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A Short Guide to Writing
about Biology
ninth Edition

Jan A. Pechenik
Biology Department
Tufts University

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Pechenik, Jan A.
A short guide to writing about biology/Jan A. Pechenik.—Ninth edition.
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 Contents

Preface vii

Part I   General Advice About Writing

and Reading Biology 1

1—Introduction and General Rules 1

What Lies Ahead? 1
What Do Biologists Write About,
and Why? 2
The Keys to Success 3
Avoiding Plagiarism 13
On Using Computers in Writing 15
On Using Computers for Data Storage, Analysis,
and Presentation 18
Summary 18
Technology Tip 1. Using Shortcuts
and Autocorrect 16

2—Locating Useful Sources 20

What Lies Ahead? 20
Easy Ways to Access the Primary Literature 21
Using Indexes 22
Using Science Citation Index 23
Using Current Contents Connect 23
Using Medline and Other Databases 24
Prowling the Internet 25
Conducting Web Searches: Developing Productive
Search Strategies 26
Final Thoughts About Efficient Searching: Technology
Isn’t Everything 30
Closing Thoughts 31
Summary 31
Technology Tip 2. Using Search Engines
 Effectively 29

iii
iv    Contents

3—General Advice on Reading, Note Taking,

and Avoiding Plagiarism 32
What Lies Ahead? 32
Why Read and What to Read 32
Effective Reading 33
Reading Data: Plumbing the Depths of Figures and Tables 35
Take Notes in Your Own Words 41
Final Thoughts on Note Taking: Document Your Sources 45
Summary 46

4—Reading and Writing About Statistical

Analyses 47
What Lies Ahead? 47
Statistical Essentials 47
Summary: Using Statistics to Test Hypotheses 58
Moving Beyond p-Values 59
Reading About Statistics 61
Writing About Statistics 61
Summary 64

5—Citing Sources and Listing References 66

What Lies Ahead? 66
Citing Sources 66
Summary of Citation Format Rules 70
Preparing the Literature Cited Section 70
A Sample Literature Cited Section 75
Technology Tip 3. Bibliographic Management
 Software 73
Technology Tip 4. Producing Hanging Indents 74

6—Revising 77
What Lies Ahead? 77
Preparing the Draft for Surgery: Plotting Idea Maps 79
Revising for Content 82
Revising for Clarity 86
Revising for Completeness 91
Revising for Conciseness 93
Revising for Flow 98
Revising for Teleology and Anthropomorphism 102
Revising for Spelling Errors 102
Revising for Grammar and Proper Word Usage 103
 Contents    v

Becoming a Good Reviewer 110

Checklist 117
Technology Tip 5. Tracking Changes Made
to Documents 115

Part II   Guidelines for Specific Tasks 119

Prelude: Why Are You Writing Papers and Proposals

and Giving Talks? 119

7—Writing Summaries, Critiques, Essays,

and Review Papers 121
What Lies Ahead? 121
Writing Summaries and Critiques 121
Sample Student Summary 124
Writing Essays and Review Papers 128
Checklist for Essays and Review Papers 136

8—Answering Essay Questions 137

Basic Principles 137
Applying the Principles 141
Summary 143

9—Writing Laboratory and Other

Research Reports 144
What Lies Ahead? 144
Why Are You Doing This? 144
The Purpose of Laboratory and Field Notebooks 145
Components of the Research Report 150
Where to Start 152
When to Start 152
Writing the Materials and Methods Section 152
Writing the Results Section 158
Citing Sources 188
What to Do Next? 188
Writing the Discussion Section 188
Writing the Introduction Section 195
Talking About Your Study Organism or Field Site 200
Deciding on a Title 201
Writing an Abstract 202
Preparing an Acknowledgments Section 203
Preparing the Literature Cited Section 203
vi    Contents

Preparing a Paper for Formal Publication 203

A Note About Co-Authorship 205
Checklist for the Final Draft 205
Technology Tip 6. Using Computer Spreadsheets
for Data Collection 187
Technology Tip 7. Graphing with Excel 208

10—Writing Research Proposals 212

What Lies Ahead? 212
What Are Reviewers Looking For? 213
Researching Your Topic 214
What Makes a Good Research Question? 215
Writing the Proposal 216
Tightening the Logic 220
The Life of a Real Research Proposal 221
Checklist 221

11—Presenting Research Findings: Preparing

Talks and Poster Presentations 223
What Lies Ahead? 223
Oral Presentations 223
Writing the Talk 224
Giving the Talk 226
Dos and Don’ts for Oral Presentations 227
Common PowerPoint® Errors 231
Checklist for Being Judged 232
Poster Presentations 233
Checklist for Making Posters 238

12—Writing Letters of Application 239

What Lies Ahead? 239
Before You Start 240
Preparing the CV 240
Preparing the Cover Letter 243
Getting Effective Letters of Recommendation 253

Appendix A: Commonly Used Abbreviations 254

Appendix B: Recommended Resources 255
Index 258
 Preface

Careful thinking cannot be separated from effective writing. Being a ­biologist

is not just about memorizing facts and terminology or about mastering an
­increasing array of computer software and molecular techniques. Biology
is a way of thinking about the world; it is about making careful observa-
tions, ­asking specific questions, designing ways to address those questions,
manipulating data thoughtfully and thoroughly, interpreting those data
­
and related ­observations, reevaluating past work, asking new questions, and
­redefining older ones. It is also about communicating information—accurately,
logically, clearly, and concisely. The hard work of thinking about biology is at
least as i­mportant as the work of doing it. Writing provides a way to examine,
to evaluate, to refine, and to share that thinking. Writing is both a product and
a process.
Biology instructors are increasingly concerned about their students’ writing
for two reasons. First, bad writing often reflects fuzzy thinking, so questioning the
writing generally guides students toward a clearer understanding of the biology
being written about. Second, effective communication is such a key part of the
biologist’s trade that our students really must learn to do it well. The difficulty,
of course, is finding the time to teach both biology and presentation skills when
there is barely enough time in the semester to cover the biology. This book allows
instructors to guide their students’ writing without taking up valuable class time.
And as their writing improves, so, too, will the students’ understanding of what
they are writing about.
Although this book covers every sort of writing assignment that b ­ iologists
face—both as students and as professionals—it is brief enough to be read along
with other, more standard assignments and straightforward enough to be
­understood without additional instruction. The book is intended especially for
undergraduate use in typical lecture and laboratory courses at all levels, but it is
also widely used in undergraduate and graduate seminars. Many colleagues tell
me they have also found much in the book that was new and helpful in their
own writing, and in their teaching.
I have included examples from all fields of biology. However, because the
book is intended for use even at introductory levels, I have avoided examples
that assume substantial specialized knowledge or terminology. Instructors in
advanced courses may wish to amplify basic principles with examples chosen
from papers published in their own fields; students will benefit in particular
from guided study of good models.

vii
viii    Preface

Changes Made For The Ninth Edition

For this edition of the Short Guide, I have made the following major changes:
• I have added new content about avoiding plagiarism and have high-
lighted that issue further in Chapter 3.
• I have updated information about citing references and listing them in the
Literature Cited section of reports, including information about adding
digital object identifiers (DOIs) to references and citing online journals.
• In Chapter 9, I have added new material about in writing an effective
Materials and Methods section, writing strong figure captions, and
­preparing manuscripts for online submission. I have also added new
­examples about building logical introductions that lead ­inexorably to
the specific ­research question to be addressed.
• In Chapter 2, I have updated my advice about using indexes for online
searches and have added Google Scholar screen shots.
• In Chapter 11, I have added new advice about organizing talks, and
I introduce the idea of having students give short talks based on a
single graph or table from a research paper.
• I now suggest using cloud storage for backing up drafts, and emphasize
the importance of doing so.
For this ninth edition, I have retained the narrative style that has made
previous editions so successful with students. We can’t expect students to
become better writers if we reduce everything to bullets and summaries for
them. Students can learn a great deal by writing their own summaries but little
of lasting value by reading or memorizing mine. I have, however, added more
boldfacing to this edition, making it easier for students to locate advice of
particular importance. Users of the previous edition will notice many smaller
improvements in every chapter.

Organization
The first 6 chapters cover general issues that apply to all types of writing (and
reading) in biology. In Chapter 1, I emphasize the benefits of ­learning to write
well in biology, describe the sorts of writing that professional ­biologists do,
and review some key principles that characterize all sound scientific w
­ riting. In
Chapter 2, I describe how to locate useful sources using computerized ­indexing
services, online journals, and the Internet. Chapter 3 e­ mphasizes the struggle
for understanding that must precede any concern with how something is said.
In it, I explain how to read the formal scientific literature, i­ncluding graphs
and tables; how to take useful notes; and how to take notes in ways that pre-
vent unintentional plagiarism. Chapter 4 talks about the use and interpretation
 Preface    ix

of statistical analyses. Chapter 5 explains how to cite references and prepare

a Literature Cited section. Chapter 6 focuses on the process of revision—for
content, organization, clarity, conciseness, grammar, word use, and spelling.
It emphasizes the benefits of peer review, and it explains both how to be an
effective reviewer of other people’s writing and how to interpret criticism.
Many readers have found Chapter 6 to be one of the most important chapters
in the book. Most students learn little in preparing the first draft of anything.
However, they can learn much—both about biology and about communicating
their thoughts—through properly guided revision.
The rest of the book covers all of the specific writing tasks encountered
in ­biology coursework and in professional life: writing summaries, critiques,
essays, and review papers (Chapter 7); answering essay questions on exams
(Chapter 8); writing laboratory and other research reports (Chapter 9); ­writing
research ­ proposals (Chapter 10); preparing oral and poster presentations
(Chapter 11); and ­writing letters of application for jobs or for graduate school
(Chapter 12). I ­encourage ­instructors to incorporate short oral presentations
into their course ­design. Writing typically improves when students are first
asked to give a short oral presentation on some aspect of what they are plan-
ning to write about: Writing, thinking, and speaking are all interconnected.
Requiring brief oral presentations (based, for ­example, on a single figure from
a published research paper) is a particularly good way to get students started
on larger projects early in the semester.
My discussion of writing summaries and critiques is an especially
­important part of the book because most students seem not to have had much
practice summarizing information accurately and concisely and in their own
words. An inability to summarize effectively is a serious obstacle to both syn-
thesis and evaluation. Writing summaries is also a particularly effective way for
students to self-test their understanding and to prepare for examinations.
The chapter on writing research reports (Chapter 9) emphasizes that the
results obtained in a study are often less important than the ability to dis-
cuss and interpret those results convincingly in the context of basic biologi-
cal knowledge and to demonstrate a clear understanding of the purpose of the
study. It emphasizes the variability inherent in biological systems and how that
variability is dealt with in presenting, interpreting, and discussing data. This
chapter will also be useful to anyone preparing papers for publication.
The checklists found at the ends of most chapters allow students to evaluate
their own work and that of their peers. Most of the checklists include page num-
bers, helping students locate the text on which each item is based. Instructors
can easily turn these checklists into grading rubrics, which should be shared
with students well before the assignments are due. Sample rubrics, along with
related materials, are available on my website: http://ase.tufts.edu/biology/labs/
pechenik/publications/books.htm
x    Preface

“Technology Tips” are scattered throughout the book, helping students

take better advantage of the computer technology available to them for finding
sources, writing, graphing, and giving oral presentations.

Acknowledgments
This edition has benefited greatly from the suggestions of many people
who took the time to read and comment on the previous edition, ­including
Dr. Fredric R. Govedich, Southern Utah University; Valerie Haywood,
Case Western Reserve University; Carl Smeller, Texas Wesleyan University;
Dr. Kaci Thompson, University of Maryland; and Christopher M Trimby,
Ph.D., New Jersey Institute of Technology.
Previous editions benefited greatly from sage advice given by the following
readers: Andrea Aspury, Vickie Backus, Alison Brody, Diane Caporale-Hartleb,
Bob Dick, Jean-Marie Kauth, Kirk A Stowe, Alexa Tullis, Barbara Frase, Caitlin
Gabor, Blanche Haning, Jean-Marie Kauth, Michael J. Klein, Angie Machniak,
R. Brent Thomas, Cathy Tugmon, Christine E. Jungklaus, Scott Kinnes, Chris
Maher, Kay McMurry, William R. Morgan, Regina Raboin, Linda L. Tichenor,
Cheryl L. Watson, Virginia Anderson, Tina Ayers, Sylvan Barnett, Arthur
Buikema, Edward H. Burtt, Robert Chase, Maggie de Cuevas, Robert Curry,
John R. Diehl, George F. Edick, Stephen Fuller, Louis Gainey, Jr., Sharon Hanks,
Marcia Harrison, Jared Haynes, Joseph Kelty, Scott Kinnes, Anne Kozak,
George Labanick, Martin Levin, Sara Lewis, Barbara Liedl, John W. Munford,
Colin Orians, Peter Pederson, Laurie Sabol, Carl Schaefer, Christopher Schardl,
Stephen van Scoyoc, Barbara Stewart, Gwynne Stoner, Denise Strickland, Marcia
Stubbs, David Takacs, Briana Crotwell Timmerman, and Janice Voltzow.
I am grateful to all of these people for their comments and suggestions
and am much cheered by their dedication to the cause. And who could ask
for a more attentive reader than Victoria McMillan? “Oh, shame! Where is thy
blush?”
It is also a pleasure to thank Regina Raboin, Science Research and
Instruction Librarian at Tufts University, who was a great help in updating the
material on conducting Internet and database searches.
Finally, I have learned much about writing and teaching from correspon-
dence and conversation with enthusiastic readers of previous editions, from
conversations with faculty in the many workshops that I’ve led over the past
20-plus years, and from working with colleagues from all disciplines in what
was once the Writing Across the Curriculum program at Tufts University.
I welcome additional comments from readers of the present edition, both
­instructors and students ([email protected]).

Jan. A. Pechenik
 I General Advice About
Writing and Reading Biology

1
Introduction and
General Rules
What appears as a thoroughly systematic piece of scientific work is actually
the final product: a cleanly washed offspring that tells us very little about the
chaotic mess that fermented in the mental womb of its creator.
Avner Treinin

What Lies Ahead? In This Chapter, You Will Learn

• The importance and benefits of learning to write well in biology courses
• Twenty-seven rules that characterize all good scientific writing—learn them,
and follow them
• The perils of plagiarism and how to avoid them
• How to get the most from your computer in writing, data storage, data analysis,
and data presentation

The logical development of ideas and the clear, precise, and succinct commu-
nication of those ideas through writing are among the most difficult skills that
can be mastered in college—but among the most important ones, regardless
of what your future career turns out to be. Effective writing is also one of the
most difficult skills to teach. This is especially true in biology classes, which
often require much writing but allow little time to focus on doing it well. The
chief messages of this book are that developing your writing skills is worth
every bit of effort it takes, and that biology is a splendid field in which to
­pursue this goal.

1
2    Chapter 1  Introduction and General Rules

What Do Biologists Write About, and Why?

Most biologists write lectures; grant proposals; research papers; literature
­reviews; oral and poster presentations for meetings; letters of recommendation;
committee reports; and even critiques of research papers, research proposals,
and books written by other biologists. The writing that biologists do is similar
in many respects to the writing of essays, literature reviews, term papers, and
laboratory reports that you are asked to do while enrolled in a typical biology
course. Basically, we must all prepare arguments.
Like a good term paper, research report, oral presentation, or thesis, a lec-
ture is an argument; it presents information in an orderly manner, and it seeks
to convince an audience that this information fits sensibly into some much
larger story. Putting together a string of 3 or 4 lectures on any particular topic is
the equivalent of preparing one 20- to 30-page term paper weekly.
In addition to preparing lectures, many biologists spend quite a bit of
time writing grant proposals to fund their research and evaluating proposals
submitted by colleagues. A research proposal is unquestionably an argument;
­success depends on our ability to convince a panel of other biologists that
what we wish to do is worth doing, that we are capable of doing it, that we can
­interpret the results correctly, that the work cannot be done without the funds
requested, and that the amount of funding requested is appropriate for the
­research planned. Research money is not plentiful. Even well-written proposals
have a difficult time; poorly written proposals generally don’t stand a chance.
When we are not writing grant proposals or lectures, we are often preparing
the results of our research for publication or for presentation at meetings. Research
articles are really just laboratory reports based on data collected over months or
years. In research articles, as in laboratory reports, the goal is to make a strong
case for doing the research, to present the data clearly, and to interpret those data
thoroughly and convincingly in the context of previous work and basic biological
principles. Preparing research reports typically involves the following steps:
1. Organizing and analyzing the data
2. Preparing a first draft of the article (following the procedures outlined
in Chapter 9 of this book)
3. Revising and reprinting the paper
4. Asking one or more colleagues to read the paper critically
5. Revising the paper in accordance with the comments and suggestions
of the readers
6. Reprinting and proofreading the paper
7. Sending the paper to the editor of the journal in which we would most
like to see our work published
The editor then sends the manuscript out to be reviewed by 2 or 3 other biolo-
gists. Their comments, along with those of the editor, are then sent to the author,
 The Keys to Success     3

who must revise the paper again—often extensively. The editor may then accept
or reject the revised manuscript, or the editor may request that it be rewritten yet
again before publication.
Oral presentations involve similar preparation. The data are organized and
examined, a draft of the talk is prepared, feedback on the talk is solicited from
colleagues, and the presentation is revised.
College and university biologists also write about you. Letters of recom-
mendation are especially troublesome for us because they are so important
to you. Like a good laboratory report, literature review, essay, or term paper,
a letter of recommendation must be written clearly, developed logically, and
proofread carefully. It must also support all statements of opinion with facts or
examples if it is to argue convincingly on your behalf and help get you where
you want to go.
And then, there are progress reports, committee reports, and internal
memoranda to write. All this writing involves thinking, organizing, nailing
down convincing arguments, revising, retyping, and proofreading.
Clearly, being able to write effectively will help advance your career. Clear,
concise, logical writing is an important tool of the biologist’s trade: Learning
how to write well is at least as important as learning how to use a balance,
extract DNA, use a taxonomic key, measure a nerve impulse, run an electro-
phoretic gel, or clone a gene. And unlike these rather specialized laboratory
techniques, mastering the art of effective writing will reward you regardless
of the field in which you eventually find yourself.
In preparing the cover letter that accompanies a job application, for exam-
ple, you are again building an argument: You are trying to convince someone
that you understand the position you are applying for, that you have the skills
to do the job well, and even that you want to do the job well. Similarly, in con-
structing a business plan, you must write clearly, concisely, and convincingly if
you are to get your project funded. The fact that you may not become a biolo-
gist is no reason to cheat yourself out of the opportunity to become an effective
writer. Remember this: While you’re in college, you have a captive audience;
once you graduate, nobody has to read anything you write ever again.

The Keys to Success

It’s always easier to learn something than to use what you’ve learned.
Chaim Potok, The Promise

There is no easy way to learn to write well in biology or in any other field. It helps
to read a lot of good writing, and not just in biology. Whenever you read any-
thing that seems especially clear or easy to follow, examine that writing carefully
to see what made it work so well for you. Reading well-written sentences aloud
can also help plant good patterns in your brain. But mostly you just have to work
4    Chapter 1  Introduction and General Rules

hard at writing—and keep working hard at it, draft after draft, assignment after
assignment. That will be much easier to do if you have something in mind that
you actually want to say. Much of this book is about how to get to that point.
All good writing involves 2 struggles: the struggle for understanding and
the struggle to communicate that understanding to readers. Like the making
of omelets or crepes, the skill improves with practice. There are no shortcuts,
and there is no simple formula that can be learned and then applied mindlessly
to all future assignments. Every new piece of writing has to be thought about
anew. Being aware of certain key principles, however, will ease the way con-
siderably. Each of the following rules is discussed more fully in later chapters
(note the relevant page numbers). This listing is worth reading at the start of
each semester, or whenever you begin a new assignment.

Eleven Major Rules for Preparing a First Draft

1. Work to understand your sources (pp. 33–45). The only things we
ever really learn are things we teach ourselves. When writing laboratory
reports, spend time wrestling with your data until you are convinced
you see the significance of what you have done. When taking notes
from books or research articles, reread sentences you don’t understand,
and look up any words that puzzle you. Take notes in your own words;
extensive copying or paraphrasing usually means that you do not yet
understand the material well enough to be writing about it. Too few
students take this struggle for understanding seriously enough, but all
good scientific writing begins here. You can excel—in college and in life
after college—by being one of the few who meet this challenge head on.
Do not be embarrassed to admit—to yourself or to others—that you do
not understand something after working at it for a while. Talk about the
material with other students or with your instructor. If you don’t com-
mit yourself to winning the struggle for understanding, you will either
end up with nothing to say or what you do say will be wrong. In both
cases, you will produce nothing worth reading.
2. Don’t quote from your sources. Direct quotations rarely appear in
the formal biological literature. Describe what others have done and
what they have found, but do so in your own words. Consider this
sentence:
Shell adequacy was measured by the “shell adequacy index,”
defined by Vance (1972) as “the ratio of the weight of the her-
mit crab for which the shell was of preferred size to the actual
weight of the hermit crab examined.”

When I see writing like this, I suspect that the writer did not under-
stand the material being quoted; when you understand something
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
they are few, and I can mention but one, from my own knowledge, I
shall but mention it.
I have often heard a Captain, who has been long since dead,
boast of his conduct in a former voyage, when his Slaves attempted
to rise upon him. After he had suppressed the insurrection, he sat in
judgment upon the insurgents; and not only, in cold blood, adjudged
several of them, I know not how many, to die, but studied, with no
small attention, how to make death as excruciating to them as
possible. For my reader’s sake, I suppress the recital of particulars.
Surely, it must be allowed, that they who are long conversant with
such scenes as these, are liable to imbibe a spirit of ferociousness,
and savage insensibility, of which human nature, depraved as it is, is
not, ordinarily, capable. If these things be true, the reader will admit
the possibility of a fact, that was in current report, when I was upon
the Coast, and the truth of which, though I cannot now authenticate
it, I have no reason to doubt.
A Mate of a ship, in a long-boat, purchased a young woman, with
a fine child, of about a year old, in her arms. In the night, the child
cried much, and disturbed his sleep. He rose up in great anger, and
swore, that if the child did not cease making such a noise, he would
presently silence it. The child continued to cry. At length he rose up a
second time, tore the child from the mother, and threw it into the sea.
The child was soon silenced indeed, but it was not so easy to pacify
the woman: she was too valuable to be thrown overboard, and he
was obliged to bear the sound of her lamentations, till he could put
her on board his ship.
I am persuaded, that every tender mother who feasts her eyes and
her mind, when she contemplates the infant in her arms, will
commiserate the poor Africans.—But why do I speak of one child,
when we have heard and read a melancholy story, too notoriously
true to admit of contradiction, of more than a hundred grown slaves,
thrown into the sea, at one time, from on board a ship, when fresh
water was scarce; to fix the loss upon the Underwriters, which
otherwise, had they died on board, must have fallen upon the
Owners of the vessel. These instances are specimens of the spirit
produced, by the African Trade, in men, who, once, were no more
destitute of the milk of human kindness than ourselves.
Hitherto, I have considered the condition of the Men Slaves only.
From the Women, there is no danger of insurrection, and they are
carefully kept from the men; I mean, from the Black men. But——In
what I have to offer, on this head, I am far from including every ship.
I speak not of what is universally, but of what is too commonly, and, I
am afraid, too generally, prevalent.
I have already observed, that the Captain of an African ship, while
upon the Coast, is absolute in his command; and if he be humane,
vigilant, and determined, he has it in his power to protect the
miserable; for scarcely any thing can be done, on board the ship,
without his permission, or connivance. But this power is, too seldom,
exerted in favour of the poor Women Slaves.
When we hear of a town taken by storm, and given up to the
ravages of an enraged and licentious army, of wild and unprincipled
Cossacks, perhaps no part of the distress affects a feeling mind
more, than the treatment to which the women are exposed. But the
enormities frequently committed, in an African ship, though equally
flagrant, are little known here, and are considered, there, only as
matters of course. When the Women and Girls are taken on board a
ship, naked, trembling, terrified, perhaps almost exhausted with cold,
fatigue, and hunger, they are often exposed to the wanton rudeness
of white Savages. The poor creatures cannot understand the
language they hear, but the looks and manner of the speakers, are
sufficiently intelligible. In imagination, the prey is divided, upon the
spot, and only reserved till opportunity offers. Where resistance, or
refusal, would be utterly in vain, even the solicitation of consent is
seldom thought of. But I forbear.—This is not a subject for
declamation. Facts like these, so certain, and so numerous, speak
for themselves. Surely, if the advocates for the Slave Trade attempt
to plead for it, before the Wives and Daughters of our happy land, or
before those who have Wives or Daughters of their own, they must
lose their cause.
 Perhaps some hard-hearted pleader may suggest, that such
treatment would indeed be cruel, in Europe; but the African Women
are Negroes, Savages, who have no idea of the nicer sensations
which obtain among civilized people. I dare contradict them in the
strongest terms. I have lived long, and conversed much, amongst
these supposed Savages. I have often slept in their towns, in a
house filled with goods for trade, with no person in the house but
myself, and with no other door than a mat; in that security, which no
man in his senses would expect, in this civilized nation, especially in
this metropolis, without the precaution of having strong doors,
strongly locked and bolted. And with regard to the women, in
Sherbro, where I was most acquainted, I have seen many instances
of modesty, and even delicacy, which would not disgrace an English
woman. Yet, such is the treatment which I have known permitted, if
not encouraged, in many of our ships—they have been abandoned,
without restraint, to the lawless will of the first comer.
Accustomed thus to despise, insult, and injure the Slaves on
board, it may be expected that the conduct of many of our people to
the Natives, with whom they trade, is, as far as circumstances admit,
very similar; and it is so. They are considered as a people to be
robbed and spoiled, with impunity. Every art is employed to deceive,
and wrong them. And he who has most address, in this way, has
most to boast of.
Not an article, that is capable of diminution or adulteration, is
delivered genuine, or entire. The spirits are lowered by water. False
heads are put into the kegs that contain the gun-powder; so that,
though the keg appears large, there is no more powder in it, than in
a much smaller. The linen and cotton cloths are opened, and two or
three yards, according to the length of the piece, cut off, not from the
end, but out of the middle, where it is not so readily noticed.
The Natives are cheated, in the number, weight, measure, or
quality, of what they purchase, in every possible way. And, by habit
and emulation, a marvellous dexterity is acquired in these practices.
And thus the Natives, in their turn, in proportion to their commerce
with the Europeans, and (I am sorry to add) particularly with the
English, become jealous, insidious and revengeful.
 They know with whom they deal, and are accordingly prepared;—
though they can trust some ships and boats, which have treated
them with punctuality, and may be trusted by them. A quarrel,
sometimes, furnishes pretext for detaining, and carrying away, one
or more of the Natives, which is retaliated, if practicable, upon the
next boat that comes to the place, from the same port. For so far
their vindictive temper is restrained by their ideas of justice, that they
will not, often, revenge an injury received from a Liverpool ship, upon
one belonging to Bristol or London.
They will, usually, wait with patience, the arrival of one, which, they
suppose, by her sailing from the same place, has some connection
with that which used them ill; and they are so quick at distinguishing
our little local differences of language, and customs in a ship, that
before they have been in a ship five minutes, and often before they
come on board, they know, with certainty, whether she be from
Bristol, Liverpool, or London.
Retaliation on their parts, furnishes a plea for reprizal on ours.
Thus, in one place or another, trade is often suspended, all
intercourse cut off, and things are in a state of war; till necessity,
either on the ship’s part, or on theirs, produces overtures of peace,
and dictates the price, which the offending party must pay for it. But
it is a warlike peace. We trade under arms; and they are furnished
with long knives.
For, with a few exceptions, the English and the Africans,
reciprocally, consider each other as consummate villains, who are
always watching opportunities to do mischief. In short, we have, I
fear too deservedly, a very unfavourable character upon the Coast.
When I have charged a Black with unfairness and dishonesty, he has
answered, if able to clear himself, with an air of disdain, “What! do
you think I am a White Man?”
Such is the nature, such are the concomitants, of the Slave Trade;
and such is the school in which many thousands of our Seamen are
brought up. Can we then wonder at that impatience of subordination,
and that disposition to mutiny, amongst them, which has been, of
late, so loudly complained of, and so severely felt? Will not sound
policy suggest, the necessity, of some expedient here? Or can sound
policy suggest any, effectual, expedient, but the total suppression of
a Trade, which, like a poisonous root, diffuses its malignity into every
branch?
The effects which our trade has upon the Blacks, those especially
who come under our power, may be considered under three heads,
—How they are acquired? The mortality they are subject to! and,
How those who survive are disposed of?
I confine my remarks on the first head to the Windward Coast, and
can speak most confidently of the trade in Sherbro, where I lived. I
own, however, that I question, if any part of the Windward Coast is
equal to Sherbro, in point of regularity and government. They have
no men of great power or property among them; as I am told there
are upon the Gold Coast, at Whidah and Benin. The Sherbro people
live much in the patriarchal way. An old man usually presides in each
town, whose authority depends more on his years, than on his
possessions: and He, who is called the King, is not easily
distinguished, either by state or wealth, from the rest. But the
different districts, which seem to be, in many respects, independent
of each other, are incorporated, and united, by means of an
institution which pervades them all, and is called The Purrow. The
persons of this order, who are very numerous, seem, very much, to
resemble the Druids, who once presided in our island.
The Purrow has both the legislative and executive authority, and,
under their sanction, there is a police exercised, which is by no
means contemptible. Every thing belonging to the Purrow is
mysterious and severe, but, upon the whole, it has very good effects;
and as any man, whether bond or free, who will submit to be initiated
into their mysteries, may be admitted of the Order, it is a kind of
Common-wealth. And, perhaps, few people enjoy more, simple,
political freedom, than the inhabitants of Sherbro, belonging to the
Purrow, (who are not slaves,) further than they are bound by their
own institutions. Private property is tolerably well secured, and
violence is much suppressed.
 The state of Slavery, among these wild barbarous people, as we
esteem them, is much milder than in our colonies. For as, on the one
hand, they have no land in high cultivation, like our West-India
plantations, and therefore no call for that excessive, unintermitted
labour, which exhausts our Slaves; so, on the other hand, no man is
permitted to draw blood, even from a Slave. If he does, he is liable to
a strict inquisition; for the Purrow laws will not allow a private
individual to shed blood. A man may sell his slave, if he pleases; but
he may not wantonly abuse him. The laws likewise punish some
species of theft, with slavery; and in cases of adultery, which are
very common, as polygamy is the custom of the country, both the
woman, and the man who offends with her, are liable to be sold for
Slaves, unless they can satisfy the husband, or unless they are
redeemed by their friends.
Among these unenlightened Blacks, it is a general maxim, that if a
man steals, or breaks a moveable, as a musket, for instance, the
offence may be nearly compensated, by putting another musket in its
place; but offences, which cannot be repaired in kind, as adultery,
admit of no satisfaction, till the injured person declares, that He is
satisfied. So that, if a rich man seduces the wife of a poor man, he
has it in his power to change places with him; for he may send for
every article in his house, one by one, till he says, “I have enough.”
The only alternative, is personal slavery.
I suppose, bribery and influence may have their effects in Guinea,
as they have in some other countries; but their laws, in the main, are
wise and good, and, upon the whole, they have considerable
operation; and therefore, I believe, many of the Slaves purchased in
Sherbro, and probably upon the whole Windward Coast, are
convicts, who have forfeited their liberty, by breaking the laws of their
country.
But, I apprehend, that the neighbourhood of our ships, and the
desire of our goods, are motives, which often push the rigour of the
laws to an extreme, which would not be exacted, if they were left to
themselves.
 But Slaves are the staple article of the traffic; and though a
considerable number may have been born near the sea, I believe the
bulk, of them are brought from far. I have reason to think, that some
travel more than a thousand miles, before they reach the sea-coast.
Whether there may be convicts amongst these likewise, or what
proportion they may bear to those who are taken prisoners in war, it
is impossible to know.
I judge, the principal source of the Slave Trade, is, the wars which
prevail among the Natives. Sometimes, these wars break out
between those who live near the sea. The English, and other
Europeans, have been charged with fomenting them; I believe (so
far as concerns the Windward Coast) unjustly. That some would do
it, if they could, I doubt not; but I do not think they can have
opportunity. Nor is it needful they should interfere. Thousands, in our
own country, wish for war, because they fatten upon its spoils.
Human nature is much the same in every place, and few people
will be willing to allow, that the Negroes in Africa are better than
themselves. Supposing, therefore, they wish for European goods,
may not they wish to purchase them from a ship just arrived? Of
course, they must wish for Slaves to go to market with; and if they
have not Slaves, and think themselves strong enough to invade their
neighbours, they will probably wish for war.—And if once they wish
for it, how easy is it to find, or make, pretexts for breaking an
inconvenient peace; or (after the example of greater heroes, of
Christian name) to make depredations, without condescending to
assign any reasons.
I verily believe, that the far greater part of the wars, in Africa,
would cease; if the Europeans would cease to tempt them, by
offering goods for Slaves. And though they do not bring legions into
the field, their wars are bloody. I believe, the captives reserved for
sale, are fewer than the slain.
I have not sufficient data to warrant calculation, but, I suppose, not
less than one hundred thousand Slaves are exported, annually, from
all parts of Africa, and that more than one half, of these, are exported
in English bottoms.
 If but an equal number are killed in war, and if many of these wars
are kindled by the incentive of selling their prisoners; what an annual
accumulation of blood must there be, crying against the nations of
Europe concerned in this trade, and particularly against our own!
I have, often, been gravely told, as a proof that the Africans,
however hardly treated, deserve but little compassion, that they are
a people so destitute of natural affection, that it is common, among
them, for parents to sell their children, and children their parents.
And, I think, a charge, of this kind, is brought against them, by the
respectable author of Spectacle de la Nature. But he must have
been misinformed. I never heard of one instance of either, while I
used the Coast.
One article more, upon this head, is Kidnapping, or stealing free
people. Some people suppose, that the Ship Trade is rather the
stealing, than the buying of Slaves. But there is enough to lay to the
charge of the ships, without accusing them falsely. The slaves, in
general, are bought, and paid for. Sometimes, when goods are lent,
or trusted on shore, the trader voluntarily leaves a free person,
perhaps his own son, as a hostage, or pawn, for the payment; and,
in case of default, the hostage is carried off, and sold; which,
however hard upon him, being in consequence of a free stipulation,
cannot be deemed unfair. There have been instances of unprincipled
Captains, who, at the close of what they supposed their last voyage,
and when they had no intention of revisiting the Coast, have
detained, and carried away, free people with them; and left the next
ship, that should come from the same port, to risk the
consequences. But these actions, I hope, and believe, are not
common.
With regard to the Natives, to steal a free man or woman, and to
sell them on board a ship, would, I think, be a more difficult, and
more dangerous attempt, in Sherbro, than in London. But I have no
doubt, that the traders who come, from the interior parts of Africa, at
a great distance, find opportunity, in the course of their journey, to
pick up stragglers, whom they may meet in their way. This branch of
oppression, and robbery, would likewise fail, if the temptation to it
were removed.
 I have, to the best of my knowledge, pointed out the principal
sources, of that immense supply of Slaves, which furnishes so large
an exportation every year. If all that are taken on board the ships,
were to survive the voyage, and be landed in good order, possibly
the English, French, and Dutch islands, and colonies, would be soon
overstocked, and fewer ships would sail to the Coast. But a large
abatement must be made for mortality.—After what I have already
said of their treatment, I shall now, that I am again to consider them
on board the ships, confine myself to this point.
In the Portuguese ships, which trade from Brasil to the Gold Coast
and Angola, I believe a heavy mortality is not frequent. The Slaves
have room, they are not put in irons, (I speak from information only,)
and are humanely treated.
With our ships the great object is, to be full. When the ship is
there, it is thought desirable, she should take as many as possible.
The cargo of a vessel of a hundred tons, or little more, is calculated
to purchase from two hundred and twenty to two hundred and fifty
Slaves. Their lodging-rooms below the deck, which are three, (for the
men, the boys, and the women,) besides a place for the sick, are
sometimes more than five feet high, and sometimes less; and this
height is divided towards the middle, for the Slaves lie in two rows,
one above the other, on each side of the ship, close to each other,
like books upon a shelf. I have known them so close, that the shelf
would not, easily, contain one more.
And I have known a white man sent down among the men, to lay
them in these rows to the greatest advantage, so that as little space
as possible might be lost. Let it be observed, that the poor creatures,
thus cramped for want of room, are likewise in irons, for the most
part both hands and feet, and two together, which makes it difficult
for them to turn or move, to attempt either to rise or to lie down,
without hurting themselves, or each other. Nor is the motion of the
ship, especially her heeling, or stoop on one side, when under sail,
to be admitted; for this, as they lie athwart, or across the ship, adds
to the uncomfortableness of their lodging, especially to those who lie
on the leeward, or leaning side of the vessel.
 Dire is the tossing, deep the groans.——

The heat and the smell of these rooms, when the weather will not
admit of the Slaves being brought upon deck, and of having their
rooms cleaned every day, would be, almost, insupportable, to a
person not accustomed to them. If the Slaves and their rooms can
be constantly aired, and they are not detained too long on board,
perhaps there are not many who die; but the contrary is often their
lot. They are kept down, by the weather, to breathe a hot and
corrupted air, sometimes for a week: this, added to the galling of
their irons, and the despondency which seizes their spirits, when
thus confined, soon becomes fatal. And every morning, perhaps,
more instances than one are found, of the living and the dead, like
the Captives of Mezentius, fastened together.
Epidemical fevers and fluxes, which fill the ship with noisome and
noxious effluvia, often break out, infect the Seamen likewise, and the
Oppressors, and the Oppressed, fall by the same stroke. I believe,
nearly one half of the Slaves on board, have, sometimes, died; and
that the loss of a third part, in these circumstances, is not unusual.
The ship, in which I was Mate, left the Coast with Two Hundred and
Eighteen Slaves on board; and though we were not much affected
by epidemical disorders, I find, by my journal of that voyage, (now
before me,) that we buried Sixty-two on our passage to South-
Carolina, exclusive of those which died before we left the Coast, of
which I have no account.
I believe, upon an average between the more healthy, and the
more sickly voyages, and including all contingencies, One Fourth of
the whole purchase may be allotted to the article of Mortality. That is,
if the English ships purchase Sixty Thousand Slaves annually, upon
the whole extent of the Coast, the annual loss of lives cannot be
much less than Fifteen Thousand.
I am now to speak of the survivors.—When the ships make the
land, (usually the West-India islands,) and have their port in view
after having been four, five, six weeks, or a longer time, at sea,
(which depends much upon the time that passes before they can get
into the permanent Trade Winds, which blow from the North-East
and East across the Atlantic,) then, and not before, they venture to
release the Men Slaves from their irons. And then, the sight of the
land, and their freedom from long and painful confinement, usually
excite in them a degree of alacrity, and a transient feeling of joy——

The prisoner leaps to lose his chains.

But, this joy is short-lived indeed. The condition of the unhappy

Slaves is in a continual progress from bad to worse. Their case is
truly pitiable, from the moment they are in a state of slavery, in their
own country; but it may be deemed a state of ease and liberty,
compared with their situation on board our ships.
Yet, perhaps, they would wish to spend the remainder of their days
on ship board, could they know, before-hand, the nature of the
servitude which awaits them, on shore; and that the dreadful
hardships and sufferings they have already endured, would, to the
most of them, only terminate in excessive toil, hunger, and the
excruciating tortures of the cart-whip, inflicted at the caprice of an
unfeeling Overseer, proud of the power allowed him of punishing
whom, and when, and how he pleases.
I hope the Slaves, in our islands, are better treated now, than they
were, at the time when I was in the trade. And even then, I know,
there were Slaves, who, under the care and protection of humane
masters, were, comparatively, happy. But I saw and heard enough to
satisfy me, that their condition, in general, was wretched to the
extreme. However my stay in Antigua and St. Christopher’s (the only
islands I visited) was too short, to qualify me for saying much, from
my own certain knowledge; upon this painful subject. Nor is it
needful:—Enough has been offered by several respectable writers,
who have had opportunity of collecting surer, and fuller information.
One thing I cannot omit, which was told me by the Gentleman to
whom my ship was consigned, at Antigua, in the year 1751, and who
was, himself, a Planter. He said, that calculations had been made,
with all possible exactness, to determine which was the preferable,
that is, the most saving method of managing Slaves:——

“Whether, to appoint them moderate work, plenty of provision,

and such treatment, as might enable them to protract their lives
to old age?” Or,

“By rigorously straining their strength to the utmost, with little

relaxation, hard fare, and hard usage, to wear them out before
they became useless, and unable to do service; and then, to
buy new ones, to fill up their places?”

He farther said, that these skilful calculators had determined in

favour of the latter mode, as much the cheaper; and that he could
mention several estates, in the island of Antigua, on which, it was
seldom known, that a Slave had lived above nine years.——Ex pede
Herculem!
When the Slaves are landed for sale, (for in the Leeward Islands
they are usually sold on shore,) it may happen, that after a long
separation in different parts of the ship, when they are brought
together in one place, some, who are nearly related, may recognize
each other. If, upon such a meeting, pleasure should be felt, it can
be but momentary. The sale disperses them wide, to different parts
of the island, or to different islands. Husbands and Wives, Parents
and Children, Brothers and Sisters, must suddenly part again,
probably to meet no more.
After a careful perusal of what I have written, weighing every
paragraph distinctly, I can find nothing to retract. As it is not easy to
write altogether with coolness, upon this business, and especially not
easy to me, who have formerly been so deeply engaged in it; I have
been jealous, lest the warmth of imagination might have insensibly
seduced me, to aggravate and overcharge some of the horrid
features, which I have attempted to delineate, of the African Trade.
But, upon a strict review, I am satisfied.
 I have apprized the reader, that I write from memory, after an
interval of more than thirty years. But at the same time, I believe,
many things which I saw, heard and felt, upon the Coast of Africa,
are so deeply engraven in my memory, that I can hardly forget, or
greatly mistake them, while I am capable of remembering any thing. I
am certainly not guilty of wilful misrepresentation. And, upon the
whole, I dare appeal to the Great Searcher of hearts, in whose
presence I write, and before whom I, and my readers, must all
shortly appear, that (with the restrictions and exceptions I have
made) I have advanced nothing, but what, to the best of my
judgement and conscience, is true.
I have likewise written without solicitation, and simply from the
motive I have already assigned; a conviction, that the share I have
formerly had in the trade, binds me, in conscience, to throw what
light I am able upon the subject, now it is likely to become a point of
Parliamentary investigation.
No one can have less interest in it, than I have at present, further
than as I am interested by the feelings of humanity, and a regard for
the honour, and welfare of my country.
Though unwilling to give offence to a single person; in such a
cause, I ought not to be afraid of offending many, by declaring the
truth; if, indeed, there can be many, whom even interest can prevail
upon to contradict the common sense of mankind, by pleading for a
commerce, so iniquitous, so cruel, so oppressive, so destructive, as
the African Slave Trade!

F I N I S.
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