Topic 1: World Population Increase

Causes of population boom: Improved healthcare, sanitation, agriculture, and industrialization.

Population statistics:

1800: ~1 billion

1927: ~2 billion

2010: ~7 billion

Now: ~8 billion

Population grew slower in the past due to high mortality rates. Growth sped up due to medical advancements and
improved living conditions. Future growth may slow as birth rates decline.

UN (United Nations): An international organization aimed at promoting peace, security, and cooperation.

Be able to read graphs/charts: Look for trends in population growth.

Topic 2: Over-Population & Under-Population

Definitions:

Over-population: Too many people for the resources available.

Under-population: Too few people to utilize available resources efficiently.

Optimum population: The ideal number of people for available resources.

Problems from over-population: Resource depletion, pollution, poverty.

Problems from under-population: Labor shortages, economic decline.

Low population countries can be over-populated if resources are mismanaged or unevenly distributed.

High population countries may not be over-populated if resources are well-managed.

Nigeria Case Study:

Nigeria's population: ~220 million

Lagos population: ~15 million

Problems: Traffic, poor infrastructure, health issues.

Australia Case Study:

Some think Australia is under-populated due to vast land and low density.

Others think it's at optimum due to economic balance.

Solutions: Immigration, incentives for families.

Topic 3: Causes of Change in Population Sizes

Definitions:

Birth rate: Births per 1,000 people.

Death rate: Deaths per 1,000 people.

Net migration: Difference between immigration and emigration.

Natural population change: Births minus deaths. Overall population change includes migration.

Falling birth rates due to urbanization, education, and access to contraception. Falling death rates due to better
healthcare.

DTM:

Stage 1: High birth & death rates, low population.

Stage 2: High birth rate, falling death rate, increasing population.

Stage 3: Falling birth & death rates, stable population.

Stage 4: Low birth & death rates, stable or declining population.

Example countries: Nigeria (Stage 2), UK (Stage 4).

Topic 4: Population Change

LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries) grow faster due to higher birth rates.

MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) grow slower due to lower birth rates.

GDP vs. population growth: Higher GDP often correlates with slower population growth.

High birth rates in some countries due to cultural, economic, and religious factors.

Niger Case Study:

High fertility rate due to cultural factors.

Death rate falling due to improved healthcare.

Government plan: Promote family planning.

Russia Case Study:

High death rate due to alcohol use, poor healthcare.

HIV/AIDS affects death rates.

Government encourages births with incentives, but many mothers are not persuaded due to economic insecurity.

Topic 5: Population Policies

Governments manage population via policies to balance resources and growth.

Singapore:

"Stop at Two" (limit children to 2) and "Have Three or More if You Can Afford It" (encourage larger families with
incentives).

Success: Mixed; reduced birth rate, but economic growth still needed.

China:

One-Child Policy (penalties for violations), Later, Longer, Fewer (delayed marriage, fewer children), Two-Child Policy,
now Three-Child Policy.
Success: Slowed population growth, but led to gender imbalances and aging population.

Negative effects: Stateless children, aging population, labor shortages.

Topic 6: Population Migration

Definitions:

Asylum seeker: A person seeking refuge in another country due to fear of persecution (involuntary).

Refugee: A person forced to leave their country due to conflict, violence, or persecution (involuntary).

Illegal migrant: A person entering or staying in a country without proper authorization (involuntary or voluntary).

Economic migrant: A person moving to improve their economic situation (voluntary).

Internal migrant: A person moving within their own country (voluntary or involuntary).

Emigrant vs Immigrant: Emigrant leaves a country, immigrant enters.

Internal vs International migrants: Internal stays within a country, international crosses borders.

Quality of life: General well-being, including physical, social, and emotional factors.

Standard of living: Economic factors, like income, housing, and employment.

Push & Pull Factors:

Push: War, poverty, persecution (incentives to leave).

Pull: Better jobs, safety, better quality of life (incentives to move).

Intervening factors: Legal barriers, economic barriers, distance, etc.

Mini Case Studies:

Australia’s policies: Australia has strict immigration policies, with a focus on skilled migration and refugee
resettlement. Some refugee policies are controversial.

Middle East & North Africa refugees: Push factors include conflict, poverty, and political instability. Pull factors
include safety and opportunities in Europe. Many refugees are involuntary migrants, facing dangerous journeys like
those in "The Swimmers".

Topic 7: Impacts of Migration

International Migration:

MEDCs face labor shortages, aging populations, and immigration challenges.

Positive impacts for origin countries: remittances. Negative impacts: loss of young workers. Destination countries:
positive for labor, negative for pressure on resources and integration challenges.

Migrants may not always be welcome due to economic strain and cultural concerns.

Internal Migration:
China: Many migrate from rural areas to cities for better jobs and education. Small villages face limited
opportunities, low wages, and lack of services.

Qatar Case Study:

Qatar's transformation: Oil and gas revenue spurred rapid development.

Migrant workers: Mostly from South Asia, working in construction and service industries. Poor working conditions
are common.

Kafala system: A sponsorship system that ties migrant workers to employers, often leading to exploitation.

Topic 8: Finding Out About the Population

Definitions:

Census: A survey to count the population and gather demographic data.

Demographer: A person who studies population dynamics.

Population Pyramids:

LEDC: A wide base, indicating high birth rates and a young population. Challenges include high dependency ratios
and a need for education and healthcare.

MEDC: A more uniform shape, with lower birth rates and an aging population. Challenges include an aging workforce
and high dependency ratios.

Changes in pyramids: As countries develop, birth rates drop, and the pyramid narrows at the base, showing an aging
population.

Italy Case Study:

Dependent population: Those who rely on the working population (young and elderly).

Dependency ratio: The ratio of dependents to working-age population.

Italy’s pyramid shows a large elderly population, with concerns about pensions, healthcare, and workforce
shortages.

Topic 9: Factors Influencing Population Density

Definitions:

Population density: The number of people living per unit of area (e.g., per square kilometer).

Population distribution: The spread of people across a region.

Peninsula: A landmass surrounded by water on three sides.

Relief: The physical features of the land (mountains, plains).

Accessibility: The ease of reaching a location.

Patterns of Population Density:

High density: Urban areas, fertile land, good infrastructure.

Low density: Harsh climates, remote areas, difficult terrain.

Shanghai vs. Treilaskagi:

Shanghai: High population density due to economic opportunities, accessibility, and infrastructure.

Treilaskagi: Low population density due to harsh climate, isolation, and limited employment opportunities.

Japan Case Study:

Average population density: ~337 people per square km.

Population distribution: Concentrated in coastal cities, especially Tokyo. The Northern Japanese Alps are less
populated due to mountains and lack of arable land.

Topic 17: Types & Features of Earthquakes & Volcanoes

Definitions:

Focus: The point inside the Earth where an earthquake originates.

Epicentre: The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake.

Fault: A crack in the Earth's crust along which movement has occurred.

Volcano types:

Active: Volcanoes that are currently erupting or have erupted recently.

Dormant: Volcanoes that are not currently erupting but may erupt again.

Extinct: Volcanoes that are not expected to erupt again.

Strato vs Shield Volcanoes:

Strato (composite): Steep-sided, explosive eruptions (e.g., Mount St. Helens).

Shield: Broad, gentle slopes, non-explosive eruptions (e.g., Mauna Loa).

Richter scale: Measures earthquake magnitude; each increase by 1 on the scale means 32 times more energy is
released. A 6 magnitude earthquake releases 32 times more energy than a 5 magnitude earthquake.

Features of Volcanoes:

Main vent, secondary vent, crater, secondary cone, magma chamber.

Topic 18: Plate Tectonics

Definitions:

Tectonic plates: Large pieces of Earth's crust that move over the mantle.

Plate boundaries: The edges where tectonic plates meet.

Convection currents: Heat from Earth's core causes convection currents in the mantle, which drive plate movement.

Plate boundaries:

Destructive/convergent: Plates collide, causing mountains or volcanic activity (e.g., Himalayas).

Constructive/divergent: Plates move apart, creating new crust (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge).

Conservative/transform: Plates slide past each other, causing earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault).

Topic 19: Causes & Effects of Earthquakes & Volcanoes

Hot spots: Areas of the Earth's mantle where magma rises, forming volcanoes away from plate boundaries (e.g.,
Hawaii).

Islands and Hot Spots: Islands farther from the hotspot are older and smaller due to erosion and volcanic activity
ceasing.

Positive and Negative Impacts:

Positive: Fertile soil, geothermal energy, raw materials, tourism.

Negative: Destruction of homes, infrastructure damage, loss of life, environmental damage.

Topic 20: Volcanoes Present Hazards & Opportunities

Definitions:

Lahar: Volcanic mudflow.

Mudflow: Fast-moving, water-laden volcanic material.

Glacial: Ice-related volcanic events.

Sulphur: Volcanic gas that can cause air pollution.

Hazards & Costs: Deaths, injuries, property damage, infrastructure disruption, environmental damage.
Benefits: Fertile soil, geothermal energy, minerals, tourism.

Topic 21: Reducing the Impacts

Vulcanologist: A scientist who studies volcanoes.

Comparing Earthquake Damage: Haiti (2010) vs New Zealand (2011):

Haiti: High death toll and devastation due to poor infrastructure and lack of preparation.

New Zealand: Fewer deaths due to better building standards and preparedness.

Earthquake-resistant buildings: Flexible designs, reinforced structures, shock absorbers, and base isolators to
prevent collapse.

Prediction: Volcanoes can be predicted with warning signs (e.g., gas emissions, seismic activity), but earthquakes
cannot be predicted.

Safety in Earthquakes & Volcanic Eruptions:

Earthquake: Drop, Cover, and Hold On.

Volcano: Evacuate if possible, avoid pyroclastic flows and ash.

Haiti Case Study:

Date: 2010, Magnitude: 7.0.

Deaths: 230,000+, Damage: $8 billion.

Plate boundary: North American and Caribbean (Convergent).

Reasons for devastation: Poor building codes, lack of preparedness, weak infrastructure.

Mount Sinabung, Indonesia:

Date: 2013 eruption.

Plate boundary: Indo-Australian and Eurasian (Convergent).

VEI: 4.

Deaths: 16+, Costs: $1 billion.

Hazards: Ash cloud, pyroclastic flow.

Reasons for destruction: Dense population near the volcano, lack of effective evacuation plans.

People stay due to fertile soil and economic necessity.

Topic 22: Rivers & Drainage Basins

Definitions:

Hydrological cycle: The continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth's surface.

Precipitation: Water falling from the atmosphere (rain, snow).

Evaporation: Water turning from liquid to gas.

Evapotranspiration: Combined loss of water by evaporation and plant transpiration.

Condensation: Water vapor turning into liquid.

Interception: Water being caught by vegetation before reaching the ground.

Infiltration/percolation: Water entering the soil.

River discharge: Volume of water flowing through a river.

Water runoff: Water flowing over land to rivers or oceans.

Aquifer: Underground layer of water-bearing rock.

Flows: Movement of water (e.g., precipitation, runoff).

Stores: Places where water is stored (e.g., lakes, glaciers).

Velocity: Speed of river flow.

Wetted perimeter: The length of the river’s bed and banks in contact with water.

Drainage basin: Area drained by a river and its tributaries.

Watershed: The boundary separating drainage basins.

Hydrological cycle: Water circulates through precipitation, infiltration, evaporation, and transpiration. It is a closed
system because no new water enters or leaves the Earth.

Stores & Flows: Examples of stores: lakes, oceans, ice caps; examples of flows: precipitation, evaporation, river
discharge.

opic 23: The Work of Rivers

Definitions:

Erosion: The process of wearing away rocks and soil by water, wind, or ice.

Deposition: The laying down of material (sediment) carried by water.

Transportation types: Methods of moving sediment: solution, suspension, saltation, traction.

Load: The materials (sediments, rocks) carried by a river.

Lateral erosion: Erosion of the river's banks.

Vertical erosion: Erosion of the riverbed, making the river deeper.

Capacity: The total amount of sediment a river can transport.

Competence: The size of particles a river can carry.

Types of Erosion, Deposition, and Transportation:

Erosion: Hydraulic action (water pressure), abrasion (sediment rubbing against surfaces), attrition (rocks crashing
together), solution (dissolving of minerals).

Deposition: Happens when the river slows down, and sediment is dropped based on size and weight.

Transportation: Sediment is moved through the river by saltation (bouncing), suspension (floating), traction (rolling),
and solution (dissolved).

Erosion & Deposition Features:

Erosion creates valleys, gorges, and waterfalls, while deposition forms deltas, floodplains, and levees.

Topic 24: River Landforms 1

Definitions:

Gorge: A narrow valley with steep, rocky sides, typically formed by the retreat of a waterfall.

Retreating waterfall: The backward movement of a waterfall as erosion eats into the riverbank, forming a gorge.

V-shaped valley: A valley with steep sides shaped by vertical erosion from a river.

Interlocking spurs: Ridges of land that alternate on either side of a valley and project into the valley.

Formation:

Valleys, gorges, and waterfalls are formed by vertical erosion, where rivers erode their beds to create steep-sided
features.

Topic 25: River Landforms 2

Definitions:

Distributaries: Smaller branches of a river that split from the main river channel, often in a delta.

Delta: A landform formed at the mouth of a river where it meets a body of water, formed by deposition of
sediments.

Flood plain: A flat area of land next to a river that is frequently flooded.

Levees: Natural or man-made embankments along the riverbank to prevent flooding.

Meanders: Curves or bends in a river, formed by lateral erosion.

Oxbow lakes: U-shaped lakes formed when a meander is cut off from the main river.

Formation:
Depositional landforms: Meanders, oxbow lakes, and deltas are shaped by deposition and erosion, with meanders
changing the river course and oxbow lakes forming when a meander is abandoned.

Topic 26: Rivers – Hazards & Opportunities

Definitions:

Irrigation: The process of supplying water to crops.

Fertile soil: Soil rich in nutrients, often deposited by rivers, ideal for farming.

Hazards and Opportunities:

Hazards: Flooding, erosion, landslides.

Opportunities: Agriculture (fertile soil), transportation (navigation), hydroelectric power, tourism.

Settlement: Rivers often attract settlements due to their resources (water, fertile soil), transportation routes, and
trade opportunities.

Topic 27: Managing River Flooding

Definitions:

Hydrograph: A graph showing river discharge over time, used to predict floods.

Lag time: The delay between peak rainfall and peak river discharge.

Hard engineering: Man-made structures like dams, levees, and flood walls.

Soft engineering: Natural or non-structural approaches like afforestation, floodplain zoning.

Dams, flood walls, embankments, levees, dredging, afforestation: Measures to control or reduce flooding risk.

Hydrograph: Shows the relationship between rainfall, river discharge, and flooding potential. The lag time is
important to predict when flooding may occur.

Advantages & Disadvantages:

Hard engineering: Effective but expensive and can harm ecosystems.

Soft engineering: Cheaper, sustainable, but less effective during extreme flooding.

Case Study: The Elbe River

Hazards: Flooding, erosion, water pollution.

Opportunities: Agriculture (fertile soil), transportation (shipping routes), hydroelectric power.

Management techniques: Levees, flood walls, dredging, and afforestation. Effectiveness is mixed; while measures
reduce flooding, some still face damage during extreme floods.

Why people live there: Fertile soil for farming, water for irrigation, transportation, and historical settlements.

Topic 28: The Work of the Sea

Definitions:

Erosion: The breakdown of coastal land by wave action, currents, and tides.

Deposition: The dropping of material carried by waves.

Erosional processes: Hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, and solution.

Constructive waves: Low-energy waves that deposit material, building up beaches.

Destructive waves: High-energy waves that erode the coast.

Backwash: The movement of water back down the shore after a wave.

Swash: The movement of water up the shore after a wave.

Longshore drift: The movement of sediment along the coast due to wave action.

Coastal Erosion and Deposition: Waves erode rock through hydraulic action and abrasion. Sediment is transported by
longshore drift, and coastal features like beaches and cliffs are formed by both erosion and deposition.

Factors influencing erosion rates: Wave energy, rock type, human activities, and weather conditions.

Topic 29: Coastal Landforms Created by Erosion

Definitions:

Concordant coastline: A coastline where layers of rock run parallel to the coast.

Discordant coastline: A coastline where rock layers are perpendicular to the coast.

Bay: A curved coastal area where waves have eroded softer rock.

Headland: A point of land jutting out into the sea, often formed by harder rock.

Cave, arch, stack, stump: Erosional features formed by the erosion of headlands.

Wave-cut platform: A flat area of rock formed by the erosion of a cliff.

Formation:

Headlands erode into stacks and stumps due to wave action. Wave-cut platforms form when waves erode cliffs at
high tide.
Topic 30: Coastal Landforms Created by Deposition

Definitions:

Longshore drift: The movement of sediment along the coast caused by waves approaching at an angle.

Swash: Water moving up the beach.

Backwash: Water moving back down the beach.

Spit: A narrow ridge of sand extending from the coast.

Sand bar: A submerged or partially submerged ridge of sand.

Tombolo: A sandbar connecting an island to the mainland.

Barrier island: A long, narrow island separating a lagoon or bay from the ocean.

Saltmarsh: Coastal wetlands flooded and drained by saltwater.

Formation:

Spits, sandbars, and tombolos are formed by the deposition of sediment carried by longshore drift. Saltmarshes form
in sheltered coastal areas where fine sediment is deposited.

Topic 31: Coral Reefs & Mangrove Swamps

Definitions:

Fringing Reef: A coral reef that is directly attached to the shore of a landmass or is separated from it by a narrow,
shallow lagoon.

Barrier Reef: A reef separated from the shore by a wider, deeper lagoon, typically located farther from the shore.

Atoll: A ring-shaped coral reef, island, or series of islets that encircle a lagoon, formed from the subsidence of
volcanic islands.

Mangrove Swamp: Coastal wetlands found in tropical and subtropical regions, characterized by the presence of salt-
tolerant mangrove trees.

Locations of Coral Reefs and Mangroves:

Coral reefs: Found mainly in tropical and subtropical regions between latitudes 30°N and 30°S, particularly in areas
like the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, the Caribbean Sea, and Southeast Asia.

Mangrove swamps: Found in tropical and subtropical coastal areas, along the coastlines of places like Southeast Asia,
the Caribbean, Africa, and parts of Central and South America.

Reasons for Distribution:

Coral Reefs: Require warm water temperatures (between 18°C to 30°C), clear water, and a stable, shallow
environment to thrive. These conditions are typically found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in the shallow
waters of the continental shelf.

Mangrove Swamps: Thrive in coastal areas with brackish water, where saltwater from the sea meets freshwater
from rivers or rainfall. Mangroves are adapted to withstand periodic flooding and can grow in intertidal zones,
typically in sheltered bays or estuaries.

Formation of Coral Reefs:

Fringing reefs form along the coastline as coral larvae attach to submerged rock.

Barrier reefs develop as the land subsides, allowing coral to continue growing in deeper waters.

Atolls are formed when a volcanic island sinks beneath the ocean, leaving behind a coral ring encircling a lagoon.

Adaptations of Mangrove Forests:

Mangrove trees have specialized roots (e.g., aerial roots, prop roots) that allow them to thrive in the saline, low-
oxygen conditions of tidal areas.

Benefits: Mangrove forests provide habitats for diverse wildlife, protect coastlines from erosion, improve water
quality by filtering pollutants, and act as carbon sinks.

Threats to Coral Reefs and Mangroves:

Coral reefs: Threatened by climate change (warming oceans, acidification), overfishing, coastal development,
pollution, and destructive fishing practices.

Mangroves: Threatened by deforestation for coastal development, pollution, and climate change (rising sea levels).

Topic 32: Hazards & Opportunities

Definitions:

Tsunami: A series of large ocean waves caused by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.

Evacuate: To move people from a dangerous area to a safer location.

Tropical storms: Intense low-pressure systems that develop over warm ocean waters, characterized by strong winds
and heavy rainfall.

Typhoons, Hurricanes, Cyclones: Regional names for tropical storms, with typhoons occurring in the western Pacific,
hurricanes in the Atlantic, and cyclones in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific.

Why Coastal Areas are Valuable:

Economic Opportunities: Coastal areas are often prime locations for tourism, fishing, shipping, and trade. They
support major cities and industries.

Biodiversity: Coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves, and estuaries are rich in biodiversity, supporting
numerous species.
Access to Resources: Coastal areas offer resources like fish, salt, and access to deep-sea minerals.

Why Coastal Areas are Hazardous:

Natural Hazards: Coastal areas are prone to storms, flooding, tsunamis, and erosion. The impact of these hazards can
be devastating, especially with rising sea levels and increasing storm intensity due to climate change.

Human Impact: Coastal populations are often dense, making them vulnerable to these natural disasters. Additionally,
coastal development and human activities contribute to the loss of protective ecosystems like mangroves and coral
reefs.

Hazards and Opportunities for Coastal Communities:

Hazards: Coastal areas are at risk of flooding, storm surges, and coastal erosion. These hazards can damage homes,
infrastructure, and disrupt livelihoods.

Opportunities: Coastal regions offer tourism, fishing, transport, and renewable energy sources (e.g., offshore wind
farms, tidal energy).

Topic 33: Managing Coastal Erosion

Definitions:

Hard Engineering: Man-made structures designed to prevent or control coastal erosion (e.g., sea walls, groynes).

Soft Engineering: Natural or less invasive methods to manage coastal erosion (e.g., beach nourishment, managed
retreat).

Sea Walls: Concrete or rock barriers placed along the coast to prevent erosion and protect coastal property.

Groynes: Wooden or concrete barriers built at right angles to the shore to trap sand and prevent longshore drift.

Rock Armour: Large rocks placed along the coast to absorb wave energy and prevent erosion.

Revetments: Sloping structures built to absorb and deflect wave energy.

Gabions: Cages filled with rocks or stones that are used to reinforce coastal areas.

Offshore Breakwaters: Structures placed in the water to reduce the energy of incoming waves.

Beach Nourishment: Adding sand or sediment to beaches to replace lost material.

Managed Retreat: Allowing certain areas to erode naturally while protecting others.

Coastal Management Techniques:

Hard Engineering: Effective at stopping erosion but can be expensive, visually intrusive, and may cause
environmental damage.

Soft Engineering: More sustainable and cost-effective but may not offer as much protection during extreme weather
events.

Evaluation of Techniques:
Sea walls and groynes are costly but effective at protecting infrastructure, while beach nourishment is cheaper but
requires regular maintenance.

Managed retreat is a long-term solution, allowing nature to reclaim land but displacing communities and
infrastructure.

Case Study: Mauritius

Lagoon: A shallow body of water separated from the sea by a reef or barrier island.

Why Coasts are Valuable & Hazardous: Mauritius' coastal areas attract tourism, support agriculture, and offer fishing
opportunities, but the island faces risks from tropical storms, cyclones, and rising sea levels.

Coastal Management Techniques: Mauritius uses a combination of hard engineering (e.g., sea walls, groynes) and
soft engineering (e.g., mangrove restoration, beach nourishment) to manage coastal erosion and flooding.

Effectiveness: Hard engineering provides short-term protection, but soft engineering helps restore natural
ecosystems and provide long-term resilience. However, both techniques face challenges from climate change and
the increasing frequency of extreme weather events.

Topic 43: Indicators of Development

Definitions:

Human Development Index (HDI): A composite index measuring development through life expectancy (health),
education (mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling), and income (GNI per capita).

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year, without
considering the income from abroad.

Gross National Income (GNI): The total income of a country's residents, including income from abroad (e.g., income
from foreign investments).

Per Capita: A term used to express the average per person, often referring to income or GDP.

Measuring Development: Development can be measured through several indicators like:

GDP and GNI to measure economic performance.

HDI to consider health, education, and income.

Other indicators include poverty rates, literacy rates, life expectancy, employment rates, and access to basic services
(e.g., sanitation, clean water).

HDI Score: A score between 0 and 1; a higher HDI score reflects higher development.

A score closer to 1 represents high human development (e.g., Norway, Switzerland).

A score closer to 0 indicates low development (e.g., Chad, Central African Republic).

Advantages and Disadvantages of HDI:

Advantages: Holistic view, considers both economic and social factors, easy to understand.
Disadvantages: May overlook inequality within countries, doesn't measure quality of life or environmental factors.

Topic 44: Identifying Inequalities

Definitions:

Core Area: The economically developed, politically dominant part of a country or region.

Periphery: The less developed, often rural or remote areas of a country or region.

Transmigration: The movement of people from densely populated areas to less populated areas within a country
(often as part of government policies).

Inequalities:

Between countries: There are vast disparities in development between countries in the Global North (more
developed) and the Global South (less developed).

Within countries: Inequalities can exist between regions (e.g., urban vs. rural) or between different groups (e.g.,
ethnic minorities, gender disparities). For example, in Kyrgyzstan, there are stark differences between the more
developed capital area (core) and the rural, mountainous periphery.

Topic 45: Classifying Production

Definitions:

Primary Sector: The extraction of raw materials from the earth (e.g., farming, mining, fishing).

Secondary Sector: The processing of raw materials into finished goods (e.g., manufacturing, construction).

Tertiary Sector: The provision of services (e.g., retail, healthcare, education, tourism).

Quaternary Sector: Knowledge-based activities (e.g., research, technology development, financial services).

Sector Examples:

Primary: Mining, farming, fishing.

Secondary: Factory work, construction.

Tertiary: Banking, teaching, healthcare.

Quaternary: Information technology, research, consulting.

Topic 46: Employment Structure Varies

Definitions:

LEDC (Less Economically Developed Country): A country with a lower standard of living and industrial base.
MEDC (More Economically Developed Country): A country with a high standard of living, industrial base, and higher
GDP per capita.

NIC (Newly Industrialized Country): A country that has recently transitioned from primarily agricultural to industrial
and manufacturing economies.

Subsistence Farming: Farming that produces only enough for the farmer’s family with little or no surplus.

Commercial Farming: Farming for profit, producing surplus for sale in markets.

Mechanization: The use of machinery in farming, reducing the need for human labor.

Changes in Employment by Sector:

LEDCs tend to have a larger proportion of the workforce in primary industries (agriculture, mining).

MEDCs have a higher proportion of workers in tertiary and quaternary sectors, with less reliance on primary sectors.

Over time, countries move from a reliance on the primary sector to the secondary and tertiary sectors due to
industrialization, technological advances, and urbanization.

Topic 47: Globalisation

Definitions:

Globalisation: The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start
operating on an international scale.

Free Trade: The ability for countries to trade without tariffs or restrictions.

Trade Blocs: Groups of countries that agree to reduce or eliminate trade barriers among themselves (e.g., European
Union, NAFTA).

IGOs (Intergovernmental Organizations): Organizations composed of sovereign states, e.g., United Nations, World
Trade Organization.

NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations): Non-profit organizations that operate independently of governments,

e.g., Amnesty International, Red Cross.

TNCs (Transnational Corporations): Corporations that operate in multiple countries, e.g., Nike, McDonald's.

Outsourcing: The practice of moving part of a company’s production or services to another country.

Production Chain: The steps involved in the production of goods and services, often spread across multiple countries.

Global Shift: The movement of manufacturing industries from developed countries to developing countries.

Impacts of Globalization:

Positive: Economic growth, job creation, access to new markets, cultural exchange.

Negative: Exploitation of labor, environmental degradation, loss of cultural identity.

Causes of Globalization: Advances in technology, transportation, and communication have made it easier for
businesses to operate across borders. Trade liberalization policies and the rise of global markets have also
accelerated globalization.
Case Study: Nokia, Finland

Nokia’s Outsourcing: Nokia moved production to Vietnam to reduce costs, capitalizing on cheaper labor and lower
operational expenses. Conversely, it closed factories in Finland due to higher labor costs and automation in
production.

Sourcing Raw Materials: TNCs like Nokia source materials like coltan and cobalt from the DRC due to their lower
extraction costs and abundant supply.

Impacts: Positive impacts include lower production costs and job creation in LEDCs. Negative impacts include labor
exploitation, environmental damage, and loss of jobs in MEDCs.

Topic 48: Agricultural Systems

Definitions:

Arable Farming: Growing crops for food (e.g., wheat, corn).

Pastoral Farming: Raising animals for food, wool, and other products (e.g., cattle, sheep).

Mixed Farms: Farms that grow both crops and raise animals.

Extensive Farming: Large-scale farming with low inputs of labor and capital.

Intensive Farming: Farming that uses high levels of labor and capital to produce large quantities of crops or livestock.

Subsistence Farming: Farming to produce just enough for the farmer and their family.

Commercial Farming: Large-scale production of crops or livestock for sale.

Shifting Cultivation: A traditional farming method where land is cleared, used for a few years, and then left to
recover.

Sustainable Farming: Farming methods that preserve the environment and use resources efficiently.

Agricultural System: The system involves inputs (e.g., seeds, labor, capital), processes (e.g., planting, harvesting), and
outputs (e.g., crops, livestock).

Case Study: Glebe Farms

Diversification: Farmers might diversify into other income-generating activities like agritourism (e.g., Pick Your Own
(PYO)), or by producing higher-value crops.

EU Policies: Subsidies and grants under the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) helped farmers in the UK but have
been affected after Brexit, altering farming economics.

Farming Decisions: Factors like market demand, subsidies, environmental conditions, and labor availability affect
what farmers choose to produce.

Topic 49: Food Shortages

Definitions:

Food Secure: Having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food.

IDP (Internally Displaced Person): People forced to flee their homes but remain within their country.

Causes and Effects of Food Shortages:

Causes: Political instability, conflict, economic inequality, poor infrastructure, climate change.

Effects: Hunger, malnutrition, increased poverty, displacement (e.g., refugees like the Lost Boys of South Sudan).

Case Study: South Sudan:

Causes of Food Shortages: Conflict and political instability in South Sudan have disrupted farming and food
distribution, leading to widespread hunger.

Effects: Malnutrition, forced migration, and a humanitarian crisis affecting millions.

Topic 50: Industrial Systems

Definitions:

Industrial Inputs: The raw materials, labor, and capital used in manufacturing.

Processes: The steps that convert inputs into finished goods.

Outputs: The products produced by the industrial system, as well as any waste.

Factors Influencing Industrial Location:

Proximity to raw materials, labor, infrastructure, and markets can determine the location of factories.

Industries may cluster in areas with favorable access to these resources or specific government incentives.