Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients

Partial fractions The binomial theorem

We concern ourselves with expanding powers of the form

(a + b)n , where a and b are algebraic expressions (usually
variables or real number constants) and n is a nonnegative
integer.
We have previously observed

(a + b)0 = 1.
(a + b)1 = a + b.
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b 2 .
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3 .
(a + b) = (a + b)3 (a + b) = a4 + 4ab 2 + 6a2 b 2 + 4a3 b + b 4 .
4
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Pascal’s triangle

The coefficients of (a + b)n may be computed from the coefficients

of (a + b)n−1 according to what is known as Pascal’s triangle, the
first five rows of which are displayed below:
Pascal’s triangle
(a + b)0 1
(a + b)1 1 1
(a + b)2 1 2 1
(a + b)3 1 3 3 1
(a + b)4 1 4 6 4 1
(a + b)5 1 5 10 10 5 1
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Example 2.19 Use Pascal’s triangle to determine the following

expansions:
(i) (1 + x)6 .
(ii) (2x − y )4 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Solutions:
(i) Here, a = 1 and b = x. The sixth row of Pascal’s triangle is
1 6 15 20 15 6 1, so

(1 + x)6 = 1 · 16 x 0 + 6 · 15 x 1 + 15 · 14 x 2 +
+20 · 13 x 3 + 15 · 12 x 4 + 6 · 11 x 5 + 1 · 10 x 6 =
= 1 + 6x + 15x 2 + 20x 3 + 15x 4 + 6x 5 + x 6 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

(ii) Now a = 2x and b = −y . The entries in the fourth row of the

triangle are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1, so

(2x − y )4 =
= 1 · (2x)4 (−y )0 + 4 · (2x)3 (−y )1 + 6 · (2x)2 (−y )2 +
+4 · (2x)(−y )3 + 1 · (2x)0 (−y )4 =
= 16x 4 − 32x 3 y + 24x 2 y 2 − 8xy 3 + y 4 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

For a positive integer n, we write n! - to read ”n factorial” - to

denote the product of the integer numbers from 1 to n. In other
words

Factorial notation
n! = n(n − 1) . . . 3 · 2 · 1.
We also define 0! = 1.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Example 2.20
1 1! = 1 = 0!.
2 2! = 2 · 1 = 2.
3 3! = 3 · 2 · 1 = 6.
4 4! = 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 24.
5 5! = 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 120.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Observations
Let k ≤ n. We have
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)! = (n + 1)n! and = n + 1.
n!
n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . n(n − k + 1).
(n − k)!

Binomial coefficients
n


Let k ≤ n. We define k - read ”n choose k”- by
n


= n! .
k k!(n − k)!
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Example 2.21
(i) 30 = 3! = 1.


0! · 3!
(ii) 1 = 3! = 3.
3


1! · 2!
(iii) 2 = 3! = 3.
3


2! · 1!
(iv) 3 = 3! = 1.
3


3! · 0!
Observe that these are the coefficients that occur in the binomial
expansion of (a + b)3 according to Pascal’s triangle.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Observations
Let k and n be natural numbers with k ≤ n. We have
n

n!
0 = 0! · n! = 1.
n

n!
1 = 1! · (n − 1)! = n.

n

n! n! n


k = k!(n − k)! = (n − k)!(n − (n − k))! = n−k .

The ”meaning” of kn

n


k is the number of ways one can select k out of n things.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Example 2.21 continued

6


Compute the binomial coefficients k where
k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Solution: 60 = 1 = 66 , 61 = 6! = 6 = 65 ,





1! · 5!
6

6! 6·5 6

6
6! 6 · 5 · 4 = 20.
2 = 2! · 4! = 2 = 15 = 4 , 3 = 3! · 3! = 6

These are the coefficients for the expansion of (a + b)6 as the

appear in Pascal’s triangle.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

The binomial theorem

Let n be a positive integer. For all real numbers a and b, we have:
n
n n

(an−2
n
+ b) =
n n
an b 0 + a b + a b 2 +. . .+
n−1 1 a1 b n−1 + a0 b n =





= 0 1 2 n−1 n
n
n n−k k
P

= k a b .
k=0

Note: Since
(a + b)n = n

(b + a) , nwe

also have
n 0 n n 1 n−1 n n



(a+b) = 0 a b + 1 a b + 2 a2 b n−2 +. . .+
n
n−1 an−1 b 1 + n an b 0 =
n
n k n−k
P

= k a b .
k=0
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Example 2.21. Use the binomial theorem to

(i) determine the coefficient of a6 b 3 in the expansion of
(a + b)9 .
(ii) write out the first three terms in the expansion of
(x − 3y )10 .
(iii) determine the coefficient of x 4 y 4 in the expansion of
(x − 3y )8 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

Solutions:
(i) The coefficient of a6 b 3 in the expansion of (a + b)9 is 93 , and


9

9! 9 · 8 · 7 = 84.
3 = 3! · 6! = 6
(ii)
The first three terms in the expansion of (x − 3y )10 are
10 10 0 10 9 1 10 8 2



0 x (−3y ) + 1 x (−3y ) + 2 x (−3y ) =

= x 10 − 30x 9 y + 405x 8 y 2 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem Binomial coefficients
Partial fractions The binomial theorem

(iii) Let a = x and b = (−3y ). The coefficient of a4 b 4 in the

expansion of (a + b)8 is 84 = 8! = 8 · 724 · 6 · 5 = 7 · 2 · 5 = 70.


4!4!
Now x 4 (−3y )
4 = (−3)4 x 4 y 4 = 81y 4 y 4 . The coefficient in
question is 84 · 34 = 5670.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Rational functions
A rational function is a fraction whose numerator and denominator
are polynomials.
A rational function is sometimes called proper if the degree of the
numerator is smaller than that of the denominator and improper
otherwise.

Examples of rational functions

1 x3 2x 2
x + 1 , x 2 + 1 , 4x 4 − x 3 + x 2 + 101 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

We can do arithmetic (addition, subtraction, division,

multiplication) with rational functions in the same way we handle
numerical fractions.
Example
1 x3 x 2 + 1 − x 3 (x + 1) −x 4 − x 3 + x 2 + 1
x + 1 − x 2 + 1 = (x + 1)(x 2 + 1) = x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

In determining the partial fraction decomposition of a rational

function, we are trying to reverse the addition of fractions. A
rational function is thus displayed as a sum of simpler rational
functions.
Example
1 = 1 − 1 .
x2 − 1 2(x − 1) 2(x + 1)
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

P(x)
We consider the rational function where P(x) and Q(x) are
Q(x)
polynomials in the indeterminate x.
Partial fraction decomposition, a step-by-step guide
1) If the degree of P(x) is greater or equal to that of Q(x) (i.e.
P(x)
if is improper), we perform long division to obtain
Q(x)
P(x) R(x)
= quotient + ,
Q(x) Q(x)
where R(x), the remainder, has smaller degree than Q(x).
The quotient will be part of the decomposition, and we
R(x)
continue working with .
Q(x)
2) We now assume that the degree of P(x) is smaller than that
of Q(x). W decompose Q(x) into factors that are either
linear or irreducible quadratic.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Partial fraction decomposition, continued

3) If (ax + b)n is a factor of Q(x), each of the powers
ax + b, (ax + b)2 , . . . , (ax + b)n corresponds to one partial
fraction in the decomposition. In other words, we need to
obtain constants A1 , . . . , An such that
A1 + A2 + ... + An
ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)n
is part of the decomposition.
4) If (ax 2 + bx + c)m is a factor of Q(x), each of the powers
ax 2 + bx + c, (ax 2 + bx + c)2 , . . . , (ax 2 + bx + c)m corresponds
to one partial fraction in the decomposition. In other words,
we need to obtain constants B1 , C1 . . . , Bm , Cm such that
B1 x + C1 + B2 x + C2 + ... + Bm x + Cm
ax 2 + bx + c (ax 2 + bx + x)2 (ax 2 + bx + c)m
is part of the decomposition.
5) Set up and solve a system involving the constants Ai , Bi and
Ci .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

There are two principal ways of solving the system, substitution

and comparing coefficients. We will see both methods in the
forthcoming examples.
Example 2.22 Decompose into partial fractions:
2
(i) 3x + 17x + 122 .
(x − 1)(x + 3)
3
(ii) 5x − x + 10 .
x2 − 4
2
(iii) 35x +2 3x + 13 .
x + x + 4x + 4
(iv) Write the form only, without solving for the constants, of the
partial fraction decomposition of 1 .
(x + 1)5 (x 2 + 5)3
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Solutions: 2
(i) We need to solve 3x + 17x + 122 = x − A + B + C
1 x + 3 (x + 3)2 .
(x − 1)(x + 3)
Multiplying on both sides by (x − 1)(x + 3)2 , this becomes

3x 2 + 17x + 12 = A(x + 3)2 + B(x − 1)(x + 3) + C (x − 1) =

= (A + B)x 2 + (6A + 2B + C )x + 9A − 3B − C .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

First, we demonstrate how to solve the system by comparing

coefficients: The coefficients of each power of x on either side of
the equality must be the same. Thus:

A+B =3
6A + 2B + C = 17
9A − 3B − C = 12.

This yields 6A + 2B + C − (6A + 6B) = −1 = −4B + C and

9A + 9B − 9A + 3B + C = 12B + C = 15. So
15 − 3 = 12B + C − 12B + 3C = 12 = 4C , i.e. C = 3. From
−1 = −4B + C , we now deduce −4B = −4, so B = 1. Finally,
A + B = 3, so A = 2.
2 2 + 1 +
Accordingly, 3x + 17x + 122 = x − 3
1 x + 3 (x + 3)2 .
(x − 1)(x + 3)
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Next, we solve the system by substitution: Putting x = 1 in

3x 2 + 17x + 12 = A(x + 3)2 + B(x − 1)(x + 3) + C (x − 1), we get
32 = 16A and A = 2. Putting x = −3, we obtain −4C = −12 and
C = 3. To obtain B = 1, we return to the equation A + B = 3.
Another approach would be to substitute x = 0, giving
12 = 9A − 3B − C = 18 − 3B − 3, i.e. −3B = −3 and B = 1.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

3
(ii): The rational function 5x − x + 10 is improper and we need
x2 − 4
to perform polynomial division first of all.
5x
2 3


x −4 5x − x + 10
− 5x 3 + 20x
19x + 10

Now we decompose 19x2 + 10 into partial fractions. Since

x −4
x 2 − 4 = (x + 2)(x − 2), we need to find real numbers A and B
such that
19x + 10 A B
2
= +
x −4 x +2 x −2
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Multiplying on both sides by x 2 − 4, we obtain

19x + 10 = A(x − 2) + B(x + 2)

Substituting x = 2, we get 4B = 48 or B = 12. Substituting

x = −2 yields −4A = −28 or A = 7.

3
So 5x − x + 10 = 5x + 7 + 12 .
x +2 x −2
x2 − 4
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

(iii): We need to factorise the denominator before anything else.

We have
x 3 + x 2 + 4x + 4 = x 2 (x + 1) + 4(x + 1) = (x 2 + 4)(x + 1). The
polynomial x 2 + 4 is irreducible (why?).
So the system that we need to solve is
5x 2 + 3x + 13 = A + Bx + C ,
x3 + x 2 + 4x + 4 x +1 x2 + 4
and thus 5x + 3x + 13 = A(x 2 + 4) + (Bx + C )(x + 1) =
2

= (A + B)x 2 + (B + C )x + 4A + C .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Substituting x = −1 yields 5A = 5 − 3 + 13 = 15 and A = 3.

Now we equate the coefficients: The coefficient of x 2 on the left
hand side is 5 and A + B = B + 3 on the right. So B = 2. The
coefficient of x on the left hand side is 3 and B + C = C + 2 on
the right. So C = 1.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

(iv) 1 = x A+1 1 + A2 + A3 +
(x + 1)5 (x 2 + 5)3 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3
+ A4 4 + A5 + B1 x2 + C1 + B22x + C22 + B32x + C33 .
(x + 1) (x + 1)5 x +5 (x + 5) (x + 5)
Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

More partial fraction examples

Determine the partial fraction decomposition of the following:

(x + 1)3
(i) .
x 2 (x − 1)
2
(ii) 3x + 22x 2+ 14 .
(x − 2) (x + 2)
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

(i) Since both numerator and denominator have degree three, we

start with a polynomial division:
1
x3 − x2 x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1

− x3 + x2
4x 2 + 3x + 1

Now we determine the partial fraction decomposition of

4x 2 + 3x + 1 .
x 2 (x − 1)
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

The system is

4x 2 + 3x + 1 A B C
2
= + 2+
x (x − 1) x x x −1

i.e. Ax(x − 1) + B(x − 1) + Cx 2 = 4x 2 + 3x + 1.

Substituting x = 0 yields −B = 1 and B = −1. Substituting x = 1
yields C = 8. So the coefficient of x on the left hand side of the
equation is −A + B = −A − 1 and we get −A − 1 = 3. It follows
that A = −4.
(x + 1)3
Accordingly, 2 = 1 − x4 − 12 + x + 8 .
1
x (x − 1) x
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

2
(ii) The degree of the denominator in 3x + 22x 2+ 14 is three, so
(x − 2) (x + 2)
larger than that of the numerator. We can set of the system
straight away. This is:

3x 2 + 2x + 14 A B Cx + D
2 2
= + 2
+ 2
(x − 2) (x + 2) x − 2 (x − 2) x +2

Multiplying on both sides by (x − 2)2 (x 2 + 2), we get

3x 2 + 2x + 14 = A(x − 2)(x 2 + 2) + B(x 2 + 2) + (Cx + D)(x − 2)2 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Substituting x = 2 into
3x 2 + 2x + 14 = A(x − 2)(x 2 + 2) + B(x 2 + 2) + (Cx + D)(x − 2)2 ,
we obtain 6B = 12 + 4 + 14 = 30, so that B = 5.
Now, we have to compare coefficients. First, we expand
A(x − 2)(x 2 + 2) + B(x 2 + 2) + (Cx + D)(x − 2)2 and substitute
B = 5 to get

A(x 3 +2x −2x 2 −4)+5(x 2 +2)+C (x 3 −4x 2 +4x)+D(x 2 −4x +4) =

= (A+C )x 3 +(−2A+5−4C +D)x 2 +(2A+4C −4D)x −4A+10+4D.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Equating the coefficients of x 3 on both sides of the equation

3x 2 + 2x + 14 =
(A+C )x 3 +(−2A+5−4C +D)x 2 +(2A+4C −4D)x −4A+10+4D
yields 0 = A + C , i.e. A = −C .
So 3 = −2A + 5 − 4C + D = 2A + D + 5, i.e. 2A + D = −2.
Moreover, 2 = 2A + 4C − 4D = −2A − 4D. Adding these two
equations yields 0 = 2 + (−2) = −3D, and we get D = 0.
This yields 2A = −2 and A = −1, so that C = 1.
So the sought-after decomposition is
3x 2 + 2x + 14 = −1 + 5 x
(x − 2)2 (x 2 + 2) x − 2 (x − 2)2 + x 2 + 2 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Three test revision questions

√
Rationalise the denominator in 2√ 2 − 5 .
8−1
3
The polynomial x + x + a has 2 as a root. Determine a, then
factorise the polynomial.
Determine the coefficient of x 5 in (x − 1)6 + (x + 1)7 .
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Solutions:
√ √ √ √ √
2 2 − 5 (2 2 − 5)( 8 + 1) (2 2 − 5)( 8 + 1)
a) √ = √ √ = 7 =
8
√ − 1 ( 8 − 1)( 8 + 1)
3 − 8 2.
7
b) If 23 + 2 + a = 0, then a = −10.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

Now x 2 + 2x + 5
x3


x −2 + x − 10
3
− x + 2x 2

2x 2 + x
− 2x 2 + 4x
5x − 10
− 5x + 10
0
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

We verify that x 2 + 2x + 5 is an irreducible polynomial: If it had a

factor x − c, then it would have a root, namely c. This would
mean that c 2 + 2c + 1 + 4 = 0 = (c + 1)2 + 4 and (c + 1)2 = −4.
This is impossible.
 Binomial expansions and the Binomial Theorem
Partial fractions

c) The coefficient of x 5 in (x − 1)6 is 61 (−1)1 = −6. The

coefficient of x 5 in (x + 1)7 is 72 (12 ) = 21. So the coefficient in

question is −6 + 21 = 15.