Melese M. Engidasew N.

BASIC WRITING SKILLS

UNIT ONE: WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
In more formal written English, clear structure is of paramount importance, and sentences are
foundation to achieving .this. Unlike in spoken English, where the listener understanding is greatly
aided by intonation, facial expressions and body language, and where repetition, vagueness and
uncompleted ideas are perfectly acceptable, you must write in clear, concise, well-punctuated
sentences in order to express yourself in formal written English

1. What is Sentence?
We tend to think of a sentence as a group of words with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation
point at the end and a capital letter at the beginning, but there is more to it than that. A sentence is
usually defined as a grammatically independent unit made up of a word or group of related words to
convey a complete thought. The words in a complete sentence are logically related each other to
express an idea.

Sentences are made up of clauses. A clause is a group of grammatically-related words including a

verb and a subject (though sometimes the subject is implied). They are the building blocks of
sentences: every sentence consists of one or more clauses. In more complex sentences there is always
a main clause, together with one or more relative or subordinating clause(s). Therefore, we can say
that a sentence is a group of clauses expressing a complete thought with some kind of meaning for the
audience. Every sentence must have at least one independent clause. Every clause must have a
subject, a verb. There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent (subordinate) clauses. An
independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and expresses a complete thought. It can stand
independently. Example: The subject is familiar with us.

A dependent (subordinate) clause contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete
thought. Example: if the subject is difficult,
Activity 1
Identify the complete sentences from the list below.
1. High in the sky and into the group.
2. The player is ready to hit the ball.
3. The teacher in the class with his students.
4. Come!
5. The first year student who stands near the library.
6. How did you win the game?

Parts of a Sentence
Every sentence has two basic parts: a subject and a predicate.
Subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made. It is a noun or pronoun with any of its
modifiers.

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Predicate is the statement made about the subject. It is a verb or verb phrase with any modifiers or words used
to complete its meaning.
Examples:
1. The rat was/ eaten by the cat.
2. Our soccer team/ won the African Cup of Nations.
Activity 2
Draw a line between the subject and the predicate.
1. That small room is our kitchen.
2. The newscaster presented the news nicely.
3. Taking a big umbrella is useful to keep all of us away from the strong sun.
4. Neither Kebede nor we have seen the ocean.
5. The doctor explained the side effect of the medicine.

Activity 3
The following sentences are incomplete because the subjects are missing. Fill the blank spaces with any
appropriate subject.
1. ___________ is behind the sofa.
2. _________ should be thrown away.
3. _________ was the best act in the talent show.
4. ______ and ______ are common diseases in Ethiopia.
5. ________ taught me how to ride a bicycle.
Activity 4
Fill the blank spaces with appropriate predicate.
1. Few people _____________.
2. The government _____________________.
3. Kombolcha ___________________.
4. My father ___________________.
5. The little girl __________________.

Types of Subjects
A) Simple subject: is only a single noun or pronoun without any modifier. It is the most important part of
a complete subject.
Example: Hanna laughs.
He is a teacher.
Complete subject is when a simple subject is expanded by the addition of modifying words such as article and
adjectives.
Example: The flowers are blooming.
The small red flowers are blooming.
B) Compound subject: is made up of two or more nouns or pronouns.
Example: Exercise and proper diet are important.

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Activity 5
Underline and name the subject in each sentence below.
1. Many Ethiopians like raw meat.
2. Six city police officers were cited for heroism.
3. Camels drink too much water.
4. The beginning and the ending of the game were funny.
5. The elegant dress costs too much.
6. A cow is a domestic animal.

Types of Predicates
A) Simple Predicate consists of a single verb.
Example: She fights.
Complete Predicate is when the simple predicate is expanded by adding modifying words .
Example: Solomon is walking quickly to school in the morning.
B) Compound Predicate is made up of two or more verbs for the same subject.
Example: I went to the office and saw my grades.

Activity 6
Underline and name the predicate
1. The horror movie had a surprising ending.
2. The dancer arrived and performed on the stage.
3. I am writing.
4. My favorite athlete is Haile Gebresilassie.
5. She is here.

Activity 7
Underline the simple subject and simple predicate from the list below.
1. Candles burn.
2. The players and the referees arrived and reported.
3. The clever boy has never missed class.
4. Lemma and Jemal drove to Dessie for the exhibition.
5. The movie’s plot and the background music annoyed me.

2. Classification of Sentences
Sentences can be classified according to their grammatical structure and function.

2.1 Sentences Classified by Function/Purpose (Kinds of sentences)

This classification of sentences describes why you have written the sentences. Most sentences which you write
should simply state facts, conjunctures, or arguments, but sometimes you may want to give commands or ask
questions.

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A) The Declarative Sentence

This is the most important type of sentence, because most sentences are declarative sentences. You can and
often will write entire essays or reports using only declarative sentences, and you should always use them far
more often than any other type. A declarative sentence makes a statement. A declarative sentence simply
states a fact or argument, without requiring either an answer or reaction from the reader. You punctuate your
declarative sentences with a period.
Example: Ottawa is the capital of Canada.

B) The Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a question mark. Example:
 Who can read this, and not move?
 How did you find Mekelle University?
Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative:
Direct question/Interrogative
How was the battle of Adwa ended?

Indirect question/Declarative
I wonder how the battle of Adwa was ended.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an indirect question does not.

C) The Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives a command someone. This type of sentence can end either with a
period or with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command is.
Example:
 Sit!
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word “please”.
Example: Sweep the window!
Please sweep the window.

D) The Exclamatory Sentence

An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling. It is simply a more forceful version of a
declarative sentence, marked at the end with an exclamation mark. Note that an exclamation mark can
also appear at the end of an imperative sentence.
Example: The butler did it!
How beautiful this river is!

You can often turn a declarative or an interrogative sentence into an exclamatory only by
changing the period or question mark to an exclamation mark.
Example: It is a fine landmark. It is a fine landmark!

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Activity 8
Name each sentence below as declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamatory
1. May I use your cellphone?
2. How difficult the question paper is!
3. Go to the shop and bring me candy!
4. I went to visit my parents yesterday and found that my grandmother was passed away.
5. I didn’t meet Almaz at home.

2.2 Sentences Classified by Structure (Types of Sentences)

Sentences are made up of clauses. A clause is a group of grammatically-related words including a verb and a
subject (though sometimes the subject is implied). They are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence
consists of one or more clauses. In more complex sentences there is always a main clause, together with one or
more relative or subordinating clause(s). Therefore, we can say that a sentence is a group of clauses expressing
a complete thought with some kind of meaning for the audience. Every sentence must have at least one
independent clause. Sentences can be classified according to their grammatical structure as simple, compound,
complex, and compound-complex.

A) The simple sentence

A simple sentence is a sentence with a single independent clause and no dependent (subordinate) clauses. It
has only one subject and one predicate; however, either the subject or the predicate may contain more than one
element. It also expresses just one idea or provide just one piece of information. A simple sentence can also be
called an independent clause (IC). Example:
 Nega had to take the bus to Dessie.
 Great literature stirs the imagination.

Simple sentence with compound subject:

Example: The engineers, the ministers and the journalists visited the Ethiopian Grad Dam. (The
engineers, the ministers, and the journalist all performed the action of the verb visited.).

Simple sentence with compound predicate:

Example: We drank Pepsi and ate popcorn (The same subject, we, performed the actions of both the verbs
drank and ate.)

Simple sentence with a compound subject and a compound predicate

My father, mother and sister came to the school play, applauded the performers and attended the party.
(Father, mother, and sister all performed the actions of the verbs came, applauded, and attended.)
Once you understand the rules for creating simple sentences, you will be well on your way to writing at the
college level. Simple Sentence = Subject + Verb + Complete thought.

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B) The compound sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses but no dependent
(subordinate) clauses. The independent clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction, by a conjunctive
adverb, or by a semicolon. Coordinating conjunctions include for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so. The conjunctiva
adverbs include therefore, however, consequently, furthermore, instead, otherwise, nonetheless, moreover…

Examples: Compound sentence joined by coordinating conjunctions

Great literature stirs the imagination, but philosophy challenges the intellect.
Example: Compound sentences joined by a semicolon:
We need a new house; our old one leaks rain.
Examples: Compound sentences joined by Adverbial connectors (conjunctiva adverbs)
He worked hard; therefore, he became rich.
Activity 9
Join the following sentences using coordinating conjunctions to form compound sentence.
1. The rain stopped raining at eleven. We stayed in the closed house.
2. The dog ate quickly. It was very hungry.
3. You can come with me. You can wait here.
4. The children may not play. They may not study.
5. The man repaired the wardrobe. He hung the dress up in it.

Activity 10
Combine the following sentences using appropriate conjunctiva adverb.
1. His parents are wealthy. They are not happy.
2. You must study your notes. You will not pass the test.
3. This meat is spoiled. It cannot be eaten.

C) The complex sentence

A complex sentence is a sentence that contains a single independent clause and at least one dependent
(subordinate) clause. Such dependent clauses may be adjective clauses, noun clauses, or adverb clauses. Use
comma to set off nonrestrictive (or nonessential) clauses. Separate the opening adverb clauses from the rest of
the sentence with a comma.
Examples: (Dependent clauses are enclosed in brackets):
1. Great literature, [which stirs the imagination], also challenges the intellect.
Note: Which stirs the imagination is an example of an adjective clause which is called a relative clause.
2. [If it rains], we will call off the race.
3. She distributed the tickets to [whoever showed up].

Complex sentences involve combining two sentences of unequal value; one dependent and the other
independent. For example, after her father reads her a bedtime story is not a complete sentence, for it does
not make sense by itself. It leaves us with the question, what happened after the bedtime story? It is an
example of a dependent clause. Unlike an independent clause, a dependent clause starts with a dependent
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word (subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun) that leaves the sentence hanging. In the above example,
this word is after. A dependent clause must be paired with an independent clause to achieve its full
meaning. The common subordinating conjunctions are: after, although, though, as, because, before, even
though, how if, as if, since, so that, unless, until, what, whatever, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether,
whichever, while, who and whose.
There are two methods for creating complex sentences. Both of these methods use subordinating conjunctions;
one puts the independent clause first; the other puts the dependent clause first.

A. Independent Clause + Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent Clause.

Example: I want to proofread my essay before showing it to my advisor.

B. Subordinating + Dependent Clause + Comma + Independent Clause.

Example: Although I am nervous about writing, I think I will do just fine.

Subordination: is the joining of an independent clause with the dependent clause in the same sentence using
subordinators. The linking devices between the clauses in subordination are subordinating conjunctions and
relative pronouns.

Subordinating conjunctions include because, since, if, while, even if, when, whenever, where, wherever,
though, although, even though, as long as, whereas, unless, so that, that, in order to, after, before, until, as
soon as, as, than, as…as, etc.

Relative pronouns include who, whose, which, that, whom

Activity 11
Fill in each blank below an appropriate subordinating conjunction
1. I had to return home __________ I forgot the tickets.
2. _______ Helen arrived for her job interview, the job was already filled.
3. The examination will begin ________ the rest of the class arrives.
4. _____ I wanted the job badly, I was no willing to move to another state.
5. _______ you do not leave, I will call the police.

Activity 12
Join the following sentences using the most appropriate relative pronouns.
1. The woman has been arrested. Her child was accused of theft.
2. The police were looking for the thief. The thief has been caught.
3. The medicine is very expensive. Helen needs the medicine.
4. Rahel went abroad. Daniel wanted to marry Rahel.
5. The man called a police. His car was stolen.

D) The compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent (subordinate) clause. (Dependent clauses are enclosed in brackets):
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Examples:
1. Great literature, [which challenges the intellect], is sometimes difficult, but it is also rewarding (S P S
P. the Independent clauses is Great literature is sometimes difficult; it is also rewarding
2. [If the weather is fair], we will go on our camping trip, and I expect to have a great time (SPSP). In
this example the Independent clauses is ‘we will go on our camping trip; I expect to have a great time.’

Generally, the following diagram presents the classification of sentences.

Sentence

Structure Function/Purpose

Compound-complex interrogative exclamatory

Simple compound complex declarative imperative
Activity 13
Write the name of each sentence below as simple, compound, complex or compound-complex.
1. If you don’t succeed at first, proceed to the next option.
2. You never really learn to swear until you learn to drive.
3. Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets a nasty sunburn.
4. Although they are 200 km apart, they keep in constant contact on the internet.
5. Those students who live in the area often find the local college boring, but students from out of the
area seem to like it.
6. A painting that hangs in a museum is one kind of art.
7. Are they fixed, or are they totally replaced?
8. Things that are part of our ordinary lives can be art too.
9. Aster developed an outstanding project, and her advisor corrected her spelling.
10. The boy who is speaking is my brother, and he will be staying with us.

3. Sentence Errors (Faulty Sentences)

1) Fragment Sentence
As the name implies, a fragment sentence is a partial sentence which is written as if it were a
complete sentence. It either lacks a crucial element such as a subject or verb, or it includes a
subordinating conjunction. Fragments in writing sentences usually occur when a sentence is
prematurely brought to an end and a new sentence unnecessarily started. This new sentence very
often begins with a conjunction such as although, if, however, but, etc., and is in fact a dependent
clause which needs the other part of the sentence to make sense.
Fragments also occur when a non-finite clause is made into a simple sentence. For example:
Considering the complexities of the application procedure.
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is not a sentence. The participle considering by itself does not indicate tense; we do not know if the
writer is referring to the past, present or future. This non-finite clause needs an additional finite clause
in order to make sense.
Considering the complexities of the application procedure, it is surprising how many
people do apply for a loan.
2. Run-on Sentences
This problem is created when a sentence consist of two complete sentences without any separating
punctuation mark or linking device between them. Sentences of this type have at least two parts,
where all of them are independent clauses, but the two parts have been merged together instead of
being properly connected. It is a structural flaw that can plague a very short or long sentence:
It is raining, take your umbrella.

When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a
conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, yet, so).
Example: It is raining, so take your umbrella.

Run-on can have three features:

a. Comma splice: This is an error which occurs when two sentences are separated by comma
alone rather than period or semicolon. Example:
Helen and Girma are going to Awassa, they are very excited.
b. When two or more sentences are joined without any punctuation: Consider the following
example:
Many economists have debated on economic issues they could not reach on consensus.
c. When comma is omitted before coordinating conjunction: It is erroneous to use
coordinating conjunctions without comma to bind two or more independent clauses together.
Example:
Seifu needs to take notes from the written report on his trip to Lalibela but he plans to have
fun anymore.
Run-on sentences can be corrected by using one of the following methods:
a. separate the two independent clauses using period, and capitalize the first letter of the first
word of the second independent clause.
b. Separate the two independent clauses using semicolon.
c. Join the independent clauses with comma followed by coordinating conjunctions.
d. Convert the independent clauses to dependent clause and separate the clauses with comma.

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3. Subject-verb agreement
The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a plural verb. But
errors in subject-verb-agreement occur in writing either because writers forget this general principle or fail to
identify the two subjects in a sentence.

Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order to determine which verb is singular or
plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they. Example:
talk and talks.

Rule 1
Two singular subjects connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ require a singular verb.
Example: My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.

Rule 2
Two singular subjects connected by ‘either/or’ or ‘neither/nor’ require a singular verb as in Rule 1.
Examples: Neither Samson nor Kassu is available.
Either Kiya or Sara is helping today with stage decorations.

Rule 3
Use a plural verb with two or more subjects connected by and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

Rule 4
Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not.
Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.
Examples: The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.

Rule 5
The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are singular
and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Examples: Each of the girls sings well.
Every one of the cakes is gone.
NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Everyone is two words when the meaning is each
one.
Rule 6
The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences
beginning with here or there, the subject follows the verb.
Examples: There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Rule 7
The pronouns “all” and “some” can take either singular or plural verbs based on the nouns that they refer.

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Examples: The students are in the class. All have brought their books.
There was sugar in that bag; some was used for breakfast.

Activity 14
Underline the correct form of the verb in bracket.
1. There (is/are) wild dogs in our neighborhood.
2. Here (is/are) the newspaper.
3. The crinkly lines around Zinash’s eyes (give/gives) her a friendly look.
4. The lumpy salt in the shakers (need/needs) to be changed.
5. When (do/does) we take our break?
6. Envelopes, file folders and telephone book (is/are) jammed in the drawer.
7. Neither of those hairstyles (suit/suits) the shape of your face.

4. Faulty Parallelism
Faulty parallelism occurs when the elements put into pairs and series "go in different directions" because they
do not have the same form. Fault in parallelism happens when language elements (structure) before and after
conjunctions are not proportional in their grammatical structure. In other words, nouns should be coordinated
with nouns, verbs with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases, and
clauses with clauses. To check for faulty parallelism it is often useful to underline or otherwise mark parallel
(coordinate) elements.
Example: WRONG: He liked to play basketball and riding horses.
RIGHT: He liked playing basketball and riding horses.
 He liked to play basketball and to ride horses
 He liked to play basketball and ride horses.

Sometimes a sentence that is not technically incorrect could still be improved by making coordinate elements
more precisely parallel. In the following example, the coordinate elements are both adverbial, so in a sense
they are parallel, but one is a simple adverb, while the other is an adverbial prepositional phrase. The sentence
is not exactly wrong, but it is clumsy, and the strict parallelism of the second version is tighter and more
effective.
CLUMSY: I outlined the letters slowly and with care.
BETTER: I outlined the letters slowly and carefully.
The best way to recognize what is wrong with such sentences and what needs to be done to fix them is to read
them aloud. Many, perhaps even most, such errors could be avoided altogether if the writer would simply take
the time to actually read what he writes.

5. Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier refers a phrase, clause, or word placed too far from the noun or pronoun it describes. As
a result, the sentence fails to convey your exact meaning. But misplaced modifiers usually carry a double
wallop: They often create confusion or imply something unintentionally funny. This is not a good thing when

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you want to make a competent impression with your writing. Generally, this error occurs when the modifier
and the modified noun are detached. Here's an example of a misplaced modifier:
a. They bought a puppy for my sister called Buchi.

As this sentence is written, it means that the sister, not the puppy, is named Buchi. That's because the modifier
“called Buchi” is in the wrong place in the sentence. To correct a misplaced modifier, move the modifier as
close as possible to the word or phrase it is describing. Here's how the sentence should read:
They bought a puppy called Buchi for my sister.

b. The patient was referred to a psychologist with several emotional problems.

What the writer thinks says: The patient has emotional problems.
What the sentence really says: The psychologist has emotional problems.
Correction: The patient with several emotional problems was referred to a psychologist.

6. Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier
describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept. Dangling modifier occurs when writers use a
modifier excluding the noun that it is intended to modify. It, thus, is an idle modifier.
Example: Having finished the assignment, Jemal turned on the TV.

"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the
doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jemal. She seems
logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have
a dangling modifier. The following sentence has an incorrect usage:
Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main
clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been
clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.

Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
Example: Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that
clause:
Example: Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
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3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
Example: To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

7. Tense Shift
Tense shift is the problem of jumping from one tense to another in a sentence. Example:
 We finished our meal and then he turns to me and asks if I minded paying.
 I played football after I decide to do some homework.

8. Wordiness
This refers the use of too many and overloading words in a sentence. It is an extravagant or
uneconomical use of words where the extra words smother the meaning. A writer with a sharp eye
can spot excess words and delete them during revision of the work.
Example:
1. Wordy: Hilina is of the opinion that the death penalty should be allowed.
Revised: Hilina believes in the death penalty.
2. Wordy: I would like to say that my subject in this paper will be how my father was a generous
person.
Revised: My father was generous.

Activity 15
Identify the type of error the following sentences portray and correct them.
1. The telephone rang several times she lifted the handset and said “Hello.”
2. Either the books or the promised photocopying machine have arrived.
3. The newscaster spoke softly into the microphone wearing bulletproof vest.
4. He was selected to participate in the meeting, he left for Addis.
5. In Daniel’s opinion, he thinks that cable television will change the life of the society in the
future.
6. Was she the woman who bought the suitcase in tennis shoes?
7. Since you were not paying attention.
8. He enjoys standing on his head and to walk on tiptoes.
9. Driving west, the scenery was beautiful
10. I like running in the park, sleeping late and make home videos.
11. TV news gives brief reports news reports give more.
12. Here are the teacher.
13. Alemnew reads lips, he is deaf.
14. Having finished the assignments, the TV was turned on.
15. The girl is my sweetheart with long hair.

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UNIT TWO
THE WRITING PROCESS
1. Pre-writing Techniques
Preparing to write can encompass three remarkable elements, namely having the right attitude,
interest and knowing the subject well. In addition to these elements, the process of writing begins
with identifying areas of writing.
After choosing the topic that you know, the next step should be searching for possible ways of getting
ideas down on the paper. You have to take time to spotlight your thought to generate ideas which will
be organized into the skeleton of a composition. This procedure can be utilized at any time during
writing process as far its focus is dominantly on generating idea that will be reused potential writing.
The prewriting stage includes selecting a topic, narrowing the topic and gathering sufficient
information.

1.1 Selecting a Topic

A text (paragraph or essay) is a group of sentences that give information about a topic. Therefore,
before you start writing, you should choose a topic for your writing.
 Choose a topic that is not too narrow (limited). A narrow topic will not have enough ideas to
write about.
 Choose a topic that is not too broad. A broad topic will have too many ideas for just one
paragraph or essay of limited paragraphs.

1.2 Narrowing the Topic

Narrow the topic by choosing one aspect of the topic to discuss. For example: School is too broad.
There are thousands of things you could say about it. You can narrow this as:
 secondary schools in my country
 popular school clubs
 university entrance exams.

1.3 Gathering Information

A) Brainstorming/Listing
Brainstorming is an abrupt inspiration of ideas. The writer makes use of this scheme to first get
his/her thought down on the paper either in phrase or word form and then scan the association among
them for potential writing. Brainstorming has paramount significance to provide examples that will
further build up composition in progress. It is a process of generating a lot of information within a
short time.
1. Start with the key word of your title.
2. For predetermined period of time, write all the thought that this key word brings to your mind
either in a word or phrase form.
3. Write a list of all associations you can think of during time period.

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N.B. Never judge these preliminary thoughts and try to correct them. Feel free and inhabited in your
thinking since you will have sufficient time to look over what you have written and make a decision
on what is useful and not.
B) Clustering
As it can be conceptualized from the term itself, clustering is making group or association among
things, ideas, concepts, etc. It is sometimes called mapping/mind mapping. So, clustering is the
technique which is often used to make connections among ideas so as to install visual map of the
thoughts about the topic prior to starting writing the actual paper. Draw a circle in the middle of your
paper with your topic written inside. Draw straight lines out from the circle like spokes on a wheel,
adding more circles at the end of each line. Within these you will write your supporting ideas. You
will draw more lines and circles out from each of those, adding more thoughts or ideas in wherever
appropriate.

To cluster,
1. start by writing a key word from your topic at the middle of the page, and draw a circle
around it.
2. draw a line from the circle and write ideas associated with the topic. Circle these ideas again
and draw another line and write more ideas associated to it.
3. continue this process until you cannot think of other ideas or reach present time limit.

The result will look a web on your page. In using cluster you will be able to distinguish how the ideas
fit together, especially where there is an abundance of ideas. It also lets you see your ideas visually in
a different way, so that you can more readily understand possible directions your paper may take.
This technique offers both the creative side of the free writing as well as the organization of the
outline form
C) Free-writing
As the word itself implies, free-writing can simply be defined as writing without stopping. It is
writing whatever comes to your mind without perturbing about whether the ideas make sense or
grammatically precise. It is analogous with brainstorming since the center of attention is only on
generating ideas that will be exploited to write the actual text. The deference is we write continuously
either in the form of sentence or partial sentence in free-writing while phrase or word form is utilized
in the case of brainstorming. Free-writing involves filling pure paper with junks of ideas that will be
refined and reused to prose the final version of your paper. It forces you to write so quickly that you
are unable to edit any of your ideas.
This is one of the most productive ways to begin a piece - just sit down on your chair and start
writing. Don’t spend time thinking about the flow of ideas, don’t stop to check your spelling or
punctuation. Don’t even try to make full sentences, simply put whatever comes to mind on the paper.
You will be surprised how quickly the ideas flow and the amount of creative thoughts you find
yourself producing. When you complete your free-writing, take a break, and when you return you can
start organizing your information and backfilling in all the details.
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D) Asking Journalistic Questions

This technique engrosses asking yourself as many wh-questions as possible, such as who, how, what,
when, where, why, which, whom, etc., to produce ideas that will be used to note down the first draft.
This system is highly indispensable to view your topic from different perspectives since each
question raises different issues about the same topic.
2. Outlining
Outlining is the step where you organize your ideas. After generating ideas by using one of the above
prewriting techniques, the next step should be screening out significant ideas and ordering them so as
to use as road map to craft the first draft. It is a blue print which can serve as a guide to write the
firsthand paper. It shows the organization of your essay. It also tells which idea(s) will come first,
second and so on, and ends with the essay’s conclusion. In other words, outline is the skeleton of your
essay. To show how the ideas work together, number them. You can use roman numbers for your
essay’s major ideas and Arabic numbers for the minor or specific ideas. It can be either formal or
informal. Generally, outlining is devising a plan for a text.

This is a great organizational tool that will assist you in getting your ideas down in a logical order or
sequence. Begin by writing the numbers 1, 2, and 3, under which you will write your main topics or

ideas for your paper. Once that is completed, you will go through each number again, listing a, b, c,
etc. underneath, then adding the appropriate ideas that apply to each one. You can continue along in
this manner as long as necessary, but this short exercise should give you a good start to you paper’s
structure.

As a principle, outlining involves identifying major and minor ideas. Always minor ideas must be
written under major ideas with indented space.
Formal outline is the arrangement of all major and specific ideas using fundamentals of formality
such as Roman numbers, uppercase English alphabet, Arabic number, and lowercase English
alphabet. It is formal because it engages the use of the above basics.
Informal, as the term itself implies, is the rough list of major and some main supporting ideas. It is
informal since it doesn’t engage using elements such as roman numbers and English alphabets.

Example: 1. Features of advancement

1.1. Better job opportunity
1.2. Improved standard of living
1.3. Higher quality of education
2 More access to health care
2.1
2.2.

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3. Drafting, Editing, Proofreading and Rewriting

a. Drafting
Drafting is the first phase in writing the actual paper. It is similar with free-writing except it involves
using outline as a guide. It is writing freely without worrying about content, organization and
language errors such as spelling, punctuation, capitalization…. The center of attention is largely on
getting ideas down on the paper rather than striving for grammatical accuracy since there are other
steps to think about accuracy.

b. Editing
Editing involves revising and reviewing. In order to edit, you need to read your paper again. It
focuses on correcting content and organization errors, and grammatical problems. This is the most
important stage at which you look at the overall content of the paper and judge the effectiveness of
your argument. Of course, you can still add new ideas if you think of something else while you are
reading your first draft. During editing you have to focus on the following tasks:
 Add idea to support your thesis
 Cut irrelevant ideas
 Replace parts you have cut
 Move sentences, clauses, words, etc. around

c. Proofreading
This is reading for the last time to grasp errors which were not observed while reviewing and
revising. It is advisable for you to take time at this stage since you will have room to see your paper
with new eyes. Letting others read your paper before submitting is also vital since different people
see things from different perspectives.
Proofread your final draft several times, putting as much time between the last two readings as
possible. Fresh eyes catch more typographical or careless errors. Remember that typing errors—even
the simple transposing of letters—can change the meaning of an entire thought and occasionally bring
unintended humor to your prose.

d. Rewriting
This is the final stage of your essay. Write your distilled and refined essay with the appropriate
margins and clear handwriting so that your reader will not get difficulty to read your essay.
UNIT THREE
WRITING EFFECTIVE COMPOSITIONS (FROM PARAGRAPH TO ESSAY)
1. Structure of a Paragraph
Paragraph is defined as systematically arranged sentences that develop a main idea or topic. In other
words, a paragraph is a group of related sentences in a distinct unit developing one major idea. This

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indicates that in writing, paragraph is the next larger unit after the sentence. Group of paragraphs, in
turn, mark larger unit – essay. A good paragraph is well-organized, properly linked and fully
developed.
The length of a paragraph varies according to the complexity of the main idea to be developed.
However, a typical paragraph quite often has one hundred words and five to ten sentences. Every
word, every sentence and every point in a paragraph should have a useful role to play in fulfilling the
purpose of the paragraph (main idea).

A typical paragraph that stands alone has three main parts: a topic sentence, a body or supporting
sentences, and a concluding sentence. In organizing ideas – each writing task should be organized as
follows:
 Introduction – where you state the topic and your purpose
 Body – where you provide the details and examples important to your purpose
 Conclusion – where you summarize your essay or speech and retell what you said in the body

a. The Topic Sentence

 States the main idea.
 Limits the main idea to one aspect of the subject that can be covered in one paragraph.
 Controls all the other sentences in the paragraph
 It is more general than the sentences that develop it.

The topic sentence can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph. In some paragraphs the
main idea is expressed in two sentences instead of one. In other cases it is implied rather than stated
directly based on the writer’s interest.

b. The supporting sentences

Explain, develop or prove the topic sentence with specific details, events, facts, examples, or reasons.
The supporting sentences of a paragraph may further be classified as major and minor. Major
supporting sentences have a direct link with the topic sentence of the paragraph and bring broader
supporting ideas (details) as compared with the minor ones while the minor supporting sentences
bring more specific details in support of the major supporting ideas.

c. Concluding sentence
It is a clincher and adds a strong ending by restating, emphasizing or summarizing the main idea. It
wraps things up.

Conclusion needs to have good transitions when restates your thesis. Here are some good words and
phrases to use for your concluding sentence.
• In conclusion
• Finally

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• To sum up
 All in all

Oops! What is the difference

between topic and topic sentence?

Activity 16
Identify the topic sentence, major supporting sentences and concluding sentence of the
paragraph below.
Preventing Cheating
Teachers should take steps to prevent students from cheating on exams. To begin with, teachers
should stop reusing old tests. Even a test that has been used once is soon known on the student
grapevine. Students will check with their friends to find out, for example, what was last semester’s
Basic Writing final exam. They may even manage to turn up a copy of the test itself, accidentally not
returned in by a former student of Dr. X. Teachers should also take some common sense precautions
at test time. They make students separate themselves – by at least one seat – during an exam, and they
should watch the class closely. The best place for the teacher to sit is in the rear of the room, so that
a student is never sure if the teacher is looking at him/her. Last of all, teachers must make it clear to
students that there will be stiff penalties for cheating. Anyone caught cheating should immediately
receive a zero for the exam. A person even suspected of cheating should be forced to take an
alternative exam in the teacher’s office. Because cheating is unfair to honest students, it should not
be tolerated.

Questions
1. What is the topic sentence of the paragraph?
2. What is/are the major supporting sentence(s)?
3. What is/are the minor supporting sentence(s)?
4. Write the concluding sentence of the paragraph.
5. What is the method of conclusion used?

Activity 17
Identify and underline the topic sentences of the following paragraphs.
1. Turning and looking west, I was immediately struck by the simple beauty of the little town, its
geometric, whit washed houses gleaming in the hot, bright sun. The town was perched stop a hill
directly underneath the jagged peaks of the coastal range. An old road would its way up the hill side
and in to the town, far away little car hurled like jigger nuts around the steep, sharp curve.
2. The automobile is a fixture of American life and seems certain to remain so. Eight percent of all
American families own at least one car. In urban areas, the percentage of car owning families range
from a low of 72% in Chicago to a high of 91 % in san Jose, California. In the latter city, 37% own
more than one car. Owning a car is an American birthright-and a necessity. Sixty four percent of the
population uses the car to get to and from work. The car is a symbol of affluence, a source of pleasure,
and an island of privacy in a crowded world. It supports several giant industries, such as automobile
manufacturers and makers of rubber and petroleum. The car is now and will be in the future.
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3. First, fruits and vegetables are packed with the vitamins and minerals you need to keep your body
functioning smoothly. In addition, they give you the carbohydrates you need for energy. Fruits and
vegetables have lots of fiber to help your digestive system work properly. Finally, many scientists
believe that the nutrients in fruits and vegetables can help fight diseases. Vegetables and fruits are
an important part of a healthy diet.

2. Types of Paragraph
A paragraph is a group of well-organized sentences written about one topic or idea. Based on its
purpose, a paragraph can be named as:
 Descriptive
 Narrative
 Persuasive
 Expository

2.1 Descriptive
A descriptive paragraph is written to tell about a person, place, thing, or idea in a way that helps the
reader picture it in his or her mind. Description is more than giving information as its focus is
basically on creating mental image by using words. The terms and expressions used in descriptive
paragraphs are strong to appeal at least to one of our sense organs.

Descriptive paragraphs include powerful adjectives that tell how things look, feel, sound, and even
taste. In addition to adjectives, figurative speech, symbolic expression, and personification are also
useful to describe.

Sample descriptive paragraph

My Best Friend
Kinfe is my best friend who was my dorm mate and classmate for three consecutive years at Mekelle
University. He is longer than me, oval dark brown faced. Besides, he has black, curly hair. His high forehead
covered in bruise exposes that he started going bald in his early twenties. His flamed black eyes with thick
eyebrow can easily be distinguished from further distance than the rest of his face. He has long straight nose
with flared nostrils. His small ears with ear-buds are turned forward. When his thin lips separate each other,
they expose his white teeth. Whatever happens, he never allow his hair grow longer. It is always cut short and
kept tidy. Generally, my friend, though his liveliness and obstinacy make some of his friends discontent, he has
good physical appearance. (by Melese Mengesha)

2.2. Narrative
A narrative paragraph is like a very short story that describes an event or experience in a way that
draws the readers in and keeps them wondering about how things turn out. It is like a report of series
of happenings, incidents, or episodes which all lead to conclusion. Narration uses chronology to
arrange incidents according to their time of occurrences in such a way that the event which appeared

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first is written at the beginning of the paragraph and the latest or last event at the end of the
paragraph.

Sample narrative paragraph

Dawit was one of the gangsters living in our village. One day, he went out and visited the usual place where he
drinks alcohol. When he arrived, he immediately ordered the servant to come with two cups of Katikala. He
then added another cup. Next, he started shouting and raised disruption. After an hour, something came out of
his gut. A few minutes later, nothing was left in his stomach. After a couple of minutes, his legs lost their power
to carry the rest parts of his body. He fell down. We then reported to the nearby police officer. Because of
some beaurocratic issues, no police was able to arrive soon. Later, we decided to take him to hospital. On the
next day, we heard that he has passed away. Though it is not humanity to say “Great!”, the dwellers of the
village have got relief. (by Melese Mengesha)

2.3 Persuasive
A persuasive paragraph is written to share an opinion and to convince others to act or think a certain
way. Persuasive paragraphs contain facts and examples to support the opinion. The focus of this kind
of paragraph geared towards changing the attitude of the readers and inducing relatively contradictory
view. The writer argues the position and defends it with solid evidences. The following steps will be
vital in writing persuasive paragraphs:
a. explain the stand of your opponent with sufficient explanation
b. clearly depict your stand/point of view.
c. validate your stand by providing satisfactory evidences and concluding idea..

Sample persuasive (argumentative) paragraph

Technology: Constructive or Destructive?
Many people believe that we should use technology to its prime level as it helps to easily access what
we need, to accomplish tasks with less amount of energy than needed before and accommodate us
with unlimited knowledge. Though technological advancement is contributing a lot with this regard, I
believe that it is letting the generation to be dependent. If a teacher cannot explain concepts in the
absence of electric power to display his projector, for example, where is the realization of real
learning? Evidences are showing that teachers who often use overhead projectors to teach a course
fail to teach without the aid of the machine. Besides this, it is found that the capacity of our mind to
retrieve and restore information (even the telephone number of our friends) is shrinking than before.
Hence, our mind is losing its sharpness and depreciating from time to time. Most significantly,
technology is playing unpredictable role for the augmentation of global warming. Since new
innovations require energy and produce poisonous and dusty by products, they are polluting the
environment. Don’t you think that we are being affected of our own accord? (by Melese Mengesha)

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2.4. Expository
An expository paragraph is written to provide information about a topic or to explain how something
is done. This type of paragraph uses plain language and concrete examples to expose the readers to
contemporary information. Or it is the text that the writer uses to give directions, explain new terms,
compare one thing to another, or explain how to do something. Expository paragraphs often use
transition words such as first, second, and then to guide the readers and help them understand. The
primary emphasis of such kind of texts is not to describe, narrate or argue. As it can be seen from the
definition, expository paragraphs can portray several features as compared to others, and it can be
further divided as follows.

A) Definition
This expository type explains terms or concepts by listing and examining their qualities and
characteristics.
Sample Paragraph
Discrimination is the unfair treatment of people because they belong to a particular group. When my
parents did not talk to a new family in the neighborhood because they were of a different religion, it
was discrimination. When my cousin, Helen, was interviewed for a job and it went to a man, even
though she had more experience, it was discrimination.
B) Explaining Process
It uses step-by-step organization to explain how something happens, works, or is done. Its focus is on
elaborating how something is done or explains procedures to be considered to do something.
Sample Paragraph
Hibernation is a biological process that occurs most frequently in small animals. The process enables
animals to adjust to a diminishing food supply. When the outdoor temperature drops, the animal’s
internal thermostat senses the change. Then, bodily changes begin to occur. First, the animal’s
heartbeat slows, and oxygen intake is reduced by slowed breathing. Metabolism is then reduced.
Food requirements become minimal. Finally, the animal falls into sleep-like state during which it
relies on stored body fat to support life functions.

C) Cause and Effect

This sort of paragraph explains cause and effect relationship among ideas, things… by using terms
such as consequently, as a result, due to these reasons, caused by….
Sample Paragraph
A couple that is expecting a baby looks forward to the birth of their child with high hope and
expectations. Fortunately, most babies are born in good health, with their brains and bodies intact.
Sometimes, of course, a baby is born with physical and/or mental defects. One such defect is mental
retardation. There is no single cause for mental retardation, but researchers have uncovered several
causes, some of which are preventable. Brain damage due to genetic conditions is a well-known
cause of mental retardation. Not all brain damage resulting in mental retardation occurs because of
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problems in the genetic makeup on the infant. Certain infectious diseases that the mother may
contract during pregnancy can adversely affect the developing brain of the baby, particularly in the
mother catches these diseases during the first three months of her pregnancy. Another preventable
cause of mental retardation in newborns relates to the drugs the pregnant woman injects like alcohol.
Fortunately, much of this damage can be prevented by the pregnant woman, genetic counseling,
caution to avoid infectious diseases and avoidance of drugs,

D) Classification
This type of paragraph divides the broadest perception into different small pieces, and groups those
that do have common attributes.
Sample Paragraph
Parents discipline their children in different ways. Some use physical punishment, but this can hurt
the child. Others yell constantly, yet this approach does not work well because the children get used
to it, and it can destroy their feelings of self-esteem. Other parents make their children feel guilty if
they do something bad. This work, but then the child can suffer from guilt from his or her entire life.
Some parents talk to their children and explain how to act, and when the child misbehaves, the
parents explain why the action is wrong. This seems to work pretty well because the children grow up
to understand right from wrong.

E) Compare and Contrast

It focuses on explaining the difference and similarity between two or more things. This type of
paragraph can easily be distinguished from other expository paragraphs since it utilizes expressions
like similarly, in the same way, like, etc. to show similarity, and unlike, in contrary, however,
nevertheless, etc. to prove contrast among ideas, things….
Sample Paragraph
Two very good teachers, Ato Teame and Ato Nahom, present very different tutoring styles. Ato Teame
is very organized. He conducts each tutorial class the same way. He reviews the assignment, tutors
about the new chapter, and explains the next assignment. He gives essay exams, and they are always
based on important tutorial topics. Because the topics are predictable, you know you are not wasting
your time when you study. Ato Teame’s grading depends half on the assignment works and half on
the essay exams. Ato Nahom, on the other hand, has a free and easy-going style. Each tutorial class
is different and seems to reflect whatever he thinks will help us understand what he tutors. His
tutorial classes are fun because you never know what to expect. Ato Nahom gives both multiple
choice and essay exams. These are difficult to study because they are unpredictable. Our final exam
is based entirely on the exams. So each exam requires a lot of studying beforehand. Although each
tutor tutors very differently, I am figuring out how learn from each particular style.
F) Illustration
It explains things, concepts, facts etc by providing lots of examples. Its quality is reflected in the
attempt the writer makes to portray the point under consideration by supplying evidences rather than
simply providing series of information.

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Sample Paragraph
“Lawlessness” and the “breakdown of law and order” have long been clinches of conservative
political oratory. Candidates to the right of the political spectrum have often run against ‘crime in
the streets’. Today many Americans find that reality has caught up with rhetoric. Crime is
everywhere becoming a familiar fact of everyday life. According to police statistics, In spite of
television cameras and other safety precautions, bank holdups are increased. Dresses put on the
clothesline to dry disappear. Watches and wallets disappear from high school locker rooms. Personal
aggressiveness and meanness are common. As the result of these and similar trends, many ordinary
citizens are losing faith in traditional law enforcement.
Activity 18
Write the mode of discourse (type of paragraph) used to develop each of the following
paragraphs.
1. Marriage is a permanent union whereas licentiousness is temporary flirtations. In marriage,
communism of property goes with communism of person. In licentiousness, love is paid for as
hired labour. Marriage makes a man responsible for the consequence of his acts of love to a
woman. In licentiousness, a man imposes on a woman the heavy burdens of maternity, ruining

perhaps her reputation and her health, and then goes his way without responsibility. Marriage
provides for the maintenance and education of children. Licentiousness ignores children as
nuisances, and leaves them to chance.
Type of paragraph/ Mode of Discourse_______________________________
2. Rosa watched as Tadesse, the man she had been in love with for what seemed like years, slowly
and affectionately intertwined his long, slender fingers with the petite fingers of another girl's
hand. Rosa closed her eyes to block out the image, but the scent of coffee—rich, bold, and bitter—
still lingered in the air, and the knowledge that it was his coffee was enough to make the inside of
her mouth taste and feel like cotton. Tadesse and the other girl remained silent, but the silence
spoke volumes about how intimate the moment between them was. A large, painful lump was
beginning to form inside of Rosa’s throat, making it hard to breathe, and she felt as though she
might suffocate if she did not flee from the room. Her legs were frozen, however, and would not
budge, leaving her with the faintest hope that perhaps the rest of her would soon become just as
numb. Type of paragraph/ Mode of discourse__________
3. Women should be allowed to serve in military roles that involve fighting. First of all, war combat
does not involve the great strength it once did. Computer technology, smaller electronic devices,
and other new battle strategies make war less about strength and more about intelligence. Women
are not fighting rifle to rifle. Some people insist that women on average have less upper-body
strength than men, making them less suited for combat. However, some women surpass some men
in upper-body strength. Although opponents feel that forcing women to fight in the military is an
attempt to change people’s attitudes about women, integrating women into the military is actually
a reflection of current society. Gender segregation is not as common today as it once was. In fact,
women are waiting longer to wed. Also, it is illegal to discriminate against women in civilian
society. Furthermore, recruiters are having more difficulty finding men to fill such jobs as
mechanics, analysts, and engineers. …
Type of paragraph/ Mode of discourse________________________________________

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4. One Sunday morning, John was out with his friends. He was still going to school once in a while,
but most of his friends weren’t. They spent their days on the streets, talking, showing off,
sometimes shoplifting a little or shaking people down for a few dollars. His friends and he were
close because life hadn’t been very good to any of them. On the night, they were drinking wine
and vodka on the corner. For some reasons, they all felt tense and restless. One of them came up
with the idea of robbing one of the rich men. They would just knock him over, grab the money,
and party with it. However, late that night, he just decided to step off the path he was on though
life didn’t get any easier and no one came along to pin a medal on him.
Type of paragraph: _________________________________
5. When most people write letters or make grocery lists, they don’t realize that a complicated
process was used to produce the paper they are using. There are four major steps in the process
of making paper: cutting wood into chips, cooking the chips into pulp, treating the pulp, and
drying and pressing the pulp in to paper. Type of paragraph: _________________
6. There are three main relationships that people have with dogs. First, we have working dogs.
These dogs, such as Siberian huskies and collies, serve people almost like employees. To a sheep
farmers, for example, a good sheepdog is his most valuable partner. Other dogs are known
primarily for their excellence in sports. The sleek and extremely fast greyhound is used in dog

races, and many hunting dogs, such as setters, retrievers and pointers, often compete in hunting
trials. Third, many people enjoy dogs as companions. All kinds of dogs can be excellent
companions, but a few breeds are kept only for this purpose. Because of the relationship they
have with people, dogs are often called “man’s best friend.”
Type of paragraph __________________________
7. Louis Pasteur, the famous French scientist, unintentionally discovered the principle of
vaccination against diseases. In 1879, while he was studying the disease of cholera, he injected
some chickens with samples of the disease. He thought that he was using a recent sample of
cholera, but it was an old sample. The chickens got sick, but then they recovered. Later, he
injected them again with a sample that he knew was recent. The chickens were supposed to die,
but they didn’t. Pasteur was surprised when none of the chickens even got sick. In conclusion,
Louis Pasteur, without knowing it, discovered that an old sample of a disease, used as a vaccine,
can prevent the disease. Type of paragraph _________________

4. Elements (Qualities) of a Good Paragraph and an Essay

You have already learned that a text should be structured into topic sentence, supporting sentences
and a concluding sentence. The next step is to make sure that all the three parts of your text
(paragraph or essay) together to explain your topic clearly.

4.1 Unity
In a paragraph with unity, all of the sentences support and develop the main idea. A paragraph with
unity is easy to follow, since the reader is not distracted by ideas or details that stray from the subject.
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In a unified paragraph, we expect all the sentences to be about the main idea of the paragraph.
Achieve unity in a paragraph by making sure that all of the supporting sentences relate directly to the
main idea.
4.2 Coherence
Coherence is the quality of a paragraph that makes each idea seem logically and smoothly related to
all the others. Two keys to coherent paragraph are logical organization and effective connecting
devices or cohesion. Ideas that are arranged in a clear and logical way are coherent. When a text is
unified and coherent, the reader can easily understand the main points. Thus achieve coherence by
using a logical organization and effective connectives. It helps not to make our text a confusing
collection of ideas set down in random order. The readers should be able to follow what you have
written and see easily and quickly how each sentence grows out of, or is related to, the preceding
sentence. To achieve coherence, you should have a smooth connection or transition between the
sentences in your paragraphs.

The following are important means of achieving coherence in your paragraphs:

1. Transition words and phrases
2. Repetition of key words
3. Substitution of pronouns for key nouns

Cohesive Devices (Transitions)

Cohesive devices are words and phrases that connect sentences and paragraphs together, creating a
smooth flow of ideas. These devices include transitions, pronoun references, and repetition of key
ideas.

The reader can't follow your line of thought unless each sentence leads smoothly and logically to the
next. Use repetition and transition words to create connections and make sure that grammar errors
don't break down the coherence of your writing.
There are many transition words and phrases in English that are used to connect sentences together
or relate ideas to one another. Some of them are mentioned below with their functions.
1) Addition : and, furthermore, moreover, besides, again, likewise, similarly, also, in addition,
what is more, what is worse, next, the other reason
2) Contrast : but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, though, even
though, although
3) Result/conclusion: therefore, hence, thus, consequently, as a result, in summary, to conclude
4) Enumeration: firstly, second,(ly)
5) Sequence : first, second, third, last, then finally, next
6) Time :in the meantime, then, later, soon, next, after, before, as, while, now, during, finally
7) Space : above, below, beside, behind, in front of, next, across, the opposite side, to the left,
nearby
8) Illustration : Namely, that is, for instance, for example, specifically, such as

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Methods of Organization
Without consciously thinking about the process, you may often organize sentences or paragraphs in
easily recognized patterns that give the reader a sense of logical movement and order. Three common
patterns of ordering sentences in a paragraph are discussed next:
a. The Order of Time
Some paragraphs are composed of details arranged in chronological order. Narrative, descriptive, and
expository paragraphs can all be written in time order. But time order is more appropriate for
narration. This means that the events or steps are told in the order that they happen.
Examples of linking words that show time order:
when … first … second … next … then … after … later … until … at … finally … as soon as …
meanwhile
b. Emphatic Order
writers give degree of importance to the major points they bring to support their main idea. Then they
order them beginning with the most important and ending it with the least one or vice versa. This is

called emphatic method of organization. But it is better to save your most convincing idea for last.
Persuasive and expository paragraphs, along with narrative paragraphs that tell news stories, can all
be written in importance order. This means that the paragraph begins with the most important or
main idea and the supporting details are organized from the most to least important.

c. Spatial Order
When your subject is a physical object, you should select some orderly means of describing it: from
left to right, top to bottom, inside to outside, and so forth. Descriptive and expository paragraphs can
be written in place order. This means that the details are described in the order they are found
(from top to bottom, left to right, outside to inside, etc.).
Examples of linking words that show place order:
above … below … between … on … over … near … under … by … against … inside … through …
Activity 19
I. Identify the irrelevant sentences in each paragraph and put the numbers of those in the
spaces provided.
(1) Teachers should take steps to prevent students from cheating on exams. (2) To begin with,
teachers should stop reusing old tests. (3) Even a test that has been used once is soon known on the
student grapevine. (4) Students will check with their friends to find out, for example, what was on Dr.
Thompson's biology final last term. (5) They may even manage to turn up a copy of the test itself,
"accidentally" not turned in by a former student of Dr. Thompson's. (6) Teachers should also take
some common sense precautions at test time. (7) They should make students separate themselves--by
at least one seat—during an exam, and they should watch the class closely. (8) The best place for the

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teacher to sit is in the rear of the room, so that a student is never sure if the teacher is looking at him
or her. (9) Last of all, teachers must make it clear to students that there will be stiff penalties for
cheating. (10) One of the problems with our school systems is a lack of discipline. (11) Teachers
never used to give in to students' demands or put up with bad behavior, as they so today. (12) Anyone
caught cheating should immediately receive a zero for the exam. (13) A person even suspected of
cheating should be forced to take an alternative exam in the teacher's office. (14) Because cheating is
unfair to honest students, it should not be tolerated.

II. In each group below, circle the item that does not support the topic sentence.
1. Topic sentence: Dawit is a very talented person.
a. Dawit is always courteous to his professors.
b. He has created beautiful paintings in his art course.
c. He won an award in a photography contest.
d. He is good writer.
2. Topic sentence: Helen seems attracted only to men who are unavailable.
a. She once fell in love with a man serving a life sentence in prison.
b. Her parents worry about her inability to connect with a nice single man.
c. Last year she saw an actor, a father of three, on a movie and wanted to have him.
d. Her current boyfriend is married.
3. Topic sentence: Some dog owners have little consideration for other people.
a. Some people are keen of keeping very large dogs.
b. Some dog owners let their dogs leave droppings on the sidewalk or in other people’s yards.
c. They leave the dog home alone for hours, and it barks, howls and wakes the neighbors.
d. Even when small children are playing nearby, owners let their bad-tempered dogs run loose.
4. Topic sentence: Dr. Temesgen is a very poor teacher.
a. He cancels class frequently with no explanation.
b. When a student asks a question that he can’t answer, he becomes irritated with the
student.
c. He got his PhD at a university in another country.
d. He puts off grading papers until the end of the semester, and then returns them all at
once.
5. Topic sentence: Some doctors seem to think it is all right to keep patients waiting.
a. They spend a lot of time speaking on a phone while a patient is waiting outside.
b. The doctors stand in the hallway chatting with nurses and secretaries even when
they have a waiting room full of patients.
c. Patients sometimes travel long distances to consult with a particular doctor.
d. Some doctors schedule appointments in a way that ensures long lines, to make it
appear that they are especially skillful.

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4.3 Completeness
Complete means everything is there, all in place and well-developed text. When you're talking about
a paragraph, completeness means having all your information there. Every idea discussed in the text
should be adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that work together to
explain the text’s theme. Do you have an introductory sentence which states your main idea or topic?
Do you have facts and details which support this idea? Do you have a concluding sentence? If the
answer is yes, therefore, the paragraph is complete.
Activity 20
I. There is one irrelevant sentence in the paragraph that follows. Find that sentence and cross it
out.
The students in the class come from many different parts of the world. Some are from European countries,
such s France, Spain, and Italy. Others are from Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and Israel.
Still other students were born in Asian countries, including Japan and Korea. Korean food is delicious.
The largest number of students is from Latin American countries like Mexico, Venezuela and Peru. The
class is an interesting mix of people from many different countries.

II. Read the following paragraph and identify a sentence(s) which is located on inappropriate place
(a sentence that distorts coherence) and show the appropriate place using an arrow.
The 1960s was a time of many social revolutions in USA. First, there was the civil rights movement.
This was started in the early sixties by the black people in the country, who were tired of being
treated as second-class citizens. They demanded to be treated equally with the white majority.
Students began to question the policies of the US and of the administration. Second, women
learned from the civil rights movement and created a movement for themselves called women’s
liberation. They wanted to be paid the same salaries and have the same job opportunities as men,
and they wanted to share household tasks and the raising of children with the men in their lives.
Another social revolution in the sixties took place at colleges and universities. It was the time of
the Vietnam War, and students on many campuses protested against the war by participating in
marches and demonstrations. In conclusion, many social movements that affect U.S. society in
important ways began in the 1960s.

UNIT FOUR
ESSAY WRITING
1. Difference between Paragraph and Essay
A paragraph is an organized group of related sentences which stick together t with the topic sentence
to magnify one central idea or objective of a writer. On the other hand, an essay is a group of related
paragraphs written about a single topic and a central idea called thesis statement. It must have at
least three paragraphs, but a five-paragraph essay is a common length for academic writing.
An essay
 Begins with an introductory paragraph which includes a thesis statement, that explains to the
reader what the essay is about

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 a thesis statement for an essay is longer and broader;

 Requires supporting details(paragraphs) that elaborate on the points made in the thesis
statement;
 the first sentence in each paragraph discusses points made in the thesis statement
 contains at least three paragraphs: they're composed of an introductory paragraph(which
includes the thesis statement), at least one supporting paragraph and a concluding paragraph.
 Ends with a conclusion paragraph that summarizes the content of the essay and reiterates the
thesis statement with different phrasing.

2. Structure of an Essay
The three main parts of an essay are the introduction (introductory paragraph), the main body
(supporting paragraphs) and the conclusion (concluding paragraph).

2.1 Introductory Paragraph

The introduction attracts the reader‘s interest by providing some hook. It includes the thesis statement
which the purpose (central idea) of the text. In addition to this, an introductory paragraph contains a plan
of development. The plan of development is a list of points that support the thesis and further developed in
the supporting paragraphs. The points are presented in the order in which they will be developed in the
paper.
An introductory paragraph can be written using any of the following six methods.
A. General to specific method-- Begin with a broad statement and narrow it down to your thesis
statement or vice versa.
B. Importance method – states how significant/current/burning the central idea or topic of the is
C. Incident/short story method – presents very short but related story in a limited number of
sentences.
D. Quotation method – takes quoted but related ideas from other sources or experiences
E. Question method – ask one or two significant and related questions
F. Contrast method – present the other side (opposite) of the thesis statement.

2.2 Supporting Paragraphs

The ideal number of supporting paragraphs in a good essay is three. Each supporting paragraph
develops a subdivision of the topic, so the number of paragraphs in the body will vary with the
number of subdivisions or subtopics. The supporting paragraphs in an essay are like the supporting
sentences in a paragraph. They are the place to develop your topic and prove your points. Each
supporting paragraph deals with points stated in the plan of development. The points raised in the
supporting paragraphs can be organized using time (chronological) method, emphatic (importance)
method of spatial method.

It should not be forgotten that each supporting paragraph as a commplete paragraph should develop
its own topic sentence with adequate supporting sentences and concluding sentence.
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2.3 Concluding Paragraph

The concluding paragraph is the last paragraph in writing an essay. The conclusion, like the
concluding sentence in a paragraph, is a summary or review of the main points discussed in the body.
It may also signal some future action to be done by the reader. Writers can apply one of the following
methods of writing a concluding paragraph:
A. Summary method – restates the major supporting ideas (topic sentences of each supporting
paragraph) and the thesis statement in another English.
B. Restatement method – rewriting the thesis statement using another English in the cocnluding
paragraph
C. Recommendation method – showing what the readers should do or act
D. Question method – writing a relevant question that helps the readers recap what they read or
ask for their opinion, view....

Activity 21
Read the following essay and answer the questions that follow.
Studying: Then and Now
One June day I staggered into a high school classroom to take my final exam in Unite States History IV.
Bleary-eyed form an all-night study session, I checked my cheat sheets, which were taped inside the
cuffs of my long-sleeved shirt. I had made my usual desperate effort to cram the night before, with the
usual dismal results – I had made it only to page seventy-five of a four-hundred-page textbook. My high
school study habits were, obviously, a mess. But, in college, I have made an attempt to reform my note
taking, studying and test-taking skills.

Taking notes is one thing I have learned to do better since high school days. I used to lose interest in
what I was doing and begin doodling, drawing Martians, or seeing what my signature would look like if I
married the cute guy in the second row. Now, however, I try not to let my mind wander, and I pull my
thoughts back into focus when they begin to get fuzzy. In high schools, my notes often look like
something written in Arabic. In college, I have learned to use a semi print writing style that makes my
notes understandable. When I would look over my high school notes, I couldn’t understand them. There
would be a word like “reconstruction” and then a big blank, then the word “important”. Weeks later, I
had no idea what ‘reconstruction’ was or why it was ‘important’. I have since learned how to write down
connecting ideas, even if I have to take the time to do it after class. Again, I have improved my studying
style in college, too.

Ordinary-during-the-exam studying is another area where I have made changes. In high school, I let
reading assignments go. I told myself that I’d have no trouble catching up on two hundred pages during
a fifteen-minute bus ride to school. College courses have taught me to keep pace with the work.
Otherwise, I feel as though I’m sinking in a quicksand of unread material. When I finally read the high
school assignment, my eyes would run over the words, but my brain would be plotting how to get the
car for Saturday night. Now I use several techniques that force me to concentrate on my reading.

In addition to learning how to cope with daily work, most significantly, I have also learned to handle
study sessions for big tests. My all-night study sessions in high school were experiments in self-torture.
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Around 2:00 AM, my mind, like a soaked sponge, simply stopped absorbing things. Now I space out exam
study sessions over several days. That way, the night before can be devoted to an overall review, rather
than raw memorizing. Most important though, I have changed my attitude towards tests. In high school,
I thought tests were mysterious things with completely unpredictable questions. Now, I ask teachers
about the kinds of questions that will be on the exam, and I try to ‘psych out’ which areas teachers are
likely to ask about. These practices really work and, for me, they have taken much of the fear and
mystery out of tests.

Since, I have reformed note taking and studying are not as tough as they once were. And there has been
benefit that makes the work worthwhile: my college grade sheets look much different from the red-
splotched ones of high school days. (Langan, J. “College Writing Skills with Readings.” Pp. 146-147.)

Questions
1. What is the thesis statement of the above essay?
2. What is the method of introduction applied to develop the introductory paragraph?
3. Is there a plan of development? A. yes B. no
4. If “yes,” write the plan of the development here
5. What is the topic sentence of
a. the first supporting paragraph?
b. the second supporting paragraph?
c. the third supporting paragraph?
6. What is method of organization used to order the supporting paragraphs?
7. What is the transitional sentence that appears between the first and the third supporting
paragraphs?
8. What is the transitional phrase that appears between the second and third supporting
paragraphs?
9. What is the method of conclusion used to finalize the essay?
10. What is the mode of discourse (type) of the essay?

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