration.

3. Versatility: They can handle a wide range of particle sizes and densities, making them
suitable for various materials, including minerals, sands, aggregates, and powdered
materials.

4. Scalability: Gravity classifiers can be designed and sized to accommodate different

throughput requirements, from small-scale laboratory equipment to large-scale industrial
classifiers.

Gravity classifiers come in different configurations, such as rake classifiers, spiral classifiers,
and hydrocyclones, each with specific design features for particular applications. The selection
of a gravity classifier depends on factors such as particle size range, particle density, desired
separation efficiency, and the nature of the fluid medium.
Overall, gravity classifiers provide an effective and economical method for particle size
classification and are widely used in industries where size separation is critical for product
quality and process efficiency.

Thickener:

A thickener, also known as a sedimentation tank or clarifier, is a device used to separate solids
from liquids by increasing the concentration of solids in the liquid phase. It operates based on the
principle of gravity sedimentation, where the force of gravity causes solid particles to settle at the
bottom of the tank while clarified liquid overflows from the top or is removed from the
underflow. Thickening is commonly used in various industries, such as wastewater treatment,
mineral processing, and chemical processing, to increase the solids content of a liquid stream or
to recover valuable solids. Here's a detailed explanation of a thickener:

Construction: A typical thickener consists of the following components:

1. Tank: The tank or basin provides the space for the settling process to occur. It is usually
cylindrical or rectangular in shape and made of steel, concrete, or other durable materials.
The tank may have a conical or sloping bottom to facilitate the collection and removal of
settled solids.

2. Feed Well: The feed well is an inlet structure located at the center of the tank. It allows
the mixture of solids and liquid, known as the feed, to enter the thickener evenly. The
feed well may include a distribution system to ensure uniform distribution of the feed
throughout the tank.

3. Rake Mechanism: The rake mechanism consists of rotating arms with rakes or blades that
slowly move across the tank's bottom. The rakes help to promote the settling process by
continuously removing the settled solids from the tank's bottom and directing them
toward the center discharge cone.

4. Underflow Outlet: The underflow outlet is positioned at the center of the tank's bottom
and serves as the discharge point for the concentrated solids, also known as the
underflow. The underflow is typically withdrawn using a discharge cone or other
collection system.

5. Overflow Weir: The overflow weir is located at the top edge of the tank and allows the
clarified liquid, known as the overflow or supernatant, to flow out of the thickener. The
height of the overflow weir determines the level of liquid in the tank and controls the
clarity of the overflow.

Working: The operation of a thickener involves the following steps:

 1. Feed Introduction: The feed containing solids and liquid is introduced into the thickener
through the feed well. The feed may enter the tank radially or axially to ensure even
distribution.

2. Settling: Once inside the tank, the solids begin to settle under the force of gravity.
Heavier particles settle faster and accumulate at the bottom of the tank, forming a
thickened slurry or underflow. The liquid phase, which contains fewer solids, rises to the
top and forms a clarified liquid layer, known as the supernatant or overflow.

3. Solids Removal: The rake mechanism slowly rotates, scraping the settled solids toward
the center discharge cone. The collected solids are then removed through the underflow
outlet.

4. Liquid Removal: The clarified liquid overflows the overflow weir at the top edge of the
tank and is collected for further processing or discharged from the system.

Characteristics and Applications: Thickeners offer several advantages and are used in various
industrial applications:

1. Solid-Liquid Separation: Thickeners effectively separate solids from liquids by

increasing the concentration of solids in the liquid phase.

2. Increased Solids Content: They are used to increase the solids content of a liquid stream,
which can reduce the volume of liquid to be treated or transported.

3. Settling and Clarification: Thickeners are used for settling and clarification processes,
allowing the removal of suspended solids from a liquid stream.

4. Water Recovery: They are employed to recover water from slurries or tailings in mining
and mineral processing operations.

5. Wastewater Treatment: Thickeners are used in

centrifugal settling process: Cyclone separator, disc centrifuge:

Centrifugal settling processes are separation techniques that utilize centrifugal force to separate
particles or components from a fluid mixture. Two common examples of centrifugal settling
processes are cyclone separators and disc centrifuges. Let's explore each of them in detail:

1. Cyclone Separator: A cyclone separator, also known as a cyclone collector or cyclone

dust separator, is a device used to separate solid particles from a gas or liquid stream. It
takes advantage of the centrifugal force generated by the swirling motion of the fluid
within a cyclone chamber. The basic construction of a cyclone separator consists of a
cylindrical or conical vessel with an inlet at the top for the fluid mixture to enter and an
outlet at the bottom for the separated particles to be collected.
Working: The operation of a cyclone separator involves the following steps:

 Inlet: The fluid mixture enters the cyclone separator tangentially through the inlet,
creating a swirling motion within the chamber.

 Centrifugal Force: As the fluid swirls, the centrifugal force causes the heavier particles to
move towards the outer wall of the cyclone, while the lighter particles and fluid remain
closer to the center.

 Separation: The separated particles migrate towards the bottom of the cyclone chamber
and collect in a separate chamber or discharge through an outlet. The clarified fluid exits
through another outlet located near the top of the cyclone.

Applications: Cyclone separators are widely used in various industries for gas-solid or liquid-
solid separation, including:

 Dust collection systems: Cyclones are used to remove solid particles from industrial
exhaust gases, protecting downstream equipment and improving air quality.

 Powder handling: They are employed in processes such as pneumatic conveying and
powder recovery to separate solid particles from the conveying gas or air.

 Mineral processing: Cyclone separators are utilized to separate solid particles from
slurries in mining and mineral processing operations.

 Chemical processing: They find application in separating solids from liquid suspensions
or emulsions in chemical manufacturing processes.

2. Disc Centrifuge: A disc centrifuge, also known as a disc stack separator or centrifugal
separator, is a high-speed centrifugal device used for the separation of immiscible liquids
or the removal of solids from liquids. It consists of a stack of vertically arranged discs
that create narrow passages for the fluid mixture to flow through.

Working: The operation of a disc centrifuge involves the following steps:

 Inlet: The fluid mixture enters the disc centrifuge through an inlet, usually located at the
center of the stack of discs.

 Centrifugal Force: The stack of discs is rotated at high speeds, typically several thousand
revolutions per minute (RPM), generating a strong centrifugal force.

 Separation: The centrifugal force causes the heavier phase (such as solids or denser
liquid) to move towards the outer edges of the discs, forming a compact layer or
sediment. The lighter phase (such as a liquid) collects in the center of the stack, forming a
clarified layer.
  Outlet: The separated phases are discharged through different outlets. The heavier phase
(sediment) is discharged through outlets at the periphery of the disc stack, while the
lighter phase (clarified liquid) is discharged through a central outlet.

Applications: Disc centrifuges are widely used in various industries for liquid-liquid or liquid-
solid separation, including:

 Dairy industry: They are used for the separation of cream from milk or the removal of
impurities from milk.

 Edible oil processing: Disc centrifuges are employed for the separation of oil and water
or the removal of solids from vegetable oils.

 Biotechnology and pharmaceuticals: They find application in the separation of cells,

proteins, and other biomolecules from fermentation broths or cell cultures.

 Waste oil recovery: Disc centrifuges are used to recover valuable

UNIT V

Utility of mixing:

Mixing is a fundamental process in various industries and applications, offering several

important utilities. Here are some key utilities of mixing:

1. Homogenization: Mixing helps achieve uniform distribution and consistency of

components in a mixture. It ensures that all ingredients are evenly dispersed throughout
the mixture, leading to a homogenous product. Homogenization is crucial in industries
such as food processing, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals to ensure product quality,
stability, and desired properties.

2. Blending: Mixing facilitates the blending of different substances or materials to create a

uniform composition. It enables the combination of ingredients with different physical or
chemical properties to achieve a desired product formulation or composition. Blending is
commonly used in industries such as cosmetics, polymers, and fertilizers.

3. Reaction Enhancement: Mixing promotes efficient and thorough interaction between

reactants in chemical reactions. By increasing contact and collision between reactant
molecules, mixing accelerates reaction rates and improves overall reaction efficiency. It
is essential in industries such as chemical manufacturing, petrochemicals, and
pharmaceuticals to optimize reaction times and yields.

4. Heat Transfer: Mixing aids in the transfer of heat within a system. By continuously
redistributing the fluid, mixing enhances the exchange of thermal energy between
different regions, resulting in more efficient heat transfer. This utility is beneficial in
 various applications, including heat exchangers, cooling systems, and thermal processing
in industries such as energy, HVAC, and food processing.

5. Mass Transfer: Mixing facilitates mass transfer between different phases, such as liquid-
liquid or gas-liquid systems. By increasing interfacial area and promoting diffusion,
mixing enhances the transfer of components or substances between phases, such as
extraction, absorption, or stripping processes. Mass transfer is significant in industries
such as chemical processing, environmental engineering, and pharmaceutical production.

6. Suspension and Dispersions: Mixing is utilized to suspend solid particles or disperse

immiscible substances into a continuous phase. It prevents settling or agglomeration of
solids, ensuring a stable suspension or dispersion. This utility is valuable in applications
such as paints, coatings, suspensions, and emulsions.

7. Dissolution: Mixing assists in the dissolution of solids or gases into a liquid medium. By
increasing the contact and agitation, mixing accelerates the dissolution process, enabling
faster and more efficient solute incorporation into the solvent. This utility is crucial in
industries such as pharmaceuticals, chemical synthesis, and wastewater treatment.

8. Product Development and Formulation: Mixing plays a pivotal role in developing new
products and formulating various formulations. It enables the testing and optimization of
different ingredient combinations, proportions, and processing parameters to achieve
desired product characteristics, stability, and performance.

Overall, mixing is a versatile and indispensable process in numerous industries, providing

utilities such as homogenization, blending, reaction enhancement, heat transfer, mass transfer,
suspension, dissolution, and product development. It enables efficient and effective
manufacturing processes, improved product quality, and the development of innovative solutions
across various sectors.

Mixing equipment used for liquid-liquid:

There are several mixing equipment options available for liquid-liquid mixing processes, each
suited for different applications and mixing requirements. Here are some commonly used mixing
equipment for liquid-liquid mixing:

1. Agitators: Agitators are commonly used in mixing tanks or vessels to provide mechanical
agitation and promote the mixing of liquids. They typically consist of a rotating shaft
with blades or paddles that create turbulence and promote fluid movement. Agitators can
be top, bottom, or side-mounted, depending on the specific application and vessel design.

2. Static Mixers: Static mixers, also known as motionless mixers or inline mixers, are static
devices inserted in the flow path of liquids to achieve mixing. They consist of a series of
stationary mixing elements or plates that induce mixing through shear and turbulence.
 Static mixers are typically installed inline within a piping system and require no external
power source.

3. Emulsifiers: Emulsifiers, also referred to as high-shear mixers, are designed specifically

for creating stable emulsions or finely dispersed mixtures of immiscible liquids. They use
high shear forces generated by a rotor-stator configuration to break down droplets and
create a homogenous mixture. Emulsifiers are commonly used in industries such as food
processing, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals.

4. Magnetic Stirrers: Magnetic stirrers utilize a rotating magnetic field to induce stirring in a
liquid. A magnetic stir bar, typically made of PTFE or coated with PTFE, is placed inside
the liquid, and the rotating magnetic field from the stirrer generates rotational movement
of the stir bar, resulting in liquid mixing. Magnetic stirrers are commonly used in
laboratories and small-scale applications.

5. Jet Mixers: Jet mixers, or jet eductors, utilize the principle of fluid entrainment to achieve
mixing. They employ a high-velocity jet of one liquid to entrain and mix with another
liquid. Jet mixers are often used for blending or dilution applications and can be easily
installed in existing piping systems.

6. Homogenizers: Homogenizers are powerful mixing devices that utilize high pressure or
mechanical force to break down particles or droplets and achieve uniform dispersion in a
liquid. They are commonly used for emulsification, particle size reduction, and
micronization processes. Homogenizers are extensively employed in industries such as
food processing, pharmaceuticals, and biotechnology.

It is important to consider factors such as viscosity, specific mixing requirements, scale of

operation, and the nature of the liquids being mixed when selecting the appropriate mixing
equipment for liquid-liquid applications. Each type of mixing equipment offers its own
advantages and limitations, and the choice depends on the desired level of mixing intensity,
scalability, process requirements, and the properties of the liquids involved.

Impeller:

An impeller is a rotating component used in various types of mixing and fluid handling
equipment, such as agitators, pumps, and mixers. It plays a critical role in creating fluid flow,
promoting mixing, and transferring energy to the fluid. The impeller's design and characteristics
depend on the specific application and desired fluid dynamics.

Construction: Impellers are typically made of metal alloys, such as stainless steel, cast iron, or
bronze, or engineered plastics, such as polypropylene or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). They consist
of a hub, which connects to the shaft, and blades or vanes that extend outward from the hub. The
number, shape, size, and orientation of the blades can vary depending on the intended
application.

Function: The primary function of an impeller is to impart energy to the fluid by creating fluid
motion and generating flow patterns. This energy transfer can serve several purposes, including:

1. Mixing: In mixing applications, the impeller creates a flow pattern that facilitates the
blending of different components, ensuring uniform distribution and homogeneity. The
impeller's design affects the intensity and direction of the fluid flow, influencing the
mixing process.

2. Pumping: In pump applications, the impeller provides the necessary force to move the
fluid through the pump and into the system. The rotation of the impeller blades generates
a pressure difference, causing fluid to be drawn into the pump and expelled under
pressure.

Types of Impellers: There are various types of impellers, each designed for specific applications
and desired fluid flow characteristics. Some common types include:

1. Axial Flow Impellers: These impellers have blades that run parallel to the shaft axis,
promoting fluid flow in the axial direction. They are commonly used in applications
where high flow rates with low shear are desired, such as in large-scale mixing tanks.

2. Radial Flow Impellers: Radial flow impellers have blades that extend radially from the
hub, creating a centrifugal flow pattern. They are suitable for applications where higher
shear and flow rates are required, such as in pumping and dispersing applications.

3. Mixed Flow Impellers: Mixed flow impellers combine both axial and radial flow
characteristics. They generate fluid flow that combines both axial and radial components,
offering a balance between flow rate and shear intensity. These impellers are often used
in medium-scale mixing applications.

4. Propeller Impellers: Propeller impellers consist of multiple blades that resemble the shape
of a propeller. They are commonly used in low-viscosity fluids and applications requiring
high flow rates and low shear, such as in water treatment and chemical mixing.

5. Turbine Impellers: Turbine impellers feature a combination of axial and radial flow
characteristics. They have curved blades that promote efficient mixing and circulation in
medium to high-viscosity fluids. Turbine impellers are commonly used in applications
such as polymerization, fermentation, and high-viscosity mixing.

The selection of the appropriate impeller type depends on factors such as the desired flow
pattern, viscosity of the fluid, mixing objectives, power consumption, and the characteristics of
the mixing or fluid handling equipment.
Propeller & turbine

Propeller and turbine impellers are two commonly used types of impellers in mixing and fluid
handling applications. Although they share some similarities, there are distinct differences in
their design, flow characteristics, and applications. Let's explore each type in more detail:

1. Propeller Impellers: Propeller impellers, also known as marine impellers, feature multiple
blades that resemble the shape of a propeller. They are typically flat or slightly curved
blades mounted on a central hub. Here are some key characteristics of propeller
impellers:

 Flow Pattern: Propeller impellers generate primarily axial flow, with the fluid moving
parallel to the impeller shaft. They create a downward pumping action and are often used
for top-entry mixing applications.

 Mixing Intensity: Propeller impellers are known for their high flow rates and low shear
capabilities. They are suitable for applications that require efficient mixing with minimal
shear or when blending low-viscosity fluids.

 Applications: Propeller impellers are commonly used in a variety of applications,

including water and wastewater treatment, chemical processing, fermentation, and low-
viscosity blending operations.

 Advantages: Propeller impellers offer good pumping capacity, easy installation, and low
power consumption. They are suitable for large-scale mixing applications and can be
used in vessels with limited headspace.

2. Turbine Impellers: Turbine impellers have curved blades that promote efficient mixing
and circulation within a fluid. The blades are typically angled or twisted and are mounted
on a central hub. Here are some key characteristics of turbine impellers:

 Flow Pattern: Turbine impellers generate a combination of axial and radial flow patterns.
They induce both downward pumping and radial circulation, creating thorough mixing
and enhanced mass transfer.

 Mixing Intensity: Turbine impellers provide higher shear and mixing intensity compared
to propeller impellers. They are capable of handling higher viscosities and are effective in
dispersing, heat transfer, and medium to high-viscosity mixing applications.

 Applications: Turbine impellers are widely used in processes such as polymerization,

fermentation, emulsification, and high-viscosity blending. They are suitable for
applications that require strong mixing, heat transfer, and suspension of solids.
  Advantages: Turbine impellers offer good mixing efficiency, effective circulation, and
enhanced mass transfer. They are versatile and can be used in various vessel
configurations, including top-entry, side-entry, and bottom-entry installations.

It's important to consider factors such as the nature of the fluid, viscosity, desired flow
characteristics, and mixing objectives when selecting between propeller and turbine impellers.
The choice depends on the specific application requirements, including the desired flow pattern,
shear intensity, mixing efficiency, and power consumption.

Flow pattern in agitated vessels:

In agitated vessels, the flow pattern refers to the movement and distribution of the fluid within
the vessel resulting from the agitation caused by the impeller or other mixing elements. The flow
pattern plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency of mixing, heat transfer, and mass
transfer within the vessel. Here are some common flow patterns observed in agitated vessels:

1. Axial Flow: In an axial flow pattern, the fluid moves primarily parallel to the impeller
shaft. The flow is directed downward from the impeller and then upward along the vessel
walls. This flow pattern is typical for propeller impellers and results in efficient mixing
and circulation within the vertical axis of the vessel.

2. Radial Flow: Radial flow patterns involve the movement of fluid away from the impeller
in a radial direction, towards the vessel walls. The fluid then circulates back towards the
impeller along the bottom and top of the vessel. This flow pattern is often observed with
radial impellers and promotes effective radial mixing and circulation within the vessel.

3. Circulation Flow: Circulation flow patterns involve the formation of large-scale

circulating currents within the vessel. The fluid is drawn up from the bottom of the vessel
towards the surface by the impeller, and then it circulates back down along the vessel
walls. This flow pattern is beneficial for maintaining uniform temperature and
composition throughout the vessel and is commonly observed in vessels with baffles.

4. Swirling Flow: Swirling flow patterns involve the rotation or swirling of the fluid within
the vessel. The fluid moves in a helical or vortex-like motion, with the impeller imparting
tangential velocity to the fluid. This flow pattern can enhance mixing and can be
beneficial in processes requiring higher shear or dispersion.

It's important to note that the actual flow pattern in an agitated vessel is influenced by various
factors, including impeller design, vessel geometry, impeller speed, fluid properties (viscosity,
density), and the presence of baffles or other internal components. The specific flow pattern
observed can be visualized using techniques such as flow visualization, tracer studies, or
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations.
Choosing the appropriate impeller and vessel configuration depends on the desired flow pattern
and the specific requirements of the process, such as mixing intensity, heat transfer, and mass
transfer characteristics. The selection is typically based on the fluid properties, mixing
objectives, and process considerations to ensure optimal performance and efficiency in the
agitated vessel.

Vortex formation and its prevention:

Vortex formation refers to the formation of a swirling motion or vortex in a fluid, often observed
in tanks or vessels during liquid agitation. While vortex formation can sometimes be desirable in
certain applications, it can also lead to operational issues, including inadequate mixing, air
entrainment, and potential damage to equipment. Here are some methods to prevent vortex
formation:

1. Vortex Breakers: Vortex breakers are physical devices installed in the tank or vessel to
disrupt or minimize vortex formation. They can take various forms, such as baffles,
plates, or deflectors. Vortex breakers work by creating obstructions or disturbances in the
fluid flow path, thereby preventing the formation of a stable vortex. The design and
placement of vortex breakers should be carefully considered to effectively disrupt vortex
formation.

2. Proper Impeller Selection: The choice of impeller can significantly impact vortex
formation. Certain impeller designs, such as high-pitched propellers or turbine impellers,
can induce strong vortex formation due to their flow characteristics. Selecting impellers
that generate more axial or radial flow rather than tangential flow can help minimize
vortex formation. Additionally, choosing impeller sizes and operating speeds that are
appropriate for the specific application can help prevent excessive vortex formation.

3. Liquid Level Control: Maintaining an appropriate liquid level in the tank or vessel can
help prevent vortex formation. If the liquid level is too low, it can create a larger space
for vortex formation. On the other hand, if the liquid level is too high, it can lead to
splashing and potential entrainment of air or other substances. Monitoring and controlling
the liquid level within the recommended range can mitigate vortex formation.

4. Vessel Geometry: The shape and design of the tank or vessel can influence vortex
formation. Certain vessel geometries, such as tall and narrow tanks, are more prone to
vortex formation compared to broader and shallower tanks. Designing vessels with
appropriate ratios of diameter to height or incorporating features like rounded bottoms
can help minimize vortex formation by reducing the potential for swirling motion.

5. Adequate Inlet and Outlet Design: Proper inlet and outlet design can help prevent vortex
formation. The inlet should be positioned and designed in a way that promotes smooth
and uniform fluid entry, minimizing the potential for vortex formation. Similarly, outlets
 or discharge openings should be designed to allow controlled and even flow without
creating localized turbulence or vortexes.

6. Flow Control: Controlling the flow rate of the incoming fluid can help prevent vortex
formation. A sudden or excessive flow of liquid into the vessel can disturb the fluid
surface and lead to vortex formation. By regulating the flow rate using valves or flow
control devices, a smoother and controlled entry of fluid can be achieved, reducing the
likelihood of vortex formation.

The prevention of vortex formation depends on a combination of factors, including vessel

design, impeller selection, liquid level control, and flow management. By employing appropriate
techniques and considering the specific requirements of the process, vortex formation can be
minimized or eliminated, ensuring more efficient and reliable operation of the system.

Mixing of solids-liquid:

Mixing of solids and liquids involves the dispersion and blending of solid particles within a
liquid medium. This process is commonly used in various industries, such as pharmaceuticals,
food processing, chemical manufacturing, and wastewater treatment. The objective of solid-
liquid mixing is to achieve a homogeneous mixture or suspension of solid particles in the liquid.
Here are some methods and equipment commonly used for mixing solids and liquids:

1. Batch Mixing:

 Agitation: In batch mixing, solid particles are added to a liquid in a vessel, and
agitation is applied to promote the dispersion and mixing of solids. Agitation can
be achieved using impeller-based mixers, such as propellers or turbines, which
create fluid motion and induce particle movement.

 Solid Dispersers: Solid dispersers, such as high-speed mixers or homogenizers,

are used to disperse solid particles into a liquid by subjecting them to intense
shear forces. These devices are particularly effective for dispersing fine or
insoluble solids.

 Powder Induction Systems: Powder induction systems are designed to introduce

solid powders into a liquid stream rapidly. They use mechanisms like vacuum or
liquid suction to create a suction force that pulls the powder into the liquid,
ensuring quick and efficient mixing.

2. Continuous Mixing:

 Inline Mixers: Inline mixers, such as static mixers or dynamic mixers, are used for
continuous solid-liquid mixing. These mixers consist of specially designed
 elements that create turbulent flow and induce mixing as the liquid and solid
particles pass through the mixer.

 Slurry Tanks: Slurry tanks are commonly used in continuous processes for solid-
liquid mixing. Solid particles are continuously fed into a tank or vessel containing
the liquid, and the mixture is circulated and agitated using pumps or agitators to
maintain homogeneity.

3. Equipment for Solid-Liquid Mixing:

 Agitated Tanks or Vessels: Agitated tanks or vessels with appropriate impeller

designs are commonly used for solid-liquid mixing in batch processes. The
impeller creates fluid motion and induces particle movement, facilitating the
dispersion and mixing of solids.

 Mixers with Shear Capability: High-speed mixers or homogenizers are used when
solid particles require intense shear forces for dispersion. These mixers typically
have high-speed rotating blades or rotors that create shear and turbulence,
effectively dispersing the solids.

 Screw Conveyors or Augers: Screw conveyors or augers are used for continuous
solid-liquid mixing applications. They transport solid particles through a rotating
screw, which creates mixing and blending as the particles move along the screw's
helical path.

It's important to consider factors such as the nature of the solids (size, density, shape), desired
particle size distribution, viscosity of the liquid, and the required mixing intensity when selecting
the appropriate mixing method and equipment. Process parameters, such as mixing time,
impeller speed, and flow rate, should be optimized to achieve the desired level of solid-liquid
mixing and ensure

Double arm kneader:

A double arm kneader, also known as a sigma blade mixer, is a type of mixing equipment
primarily used for the kneading and mixing of high-viscosity materials. It consists of two sigma-
shaped blades (also referred to as Z-blades) that rotate in opposite directions within a trough-
shaped mixing chamber. The double arm kneader is widely used in industries such as rubber and
plastics processing, adhesives, pharmaceuticals, and food processing. Here are the key features
and working principles of a double arm kneader:

Features:
 1. Mixing Chamber: The mixing chamber of a double arm kneader is typically trough-
shaped and jacketed for heating or cooling purposes. The chamber is designed to
withstand high-pressure conditions and accommodate the kneading blades.

2. Sigma Blades: The kneading blades, shaped like the Greek letter sigma (Σ), are mounted
on two parallel shafts driven by separate motors. The blades have a unique geometry that
promotes efficient mixing and kneading by exerting intense shear and kneading forces on
the material.

3. Jacketing: Many double arm kneaders have a jacket surrounding the mixing chamber to
provide heating or cooling capabilities. This allows for precise temperature control during
the mixing process, which is important for certain applications.

Working Principle:

1. Loading: The materials to be mixed, such as polymers, resins, fillers, or additives, are
loaded into the mixing chamber of the double arm kneader.

2. Mixing: The sigma blades rotate in opposite directions, kneading the material between
them. The blades create a shearing and folding action, compressing and stretching the
material as they move. This action promotes thorough dispersion, blending, and
homogenization of the ingredients.

3. Heating/Cooling: If necessary, the jacket surrounding the mixing chamber can be used to
heat or cool the material during mixing. This helps control the temperature of the mixture
and may be essential for certain processes that require specific temperature ranges.

4. Discharge: After the mixing cycle is complete, the mixed material is discharged from the
bottom of the mixing chamber. Some double arm kneaders have tilting or hydraulic
mechanisms to facilitate easy discharge.

Advantages:

 Efficient Mixing: The double arm kneader provides efficient mixing and kneading action,
resulting in a uniform and homogeneous mixture.

 High Viscosity Capability: This equipment is particularly well-suited for handling high-
viscosity materials that are difficult to mix using other types of mixers.

 Temperature Control: The jacketing system allows for precise temperature control,
making it suitable for heat-sensitive materials or processes that require specific
temperature conditions.

 Versatility: Double arm kneaders can handle a wide range of materials, including rubber
compounds, adhesives, pastes, doughs, and more.
The double arm kneader offers reliable and effective mixing capabilities for a variety of
applications. Its robust design, efficient mixing action, and temperature control features make it a
popular choice in industries where thorough kneading and blending of high-viscosity materials
are required.