Current Electricity

(Electric Current, Thermal and Chemical Effect

of Current)
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Consider the ends of the conductor be connected to a battery, i.e., an electric field is maintained within the
r
conductor. Now the field acts on the electrons and gives them a resultant motion in the direction of  E
because a free charge in electric field experiences a force. The flow of electrons constitutes an electric
current.
The time rate of flow of charge through any cross section is called current. If a charge q passes through
an area in time t , then the average electric current through the area in this time is defined as

q
i av  ...(1)
t
Now, the instantaneous current is given by
q dq
i  lim  ...(2)
t  0 t dt
The SI unit of current is ampere. If one coulomb of charge crosses an area in one second, the current is one
dq q
ampere. For transient currnet i  while for steady current i 
dt t
The conventional current is in opposite direction to the direction of movment of electrons.

CURRENT DENSITY
The current density j at a point is defined as a vector having magnitude equal to current-per unit area
surrounding that point and normal to the direction of charge flow, i.e., direction in which current passes
through that point.
uur r uur
If S be the area vector corresponding to area S , then i  j.S
The total current through finite surface area S is
r uur r uur
i   j.S , If current i is uniformally distributed over an areas and perpendicular to it then i   j. S
s

DRIFT VELOCITY
we know that a conductor contains a large number of free electrons or conduction electrons. When electrons
leave their atoms and become free, the atoms of the conductor become positively charged and are called
positive ions. So, the remaining material is a collection of relatively positive ions known as lattice.
In the absence of any external electric field, the electric current through this area is zero, otherwise the
conductor will not remain equipotential.
When an electric field is established between the two ends of the conductor, the free electrons experience
an electric force opposite to the field. Due to this force, the motion of electrons is accelerated.
The field does not give an accelerated motion to the electrons but it simply gives them a small constant
[1]
[2] Current Electricity

velocity along the conductor which is superimposed on the random motion of the electrons. So, the electrons
drift slowly opposite to the applied field. The net transfer of electrons across a cross section results in
current. If the electron drifts a distance l in a long time t. we define drift velocity as
l
vd  ...(1)
d
The drift velocity is the average uniform velocity by free electrons inside a conductor by the application of
an electric field.
where e is charge of electron with mass m.
[Q force on electron due to electric field, F = e E and acceleration , a = F/m = (e E/m)]
eE
 vd  .  in time between two successive collision. ...(3)
m

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY AND DRIFT

An electric field is maintained between the two ends of a conductor towards the left. The electrons move
towards the right. Let the drift velocity of the electrons be vd. Suppose there are n charge carriers per unit
volume and each charge carrier has a charge e. In time dt, the electron advance a distance l which is given
by
l = vd dt
Now calculate the number of electrons crossing the length l of the conductor in time dt. This will be equal to
the number of electrons contained in a volume Al, i.e. Avd dt.
 number of electrons = volume × number of electrons per unit volume
= A vd dt × n
Hence charge crossing in time dt
= number of electrons × charge on the electron E
= Avd dt n e
Vd
chargecrossing in timedt
Further, current i 
time dt
Avd dt n e l
i  Av d ne
dt
So i  neAv d ...(1)
The current density is given by
i neAvd
j 
A A
or j  n e vd ...(2)
Mobility of free electron is defined in a conductor is drift velocity acquired per unit electric field strength.
Vd
applied across the conductor,    Vd  E
E
or i  (neA)E

OHM’S LAW
The current flowing through a conductor is always directly proportional to the potential difference across its
two ends.
Vi or V  Ri
Current Electricity [3]

where R is a constant of proportionality and is called as resistance of the conductor. So, the reistance of a
conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential difference applied across the conductor to the current
flowing through it, i.e. R = V/i. The value of resistance depends upon the nature of conductor, its dimensions
and physical conditions.
We know that drift velocity vd is given by

 eE 
vd    
m

 eV   V
  QE   ...(1)
 ml   l 
We also know that relation betwen current i and drift velocity vd is given by
i  neAv d ...(2)
Substituting the value of vd in eq. (2) from eq. (1), we have
2
 eV   ne A 
i  neA  
  V
 ml   ml 

V ml
or  2 R a constant
i ne A
R is constant for a given conductor, known as resistance of the conductor. Therefore,
V= Ri
We know that
j = n e vd
V
 eE  ohmic
Further, vd    
m
non-ohmic
  eE   ne 2 
 j  ne  m    E
   m
O I
ne2 
or j  E where  
m
The constant  is called as electrical conductivity and is temperature dependent. So we have

. j  E
This equation is known as Ohm’s law.
V-I line is not a straight line.

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY

The reistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length l and inversely proportional to the area of
cross section A, i.e.
1
Rl and R
A

l l 
R or R   
A A
[4] Current Electricity

If l = 1 and A = 1 , then R  
Therefore, specific resistance of the material of a conductor is equal to the resistance offered by the wire of
unit length and unit area of corss section of the material of wire. Its unit is ohm-metre. This is constant for
a material.
The reciprocal of resistivity of the material of a conductor is called as conductivity
1 j
 
 E
1
The unit of conductivity is ohm–1 metre –1  m  . Good conductors of electricity have large conductivity
than insulators.

FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY

The drift velocity vd in magnitude of electrons is given by
 eE 
vd     ...(1)
m
The current flowing through the conductor due to drift of electrons is given by
i  n A e vd
2
 eE  nAe E
 nAe      ...(2)
m m
If V be the potential difference applied across the two ends of the conductor, then
V
E ...(3)
l
From eqs. (2) and (3) we get,
nAe 2 V
i 
ml
V m l  l 
or R=  2   or R     ...(4)
i ne   A  A
m
where   resistivity 
ne2 
The resistivity  of the material of a conductor depends upon the following factors:
(i) It is inversely proportional to the number of free electrons per unit volume n of the conductor, i.e.,
depends on the nature of material.
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the average relaxation time  of free electrons in the conductor. As  is
a function of temperature and hence the resistivity of a conductor depends on its temperature. The
resistivity increases with the increase in temperature of conductor.

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY

Small temperature variations, the variation of resistivity can be expressed as
  T     T0  1    T  T0  

where   T  and   T0  are the resistivities at temperature T and T0 respectively and  is temperature
coefficient of resistivity.
The resistance of a conductor is given by
Current Electricity [5]

l 
R    (T) = Resistivity at temperature T
A
(T0 ) = Resistivity at temperature of T0.
The resistance depends on the length and area of cross section besides resistivity. When the temperature
increases, the length and area of cross section also increases are quite small and the factor (l/A) may be
treated as constant. Therefore,
R  R(T)  Restance at temperature T..
Now, R  T   T  T0  1    T  T0   R(T) = Resistance at temperature T0.
where  is known as temperature coefficient of resistance.

Grouping of Resistance

(A) RESISTANCES IN SERIES

In the shown figure. shows the series combination of three resistors having resistanceR1 and R3 and. A
battery of e.m.f. E is connected across this combination. In this combination, the same current i is flowing
through each resistor.
Let V1 , V2 and V3 be the potential differences across R1 , R2 and R3 respectively. Now according to Ohn’s
V1 = i R1, V2 = i R2 and V3 = i R3 R1 R2 R3
Further V = V1+V2+V3
i v
 iR 1  iR 2  iR 3

 i  R1  R 2  R 3  ...(1) E
If R2 be the equivalent resistance of series combination, then the potential difference V across the combination
will be
V = i RS ...(2)
Compairing eqs. (1) and 2), we get
R S  R1  R 2  R 3 ...(3)
In series combination, the following points should be remembered
(i) The current is same in every part of the circuit
(ii) The total reistance of the circuit is equqal to the sum of indivd resistances connected in the circuit.
(iii) The total resistance of series combination is more than the greatest resistance of the circuit.
(iv) The potential difference across any resistor is proportional to its resistance, i.e. v1 : v2 : v3 = R1 : R2 : R3

(B) RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL

Fig. shows a parallel combination of three resistors having resistance R1, R2 and R3 battery of e.m.f. E is
connected points A and B. Let i be the current from the battery and i1, i2 and i3 be the currents through
resistance R1 , R2 and R3 respectively. Then
i = i1 + i2 + i3 ...(5)
As shown in the figure, the potential difference across each resistance is V. Applying Ohm’s law, we have
V = i1R1 = i2 R2 = i3 R3
V V V
or i1  , i2  and i3 
R1 R2 R3
[6] Current Electricity

Substituting these values in eq. (5), we get

V V V
i   ...(6)
R1 R 2 R 3
Let R p be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination, then
R1
V
V = i RP or i ...(7) R2
Rp
Comparing eqs. (6) and (7), we get R3
i
i
V V V V
  
R p R1 R 2 R 3 v

1 1 1 1
or    ...(8)
R p R1 R 2 R 3 E
The reciprocal of equivalent resistance of parallel combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistances.
The following points should be remembered in case of parallel combination:
(i) The potential difference across each resistance is the same
(ii) The current is different in different resistances. The sum of the currents in different resistances is
equal to the main currents in the circuit, i.e.,
i = i1 + i2 + i3 ...(9)
(iii) The current through any registor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
(iv) The total resistance in parallel combination is less than the least resistance used in the circuit.

BATTERY AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.)

A battery is a device which maintains a constant potential difference between its two terminals.
The potential difference between the two terminals. The potential difference between two terminals provides
an electrostatic field Ee between tw terminals the emf is defined as the work done while by cell a unit
positive charge flows from –ve plate to +ve plate.

GROUPING OF CELLS
(1) Sereis grouping : Fig shows a series combination of n cells each of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r.
n cells
+ –
E E E E
i i

R
totalemf
 current through the circuit  total resistance

nE
or i ...(1)
 R  nr 
(i) If R>>r, r i.e., the effective internal resistance is as far far less than external resistance r can be
neglected in comparison of R, then
nE
i = n times the current drawn from single cell. ...(2)
R
Current Electricity [7]

(ii) If r >> R, i.e., the effective internal resistance is far far greater than external resistance, then R can
be neglected in comparison to hr, then
nE E
i  ...(3)
nR r
The current in the circuit is the same as due to a single cell, so n of useful
(iii) If in series grouping of n cells, s cells are reversed, then
E eq   n  s  E  sE   n  2s  E
Total resistance of the circuit = (R+n r)

i
 n  2s  E
 ...(4)
R  n r
(2) Parallel grouping

 Total Resistance of the circuit   R   r / n   [Q R and (r/n) are in series]

E
i
r E
Now, current in the cirut, R   ...(5)
n r
(i) If R>> (r/n), i.e. (r/n) can be neglected in comparison to R, then
E
i ...(6)
R E
R
Therefore, the current in the circuit is equal to the circuit current due to a single cell.
(ii) If (r/n) >> R, i.e., R can be neglected in comarison to (r/n), then
nE
i ...(7)
r
Therefore, if the effective internal resistance is greater than the external resistance, the current in the
circuit is equal to n time the circuit current due to a single cell. E E
upto n
(3) Mixed Grouping
 nr 
Total resistance of circuit  R   
m
The current i in the circuit is given by
P
nE nmE NE
i  
R   nr / m  mR  nr mR  nr
R
The current i in the circuit will be maximum when the factor ( m R+ n r) in the denominator is minimum. The
denominator is minimum when mR = n r
 nr 
 R  
m
Hence current will be maximum when external resistance is equal to the total internal resistance of all the
cells.

KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
Ohmm;s law is unable to give current in complicated cirucit. Kirchhoff’s in1842, gave two general laws which
are extremely useful in electrical circuits. There are.
[8] Current Electricity

(i) The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction in a circuit is zero, i.e.

i  0
This means that there is no accumulation of electric charge at any point in the circuit.

i6
i1 i5

O i4
i2
i3

(ii) In any closed circuit,the algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance of each part of the
circuit is equal to the total emf in the circuit i.e.,
 iR   E
The product of current and resistance is taken as positive when we traverse in the direction of current. The
emf is taken positive when we traverese from negative to positive electrode through electrolyte.
Let us apply Kirchhoff’s second law to figure shown
For the mesh ACDBA,
i1R1 – i2R2 = E1 –E2 ...(i)
For the mesh EFDCE
i2R2 +(i1+ i2) R3= E2 ...(ii)

R1
A B
P1

C D
i2

E F
i1 + i 2

From FFBAE, i1 R1 +(i1 + i2) R3 = E1 ...(iii)

CONDITION OF BALANCE IN WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE

When there is no deflection in the galvanometer, the bridge is known as balanced. The condition of balance
is given by
Current Electricity [9]

P R P Q
 or 
Q S R S
When galvanometer and battery are exchanged then still the galvanometer shows no reflection.

POTENTIOMETER
Potentiometer is a device which is used to meosure the potential difference more accurately then an ideal
voltmeter. The potentiometer does not any current from source. Hence it is equivalent to an draw ideal voltmeter.
i E

Rh

K
E
G

Let v be potential difference across certain portion of wire. Let i be current through portion of stretched wire
l
v = iR --- (i) R  .
A
 l 
v  i   For i = constant through wire of uniform cross-section
A
If L = total length of potentiometer wire
  emf of driving cell or standard cell.

K
L

V  K.l  v  .l
L 1 l1
Comparision of emfs of two cells can found by potentiometer  where l and l are balancing lengths
 2 l2 1 2

while cells of 1 and  2 are attached respectively..

 i1 
The internal resistance r of a cell is given by r   i  1 R; where l1 and l2 are balancing lengths and R is
 2 
external resistance

HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT

The phenomenon in which heat energy is produced in a conductor due to flow of electric current (flow of
electrons) is known as heating effect of current.
Consider a resistor of resistance R. Let a potential difference V is maintained at its ends and a current i is flowing
through it for a time t. If the charge q flows through it in time t, then
q = i t [charge = current × time]
Now, the workdone by electric field on free electrons in time t is given by
= V (i t) joule
= (i R) (i t) = i2 R t joule
[10] Current Electricity

The workdone by electric field is converted in thermal energy of resistor through the collisions with ions or atoms.
The thermal energy is generally referred to as heat produced in resistor. So, the amount of heat produced (H) is

given by H  W  i 2 Rt joule
In calorie, the heat produced is given by
i 2 Rt
H calorie This is expression for joule’s law of heating...(4)
4.18

JOULE’S LAWS OF HEATING

Joule’s laws :
(a) The heat produced in a given resistor in a given time is proportional to the square of current flowing in it, i.e.,

H  i2 ...(1)
(b) The heat produced in a given resistor in a given time by a given current is directly proportional to the
resistance, i.e.,
HR ...(2)
(c) The heat produced in a given resistor by a given current is proportional to time t for which the current is
passed, i.e.,
H t ...(3)

ELECTRIC POWER
The electric power is defined as the rate at which work is done by the source of e.m.f. in maintaining the current
in an electric circuit.
If an amount of work W is done in maintaining electric current in a circuit for a time t, then electric power is given
by
W
P ...(1)
t
Let a current i ampere flows through a conductor for a time t second under a potential difference V volt. The
workdone for maintaining the current is given by
W = V i t joule ...(2)
So, the power of an electric circuit is one watt when one ampere current flows through it under a potential
difference of one watt.
1 watt = 1 joule/sec.
The bigger units of electric power are
1 kW = 103 W and 1 MW = 106 W
Commercial unit of power is horse power (HP).
1 HP = 746 watt.
Other expression for power are :

2
V2
P  i R and P  R

V2
P  Vi  i 2 R  ...(3)
R
Current Electricity [11]

(i) When resistances are connected in series.

In this case, the current in each resistance will be the same. Hence from eq. (3), we have
P  V and p  R
This shows that in series connections, the potential difference and power consumed will be more in larger
resistance.
(ii) When resistances are connected in parallel.
In this case, the potential difference V across each resistance is same. Hence from eq. (3), we have

1 1
P    and i   
R R
This shows that in parallel connections, the current and power consumed will be more in smaller resistance.

APPLICATIONS OF HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT

(1) Series combination of bulbs :

Consider a series combination of three bulbs of powers P1, P2 and P3 which are manufactured for working on a
supply of V volt. The resistances of these bulbs are respectively.

V2 V2 V2
R1  , R2  R
and 3  ...(1)
P1 P2 P3

 total resistance, R  R1  R2  R3 ...(2)

V2 V2 V2 V2
Effective power   
P P1 P2 P3
1 1 1 1
or    ...(3)
P P1 P2 P3
Current through each bulb
V
i ...(4)
R1  R2  R3
The brightness of these bulbs are
2
H1  i 2 R1, H 2  i 2 R2 and H 3  i R3 ...(5)

1
This shows that the bulb with highest resistance will glow with maximum brightness. Further R  , therefore,
P
the bulb of lowest power or wattage will have highest resistance and will glow with maximum brightness.
(2) Parallel combination of bulbs :
Consider a parallel combination of three bulbs of powers P1, P2 and P3 respectively which are manufactured for
working on a supply voltage V volt. In this case, we have

V2 V2 V2
R1  , R2  R
and 3  ...(6)
P1 P2 P3
[12] Current Electricity

1 1 1 1
Now   
R R1 R2 R3 ...(7) (where R is effective resistance of the circuit)

From eqs. (6) and (7), we get

P  P1  P2  P3 ...(8)
The brightness of three bulbs will be respectively

V2 V2 V2
H1  , H2  and H 3 
R1 R2 R3
The resistance of highest wattage (power) bulb is minimum and hence the bulb of maximum wattage will glow
with maximum brightness.

SEEBECK EFFECT
Seeback discovered that if two dissimilar metals (say bars or wires of copper and iron) are joined in series to form
a closed circuit, and their two junctions are maintained at different temperatures, an e.m.f. is developed.
The current produced in this way without the use of a cell or a battery is known as thermoelectric current and
the e.m.f. responsible for thermoelectric current is known as thermo e.m.f. This effect is known as Seebeck
effect. The arrangement of wires is known as thermocouple.
Seebeck observed that the magnitude and direction of thermo e.m.f. depends on
(i) the nature of metals forming the thermocouple.
(ii) differnece in temperatures of two junctions.
Seebeck also observed that if the hot and cold junctions are interchanged then the direction of thermoelectric
current is also reversed. This shows that seebeck effect is reversible effect.
Thermoelectric Series
Seebeck arranged a large number of metals in a series such that when any two of these metals form a thermocouple,
the current at the cold junction is from the metal occurring earlier in the series to the metal occurring later in the
series. The series is known as themoelectric series. The series is as follows :
Antimony, nichrome, iron, zinc, copper, gold, silver, lead, aluminium, mercury, platinum, nickel constantan, bismuth.
Variation of thermo e.m.f. with temperature
(Neutral temperature and temperature of inversion) :
If a graph is plotted between the temperature of the hot junction and the thermo e.m.f. e, the cold junction being
kept at 0°C, a parabolic curve is obtained as shown in fig. The thermo e.m.f.
Thermo-e.m.f.

To Tn Ti
O Temperature

increases with the temperature of hot junction and becomes maximum at a particular temperature. The temiperature
of the hot junction at which thermo e.m.f., in a thermocouple is maximum is known as neutral temperature Tn for
that couple.
Current Electricity [13]

Thus the temperature at which the thermo e.m.f. is zero is known as inversion temperature or temperature of
inversion.
Beyond this temperature the e.m.f. again increases but in the reverse direction.
The temperature of inversion depends upon
(i) the nature of materials forming the thermocouple
(ii) the temperature of cold junction.
The thermo e.m.f., e varies with temperature according to the following equation.

e  aT  bT 2 ...(1)
de
 a  2bT
dT
de
at T = Tn, e is maximum, i.e., = 0. Thus
dT
0  a  2bTn

a
or Tn   ...(2)
2b
Further at T  Ti , e  0. Thus from equation (1)

0  aTi  bTi2

a
Ti   ...(3)
b
From equations (2) and (3)
Ti  2Tn
Thus the inversion temperature T i is as much above the neutral temperature as the temperature of the cold
junction (0°C) is below it. Ti is therefore not a constant for the given thermocouple but depends upon the temperature
of the cold junction.
If T0 be the temperature of cold junction, then
Ti  Tn  Tn  T0 or Ti  2Tn  T0

T T
 Tn  i 0
2
Peltier’s Effect :
Peltier discovered an effect which is the converse of Seebeck effect. When a current is passed across the
junction of two dissimilar metals, heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at the other, i.e., one junction is
heated and the other is cooled. This effect is known as Peltier effect.
Peltier Coefficient :
The amount of heat (in joules) absorbed or evolved at a junction of two different metals when one coulomb of
charge flows at the junction is called the Peltier coefficient. It is denoted by
H Peltier heat
 
Q charge flowing
[14] Current Electricity

This coefficient is not constant but varies as the absolute temperature of the junction. It also depends on the metal
used.
If a charge q coulomb passes across a junction having a peltier coefficient  volt, then the energy absorbed or
evolved at the junction =  q joule.
If V be the junctional P.D. in volt, then
energy absorbed or evolved = Vq joule
 q  Vq
 V
Hence the Peltier coefficient expressed in joule per coulomb is numerically equal to the junctional P.D. in volt.
Thomson effect :
Thomson observed that when two parts of a single conductor are maintained at different temperatures and a
current is passed through it, heat may be absorbed or evolved in different sections of may be absorbed or evolved
in different sections of the conductor. This effect is called Thomson effect.
According to Thomson effect, heat is absorbed or evolved in excess of Joule heat when a current is passed
through an unequally heated conductor.
Thomson coefficient :
Thomson coefficient is defined as the amount of heat evolved or absorbed when a unit positive charge is passed
through a part of the wire whose ends are maintained at a unit temperature difference. This is denoted by .
Let a charge Q is passed through a small part of the wire having a temperature difference T between the
ends. Thomson heat is
H    Q  T 
H
or 
 Q  T 
CHEMICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
It has been observed that some liquids allow the passage of current through them while some do not show such
behaviour. On the basis of their electrical behaviour liquids can be divided into the following three categories :
(i) The liquids which do not allow the current to pass through them. For example distilled water, vegetable oil
etc.
(ii) The liquids which allow the current to pass through them but do not dissociate into ions. For example,
mercury.
(iii) The liquids which allow current to pass through them and also dissociate into ions. For example salt solutions,
acid and bases. Such liquids are called electrolytes.
Thus when a current is passed through an electrolyte, it dissociates into ions. This is known as chemical effect of
current.

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

The relation between quantity of electric charge passed and the amount of ion deposited at the electrode is given
by Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. There are two laws :
Faraday’s first law :
According to Faraday’s first law, the mass of the substance deposited or liberated in electrolysis is directly
proportional to the charge passed through the electrolyte.
Current Electricity [15]

Let m be the mass of a substance deposited or liberated at an electrode when a charge q is passed through the
electrolyte. Thus
m  q or m = Zq ...(1)
where Z is constant of proportionality and is known as electrochemical equivalent (E.C.E.) of the substance.
If i be the current passed through the electrolyte for a time t, then
q=it ...(2)
From eqs. (1) and (2)
m=Zit ...(3)
If q = 1 coulomb, then Z = m
Thus the electrochemical equivalent (E.C.E.) of a substance may be defined as the mass of the substance
liberated or deposited on an electrode during electrolysis when one coulomb of charge is passed through the
electrolyte.
The S.I. unit of E.C.E. is kg/coulomb. But generally this is expressed in gram/coulomb
(gC–1). The value of E.C.E. of copper and silver are 3294 × 10–7 gC–1 and 11180 × 10–7 gC–1 respectively.
Faraday’s second law :
According to Faraday’s second law, when the same amount of charge is passed through different electrodes, the
masses of different substances deposited or libarated at the electrodes are proportional to their chemical equivalents.
If m1 and m2 be the masses of the substances deposited or liberated and E1 and E2 be their respective chemical
equivalent, then
m1 E1 Z1i t E1 Z1 E1
 or  or 
m2 E2 Z 2i t E2 Z 2 E2
The chemical equivalent of the substance is defined as the ratio of atomic weight to the valency. Thus
atomic weight
E
valency
The atomic weight of silver is 108 and its valency is 1. Therefore, its chemical equivalent is 108. Similarly, the
chemical equivalent of copper is 31.75.

FARADAY CONSTANT
From Faraday’s second law
Z1 E1 E1 E2
 or 
Z 2 E2 Z1 Z 2
E
 = a constant = F (Faraday constant)
Z
E
Thus the ratio of   is same for all substances and is called as Faraday constant.
Z
E E Eq
Now, F  
Z m m
 
q
So, the Faraday constant is equal to the charge required to liberate one gram equivalent of substance at an
electrode during electrolysis. Its value is 96500 C/gram equivalent.
In case of copper, E.C.E. = 0.0003294 gC–1 and E = 31.75 g
[16] Current Electricity

31.75
 Faraday constant =
0.0003294
= 96500 C/gram equivalent.
The charge of 1 mole of electrons is called one faraday. So
one faraday = NA × e
= (6.023 × 1023) × (1.602 × 10–19 C)
= 96500 C.
Therefore, faraday is unit of charge (1 faraday = 96500 C) while the quantity charge per mole of electrons is
called Faraday constant (F = 96500 C/mole or 1 faraday).
 Magnetic Effect of Current & Magnetism
(i) Oesterd experimently discovered a magnetic field around a conductor carrying electric current.
(a) A magnet at rest or charge in motion produces a magnetic field around it while an electric charge at
rest produces an electric field around it.
(b) A current carrying conductor has a magnetic field and not an electric field around it. On the other hand,
a charge moving with a uniform velocity has an electric as well as a magnetic field around it.
r
Biot-Savart’s law : The magnetic induction dB at a point P due to an infinitesimal element of current
(length dl and current I) at a distance r is given by :
I P

B
r
r 0 (dl  rr ) r
dB  I I.dl 
4 r3
O

For   0 or    , sin   0 thus field at a point on the line of the wire is zero.
(ii) The magnetic induction B due to a straight wire of finite length carrying current I at a perpendicular distance

0 I I d
d is given by B  (sin 1  sin 2 )
4 d  

where 1 and 2 are the angles made by upper and lower ends of the wire with the perpendicular distance
d at the point of observation.
(iii) If the wire is infinitely long, from both sides then 1  2  900 . So, magnetic field at perpendicular distance
0 2I 0 I
d is given by B  
4 d 2 d

 Magnetic field due to a part of circular current carrying loop (arc) subtending angle  at the centre O is :

 0 I I
B ; where  is in radian. O 
4 R
R
0 I
So, Magnetic field at the centre of semicircular current carrying loop is : B 
4R
 The magnetic induction along the axis of a long current carrying solenoid at the centre part. B   0 nI
where I = current flowing through solenoid, n = (N/l) = number of turns per unit length of solenoid. Magnetic
induction at the ends of the solenoid. B'  (  0 nI / 2)

2. Lorentz force on a charged particle in uniform constant magnetic field :

(i) When a charge q moves in a magnetic field of induction B with a velocity  then it experience a sideway
r r r
deflecting force F, given by F  q (  B)
r r r
Thus, the force F is always perpendicular to  and B . So, no workdone and hence no change in kinetic
energy.
(ii) If charge is at rest inside the magnetic field no force will act on it, hence the particle remains at rest.

[1]
[2] Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism

(iii) If charge is moving parallel to magnetic field (  0) no force acts on it. Thus, a charged particle initially
moving parallel to magnetic field will continue to move with same constant velocity.
r r
Case A When charged particle enters the magnetic field at right angles i.e V  B
r
(i) Since the force is perpendicular to velocity vector  , it provides the required centripital force for circular
motion.
m 2
(ii) (a) The force equation towards centre is  q B
r
m
(b) The radius of circular path is r 
qB
where m = p = 2mK = momentum of the particle .
2 r 2 m
(c) Time period of revolution is T  
 qB
1 qB
(d) The frequency is f  
T 2 m
qB
(e) The angular frequency is   2 f 
. This is often called cyclotron frequency..
m
r
Case B : When the particle enters the magnetic field at an inclination (i.e.  is not perpendicular to B).
(i) In this case, the path is helical.
(ii) It is a superposition of vertical drift and horizontal circular motion.
r
(iii) Due toc omponent of  perpendicular to B i.e.    sin  , the particle describes a circular path of
radius r, such that
m 2 m m sin 
 q  B or r 
r qB qB
(iv) The time period, frequency and angular frequency are :
2 m qB qB
(a) T (b) f (c) 
qB 2 m m
(v) The pitch of the helical path is
2 m 2 r
p  ||  T   cos  T  cos 
qB tan 
Ampere’s law :

(i) The line integral of magnetic field around any closed path is equal to  0 times the total current passing
r r
through the closed circuit, i.e. Ñ B.dl  0 I
(ii) For a long solid metal rod of radius R carrying a current I
 I 
If r < R, B   0 2  r, i.e. B  r
 2 R 
0 I
But If r  R; B ; for both solid and hollow metallic rod (pipe).
2 r
(iii) For a hollow metallic rod carrying a uniform current, for points inside the rod, the magnetic field is zero.
Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism [3]

5. Force on current carrying wire in a magnetic field :

r r r
(i) Force on a current element of length dl placed in a magnetic field B is : dF  I(dl  B)
r
In special case of a straight wire of length l in a uniform magnetic field B , the force is :
r r r
F  I(l  B) or F  IlB sin where   angle between of current flow and magnetic flight.
(ii) Force between two parallel current carrying conductors :
(a) Two parallel wires carrying currents in the same direction attract each other, while those carrying
currents in the opposite direction repel each other.
(b) The force of attraction or repulsion per unit length between two parallel conductors carrying current
F 0 I1I 2
I1 and I2 is given by 
L 2 d
Magnetic field produced by a moving charge :
r 0 q(r  r)ˆ
The magnetic field produced by a moving charge q, at point P is : B  tesla
4 r2
[4] Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism

MAGNETISM

1. Torque on a current carrying loop suspended freely in a magnetic field:

(i) When a loop is suspended freely in a magnetic field and a current is passed through i, we find that the
resultant force on the loop is zero but the resultant torque is not zero (in general)
(ii) If normal to the plane of the loop makes an angle  with the direction of uniform magnetic field B, then
r r r uur ur
torque acting on the loop is given by :   NIA  B  MB
r ur
where M  NIA = magnetic dipole moment of the current carrying coil.

2. Moving coil galvanometer:

(i) It is used for the measurement of current
(ii) The current to be measured is conducted to the coil through the suspension wire. The current deflects the
coil in the radial magnetic field between the soft iron cylinder and concave pole pieces. The amount of
deflection serves as a measure of current.
(iii) The current I is directly proportional to deflection 
 NAB 
At equilibrium,  deflecting   restoring  NIAB  C
    (I)
 C 
where C= elastic torsional constant of the suspension wire, N = number of turns in the coil, A = Area per turn
of the coil and B = magnetic induction of radial magnetic field.
 1 NAB  SI
(iv) The current sensitivity = SI    ; The voltage sensitivity = SV  
I K C V R
3. Ammeter:
(i) An ammeter is used to measure the current in a circuit. It is connected in series with the ciruit to avoid
division of current, but when placed in series with the circuit, it increases the resistance and decreases the
current being measured by it. Hence, an ideal ammeter has a zero resistance.
(ii) The resistance of a milliammeter is more than that of an ammeter
(iii) To convert a galvanometer which gives full scale deflection for a current Ig so that it may be used to read a
current I, the value of the shunt required is given by: S   Ig G /  I  I g  

where G = galvanometer resistance

4. Voltmeter:
(i) When a high resistance R is connected in series with a galvanometer of resistance G, it becomes a voltmeter.
If Ig represents the minimum current for full scale deflection of the galvanometer, then yhe minimum difference
Vg across the terminals of the galvanometer for full scale deflection is given by: Vg = IgG
(ii) Now, the poential difference V across the terminal of the series combination of R and G is given by:
V RG
V  Ig  R  G  So, 
Vg G
(iii) To measure potential difference across any element of the circuit we use a voltmeter. A voltmeter is connected
in parallel with the element to avoid division of voltage, but when placed in parallel with the element it shares
current from the element and decreases the potential difference across the element before measuring it.
Hence, an ideal voltmeter has an infinite resistance so that it may not change the current in the element.
5. Magnet and Magnetism
(i) Magnetic poles exists in pairs, i.e., an isolated magnetic pole does not exist.
Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism [5]

(ii) The force between magnetic poles obeys inverse square law.
(iii) A freely suspended current carrying solenoid behaves just like a bar magnet.
6. Magnetic lines of force:
(i) The magnetic lines of force are the curves such that the tangent drawn on it at any point indicates the
direction of magnetic field.
(ii) The magnetic lines of force form closed curves, emerging from the north pole and entering the south pole.
(iii) These lines of force also never cross each other.
(iv) The intensity of magnetic field at any point in the field is defined as the number of lines of force passing per
unit area perpendicular to the lines of force.
7. Other important points concerning a magnet :
(i) When a magnet of length 2l and pole strength m is placed in a magnetic field B, then the couple acting on the
bar magnet is given be,   MBsin  , where M = m(2l)= magnetic moment of the magnet and  is the angle
between the bar magnet and direction of magnetic field.
(ii) The work done in deflecting the magnet through an angle  from equilibrium position is given by:
W  MB 1  cos  
(iii) (a) If a bar magnet of moment M and pole strength m is cut into two equal halves along its axial line, then
pole strength of each part is m/2 and the magnetic moment of each part is M/2.
(b) If a bar magnet of magnetic moment M and pole strength m is cut into two equal halves, along its
equatorial line, the pole strength of each part is m and magnetic moment is M/2
(iv) (a) The magnetic induction on the axial line (end position) of a bar magnet is given by:
0 2Md
Baxial  
4   d 2  l 2 2  alongS  N 
where B = magnetic induction, d= distance between the centre of the magnet and the given point on the
axial line, 2l = length of the magnet. For a short magnet,
 0 2M
Baxial  
4 d3
(b) The magnetic induction on the equatorial line (broad side on position) is given by:
0 M uuur
Bequatorial  
4  d  l 2 3/ 2
2  parallel to NS
0 M Baxial 2
For a short magnet, Bequatorial   Thus, for a short magnet 
4 d 3 Bequatorial 1
(v) The magnetic field induction due to a short bar magnet at a point distant d from the centre of the magnet is
0 M
given by B  1  3cos3 
4 d 3

8. Properties of magnetic materials:

(i) Magnetising force or intensity of magnetisign field H:
(a) The intensity of magnetising field is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at a
point in the field.
ur ur ur
(b) The direction of H is the same as the direction of B   H , where  is called the magnetic permeability..
(ii) Intensity of magnetisiation (I)
[6] Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism

(a) When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it is magnetised and it acquires a magnetic
dipole moment M. The intensity of magnetisation is defined as the magnetic dipole moment per unit
M 2ml m
volume, i.e., I  
V A  2l  A
where A is the area of cross-section of the material. So intensity of magnetisation may also be defined as
pole strength per unit area of cross section.
(iii) Magnetic susceptibility    :
(a) Magnetic susceptibility indicates the ease with which a substance can be magnetised.
(b) The susceptibility is defined as the ratio of the intensiy of magnetisation to the magnetising field H in
which the material is placed, i.e.,
  I / H It has no units.

(iv) Magnetic permeability    : The permeability is defined as the ratio of magnetic induciton (B) to the
magnetising force (H), i.e.    B / H 
(v) Magnetic induction or flux density (B): The flux density is the total number of lines of force per unit
area due to the flux density B0 in vaccum produced by that magnetising field and flux density Bm due to
magnetisation of the material. Thus B  B0  Bm

9. Diamagnetic mateials:
(i) Materials which are repelled by magnets are known as diamagnetic maerials.
Example : bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, gold, diamond, NaCl, water, nitrogen, hydrogen, etc.
(ii) These material get magnetised in a direction opposite to that of the magnetic field.
(iii) In a non-uniform magnetic field, they move from regions of higher concentration field, they move from
regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration.
(iv) Relative permeability of these materials is less than one but positive.
10. Paramagnetic material
(i) Materials which are feebly attracted by magnets are known as paramagnetic materials. Examples: aluminium,
sodium, platanium, manganese, CuCl2, FeCl3, oxygen, etc.
(ii) These materials get magnetised in the direction of the magnetic field.
(iii) A paramagnetic rod suspended in a uniform magnetic field becomes parallel to the direction of the field.
(iv) In a non-uniform magnetic field, they move towards region of higher field.
(v) Relative permeability of these materials is just greater than one and positive
(vi) The magnetic susceptibility is inversely poportional to absolute temperature. This is called Curie law,
   C / T  , where C is called Curie’s constant.

11. Ferromagnetic materials:

(i) Subsances which are strongly attracted by magnets are known as feromagnetic substances. Examples: iron,
nickel, cobalt, gadolinium.
(ii) A ferromagnetic rod, when suspended in a uniform magnetic field, aligns along the direction of the field.
(iii) In a non-uniform magnetic field, a ferromagnetic material moves towards regions of higher magnetic field.
(iv) The relative permeability of these materials is very large (102 to 106)
(v) The magnetic susceptibiliy of these materials is positive and very high (102 to 106)
(vi) Ferromagnetism is due to the existence of magnetic domains. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit hysteresis.
Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism [7]

12. Hysteresis loop

(i) Hysteresis loop or cycle is a plot a intensity of magnetisation (I) against magnetising field (H) over closed
loop ABCDEA.
I
A
B

C O H
E

(ii) Retentivity: The residual magnetism present inside the speciment even when the external magnetising
foce is made zero is called retentivity, or Retentivity is the capacity of the material to retain its magnetism
when the magnetising force is removed. The intercept OB is a measure of retentivity.
(iii) Coercivity: Coercivity is the capacity of the material to reain its magnetism inspite of any demagnetising
process. The intercept OC is a measure of retentivity.
(iv) The area of the hysteresis loop is a measure of work done or energy dissipation or hysteresis loop.
(v) (a) For soft iron: Coercivity is less, reentivity is more, hysteresis loss is less, susceptibility is more and
permeability is more
(b) For steel: Coercivity is more, retentivity is less, hystersis loss is more, susceptibility is less and permeability
is less.
(vi) Soft iron is used in transformers, moving coil galvanometers, electromagnets, etc., while steel is used for
permanent magnets.
13. Earth’s magnetic field:
(i) An imaginary vertical plane passing through magnetic north and magnetic north and magnetic south of a
freely suspended magnet is called the magnetic meridian.
(ii) An imaginary vertical plane passing through north and south poles of the earth at a place is called as
geographical meridian.
(iii) Declination: ( )
(a) Declination is the angle between magnetic meridian and geographical meridian at a given place.
(b) The value of declination at equator is 17° . Declination varies from place to place.
(c) The lines joining the places of equal declination are called isogonal lines
(d) The lines joining the places of zero declination are called agonal lines.
(v) Dip or inclination    :
(a) The angle made by the earth’s magnetic field with the horizontal at a place is called dip or inclination at
that place.
(b) Dip circle is the instrument used to measure the dip
(c) It varies beween 0° and 90°. At the magnetic equator it is zero and 90° at poles
(d) The lines joining the places of equal dip are called isoclinal lines.
(e) The lines joining the places of zero dip are called aclinal lines.
(vi) Horizontal component (BH)
(a) The component of the total induction of the earth’s magnetic field (B) along the horizontal direction is
called the horizontal component.
(b) The horizontal component can be measured with the help of a deflection magnetometer.
(c) If  is the dip, i.e., the angle between total magnetic induction of the earth’s magnetic field B and
horizontal component BH then
[8] Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism

 BH

(I) horizontal component BH  Bcos  Bv B

(II) vertical component BV  Bsin 

(III) B  B2H  BV2 and tan    BV / BH 
(d) BH is zero at magnetic poles and maximum at the magnetic equator.
14. Vibration magnetometer
(i) If a magnet of dipole moment M oscillates in a uniform induction field B, then the time period of vibration
magnetometer is :
l  l 2  b2 
T  2 where I  m   is the moment of inertia of the magnet abou the axis of oscillation.
MB  12 
(ii) If two magnets of dipole moments M1 and M2 of same dimensions and same mass are oscillating in the same
T1 M2
field, then T  M
2 1

(iii) A magnet is oscillating in a magnetic field and its time period is T sec. If another identical magnet is placed
over that magnet with similar poles togehter, then the time period remains unchagned QI  2I& M  2M 
(iv) Two magnents of magnetic moments M1 and M2 (M1 > M2) are placed one over the other parallel. If T1 is
the time period when like poles touch each other and T2 is the time period when unlike poles touch each
M1 T22  T12
other, then 
M 2 T22  T12
 [1]

EMI
Magnetic Flux:
ur ur
(i) The magnetic flux through a small area dA placed in a magnetic field B is defined as:
ur ur
d  B.dA  B(dA) cos 
(ii) The magnetic flux can be positive, negative or zero depending on the angle  . For   90o and   0 . Thus,
whenever the angle between area vector, and magnetic field is 90°, the flux is zero, i.e., whenever the plane
ur
of the surface is parallel to B , the flux is zero. The flux is positive for 0o    90o and negative for
180o    90o .
(iii) The magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero, i.e.,
ur ur
Ñ  B.dA  0 ; This equation suggests, there is no existance of monopoles.

Laws of electromagnetic induciton:

(i) First law: Whenever there occurs a change in the magnetic flux linked with a coil, there is produced an
induced e.m.f. in the coil. The induced e.m.f. lasts so long as the change in flux is taking place. There is an
induced current only when coil circuit is complete.
(ii) Second Law : The magnitude of induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change in the magnetic flux, i.e.
e   d / dt  . For N turns, e  N  d / dt 

Lenz’s Law :
The direction of the induced current is such that it tends to oppose the cause of change in magnetic flux.
d
(a) Combining with Faradays law of EMI, we have e   N. for N number of turns.
dt
(b) Lenz’s law is based on law of conservation of energy.
Some other important points:
d
(i) The induced e.m.f. in a circuit does not depend on the resistance of the circuit as e   . However, the
dt
induced current in the circuit does depend on the resistance.
e 1  d 
I
  
R R  dt 
(ii) The induced charge that flows in the circuit depends on the change of flux only and not on how fast or slow
the flux changes.

dq 1  d  d
   or dq 
dt R  dt  R
On integrating, the total charge that flows in the circuit is found to be:
   2 
q 1
R
Induced E.M.F. across a conducting rod:
(i) Conducting rod moving in a uniform magnetic field: When a conducting rod of length l moves with a velocity
r
 in a uniform magnetic field of induction B such that the plane containing  and l makes an angle  with
r
B thent he magnitude of the average induced e.m.f. |e| is given by : | e |  Bl sin 

[1]
[2]

(ii) Conducting rod rotating with angular velocity  in a uniform magnetic field : When a rod of length l rotates
with angular velocity  in a uniform magnetic field B, then induced e.m.f. across the ends of the rotating
rod is : e  (1/ 2)Bl 2  B fl 2  BAf
where A   l 2 = area swept by the rod in one rotation and f is the frequency of rotation.

Self-inductance :

(i) When a current I flows through a coil, it produces a magnetid flux  through it. Then   I or   LI ,
where L is constant, called the coefficient of self-in-duction or self-inductance of the coil.
d
(ii) Further, e  (d / dt)   (LI)   L(dI / dt)
dt
(iii) Self-inductance L of a solenoid ofN turns, length l, area of cross-section A, with a core material of relative
2
 0  4 N A
permeability r is given by : L   r 
 4  l
Mutual inductance :

(i) When a current I flowing in the primary coil produces a magnetic flux  in the secondary coil, then
  I or   MI , where M is a constant, called the coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance.

d d  dI 
(ii) e   (MI)  M  
dt dt  dt 

  4 N1N 2 A
(iii) Mutual inductance M of two coaxial solenoid is given by : M  r  0 
 4  l
where N1 and N2 represent the total number of turns in the primary coil and the secondary coil.
Series and parallel combination of inductances :
(i) Two inductors of self-inductances L1 and L2 are kept so far apart that their mutual inductance is zero. These
are connected in series. Then the equivalent inductance is : L = L1 + L2
(ii) Two inductors of self-inductances L1 and L2 are connected in series and they have mutual inductance M.
Then the equivalent inductance of the combination is : L  L1  L 2  2M
The plus sign occurs if windings in the two coils are in the same sense, while minus sign occurs if windings
are in opposite sense.
(iii) Two inductors of self-inductances L1 and L2 are connected in parallel. The inductors are so far apart that
their mutual inductance is negligible. Then their equivalent inductance is :
L1L 2 1 1 1
L or  
L1  L 2 L L1 L 2
(iv) If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 are wound over each other, the mutual inductance is given by:
M  K L1L2 (where K is called coupling constant). It is equal to zero if there is no coupling. It is equal to
zero if there is no coupling. It is equal to 1 for maximum coupling. The maximum coupling occurs when the
two coils are wound over each other, over a ferromagnetic core.
Growth and decay of current in LR circuit :
(i) When a switch in an LR circuit is closed, the current does not become maximum immediately but it takes
some time, i.e. there is a time lag.
 [3]

(ii) If R be the resistance present in the circuit, then current I at any instant is given by : E – L (dI/dt) = IR
(a) At start, I = 0, so (dI/dt) is maximum and (dI/dt)max. = E/L.
(b) Finally, (dI/dt) = 0, therefore I is maximum and Imax. = E/R i.e. final current in the circuit is independent
of inductance L.
R
E  t
(iv) The instantaneous current in the circuit during its growth is given by : I  (1  e L )
R
Here, (L/R) = time constant of LR circuit. The time constant is the time in which current rises to 0.6321
times the maximum current whichis equal to (E/R).
R
E  t
(v) When the switch in an LR circuit is opened, the instantaneous current I is given by I    e L
R
Hence, the time consant of an LR circuit may also be defined as the time in which the current falls to 0.3679
times of its initial current.
(vi) Decay or growth of current in LR circuit is fast when L/R is small and slow when (L/R) is large.
Transformer :
(i) The transformer was inverted by Henry. It works on the principle of mutual induction and is used in AC only.
It suitably changes AC voltage.
(ii) A transformer consists of a (a) primary coil of turns Np, (b) seconcdary coil of turns Ns and (c) a laminated
soft iron core.
(iii) If Vp and Vs denote the voltage across the primary coil and the secondary coilrespectively. then
(Vs/Vp) = (Ns/Np).
(iv) In an actual transformer,
Output power  input power but in an ideal transformer
Output power = input power i.e. Vs Is  Vp I p
(Ip and Is are the current in primary and secondary coils respectively).
Vs I p N s
 
Vp Is N p
(v) There are two types of transformers :
(a) Step-up trnasformer : Here, Ns > Np, so Vs > Vp and Is < Ip.
(b) Step-down transfomer : Here, Ns < Np, so Vs < Vp and Is > Ip.
[4]

ALTERNATING CURRENT

The instantaneous value of an AC is given by : I  I0 sin  t

and the alternaing voltage is given by : E  E 0 sin  t
Here,  is the angular frequency of Ac and ( / 2 ) is the frequency of Ac. (2 /  ) represents the time
period of AC.The frequency of AC represents the number of cycles of AC completed in one second. AC
supplied in India has a frequency of 50Hz.
Mean Value :

The mean value of AC represented by the equation, I  I0 sin  t , is zero over one complete cycle and is
meaningless. In practice, mean value of alternating current refers to its average value over half cycle.
2I 0
I mean 


 A moving coil galvanometer, connected to an AC source of 50 Hz AC, shows a steady zero reading of the
pointer. If the frequency is 2 Hz, the pointer oscillates with equal amplitude on either side of zero position.
RMS or Virtual value : The RMS value of defined as the square root of the mean of square of the
instantaneous value of current over the complete cycle. It may also be defined as the direct current which
produces the same heating effect in a resistor as the actual AC in the same time.
I0
IV 
 I rms
2
 AC ammeter or voltmeter measures virtual current or virtual voltage (these are hot wire instrument)
Virtual value e 0 / 2 
 Form Factor     1.1
Mean value 2e 0 /  2 2

(A) AC through pure resistor R :

(i) Alternating e.m.f. of the source : E  E 0 sin  t

(ii) A resistance oppose current but does not oppose a change in current. Hence, current is in phase with e.m.f.
(iii) The instantaneous value of the current is given by :
E 0 sin  t R
I
R
EV
The virtual value of current IV is given by IV 
R N
E = E0 sin t
(B) AC through pure inductor of inductance L :

(i) Alternating e.m.f. of the source : E  E 0 sin  t

(ii) An inductor does not opposte current but opposes a change in current.
(iii) Since the voltage changes continuously, Hence, the current reacts to the change and inductive reactance
XL  L L
(iv) The current lags behind the voltage by  / 2
 E0   
(v) The instantaneous current is given by : I    sin   t  
 L   2
The virtual value of the current is given by I V  E V /  L E = E0 sin  t
 [5]

(C) AC through a pure capacitor of capacitance C :

(i) Alternating e.m.f. of the source. E  E 0 sin  t .

(ii) A capacitor has infinite resistance for a DC source. With an AC source, voltage changes, hence charge ont
he plates of the capacitor changes with time i.e. there is a current. The current leads the voltage by  / 2 .
(iii) The capacitor has a capacitive reactang XC in AC circuit, given by : X C  (1/  C)
(iv) The instantaneous valeu of current is
C
E0  
I sin   t  
 1   2
 C 
  E = E0 sin t
EV
The virtual value of current IV is given by : IV 
(1/ C)

(D) AC through RL circuit :

R L
(i) In this case, we have impedance.
E0
Z  R 2  (X L ) 2 and I  sin( t   )
z
(ii) Phase angle, tan   (X L / R)  ( L / R) E

(E) AC through CR circuit : R

(i) In this case, we have impedence C
E0
Z  R 2  (X C ) 2 and I  sin( t   )
z
(ii) Phase angle, tan   (X C / R)  (I /  CR) E

(F) AC source connected to resistor R, an inductor L and a capacitor C in series :

(i) The virtual current IV is given by : R L C

EV
IV 
2
2  1 
R   L 
 C 
E
(ii) The current and voltage have a phase difference  given by :
1
L  E
tan    C and So, current I  0 sin( t   )
R z
(iii) The impedance which represents the effective resistance of the circuit to AC source is represented by Z.
The impedance Z is the vector sum of resistance and reactances in AC series circuit.
2
 1 
Z  R 2  L 
  C 
(iv) In AC series combination, virtual voltage are added vectorially i.e.

Ev  VR2  (VL  VC )2

where VR = IVR, VC = IV (1/ C ) and VL  I V ( L)

[6]

Power in an AC circuit :
(i) The power in an electric circuit is the rate at which electric energy is consumed in the circuit.
Average power,  P   E rms  I rms  cos 
So, the product of rms value of voltage and current when multiplied by cos  gives the power dessipated.
(ii) cos  is known as power factor. For a LCR series circuit.
R R
cos   
 1 
2 z
R 2   L 
 C 
(iii) Wattless current : we know that the average power in a circuit is given by :
 P  E rms  I rms  cos  ; Here (I rms cos  ) is called watt less current which does not contribute in power
dessipation.

Resonance in Series R-L-C circuit :

(i) A particular frequency of AC at which impedance of a series LCR circuit becomes minimum or the current
becomes maximum is called the resonant frequency and the circuit is called as series resonance circuit.
(ii) At resonance frequency
1 1 1
0 L    or f 0 
0 C and 0 LC 2 LC
1
0 L 
0 C
(iii) At resonance tan    zero i.e.   0 i.e. phase difference is zero. So, cos   1,i.e. power
R
factor is maximum.
EV EV
(iv) At resonance, I max  Z  R
min

In this case, VL  I V0 L, VC = IV (1/ 0 C)

Q VL  VC and E V  VR2  (VL  VC ) 2 hence, E V  VR

i.e. at resonance with L and C in series, the current is maximum through the L and C combination but
potential difference across the combination is zero.
L 1
(v) Q or i.e. the quality factor may be defined as the ratio of reactance of either inductance or
R CR
capacitance at resonance frequency to the resistance of the circuit.
Choke coil :
(i) We know that in purely resistive circuit, the power loss is maximum because power factor
cos   (R / Z) = 1 (Q Z  R) . Hence, the use of resistance is avoided in AC circuits to control current.
(ii) A choke coil is a coil which has high inductance and negligible resistance. Thus, the power factor is almost
zero. So a choke coil controls the alternating current without an apreciable energy loss. This is used with
fluorescent tubes to control the current.
 [7]

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Maxwell’s Equations
r r q
(a) Ñ E.ds   0
(Gauss’s theorem in electrostatics)
r r
(b) Ñ B.ds  0 (Gauss’s law in magnetism)
r r d r r
(c) Ñ E..ds    B.ds (Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction)
dt
Important Features of Electromagnetic waves

 E.M. waves are transverse waves in which there are sinusoidal variations of electric and magnetic fields. These
two fields exist at right angles to each other as well as at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
 Both these fields vary with time and space and have the same frequency of variation.
 These waves can travel through vacuum also, hence these waves are non-mechanical.
 Velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space (vaccum) is constant and given by
1 1
c   3  108 ms1
 0 0 7
4  10  8.854  10 12

r r
 Direction of wave propagative is given by the direction of E  B .
 Examples of electromagnetic waves are radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, light waves, ultraviolet rays, X-
rays and   rays.
 The amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields in free space, in electromagnetic waves are related by E 0  cB0

Energy Density of Electromagnetic Eave

1 1 2 1
 The average energy density of electric field is, U E  2 0 E  2 0  E 0 / 2   4 0 E 0
2 2

The average density of magnetic field is, U B 

B2


B0 / 2  
B20
 2 0 2 0 4 0
 In EM waves the average energy density due to either field are equal i.e. U E  U B
Momentum of Electromagnetic wave
 The electromagnetic wave has linear momentum associated with it. The linear momentum p carried by the
U hv h
portion of wave having energy U is given by p  . As per plank, p  
c c 
Production of Electromagnetic Waves

 An electromagnetic wave is emitted when an electron orbiting in higher stationary orbit of an atom jumps to one
of the lower stationary orbits of that atom.
 Accelerated charge (e.g. LC oscillator) produces EM waves.
 Some electromagnetic waves (i.e. X-rays) are also produced when fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped
by a metal surface having high atomic number.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The major components spectrum with their wavelength  ranges in incrasing order are
1. Gamma rays [  6  1019 m to1011 m]
[8]

2. X-rays [  6  1019 m to3  108 m]

3. Ultraviolet [  6  1010 m to 4  107 m]
4. Visible light [  4  107 m to8  107 m]
5. Infra red [  8  107 m to3  105 m]
6. Heat radiations [  8  105 m to101 m]
7. Micro waves [  103 m to 0.03m]
8. Ultra high frequency [  101 m to1m]
9. Very high ratio frequency [  1 m to10 m]
10. Radio frequencies [  10 m to104 m]
 [13]

WAVE OPTICS

NATURE OF LIGHT :
Light is an electromagnetic wave which is sinusoidally varying electric and magnetic fields propagated from
one part to another part. The electric and the magnetic field are given by

E y  E0 sin  kx  wt 

Bz  B0 sin  kx  wt 
1
It propagates as transverse non mechanical wave in a medium at a speed given by V 
 ;
The electric and magnetic fields are related as E0= VB0

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A MEDIUM :

Refractive index of a medium is defined as
speed of light in vaccum c
  
speed of light in med v
INTERFERENCE :
The modification in the distribution of intensity of light in the region of superposition of two coherent light
waves is called interference. At some points the waves superpose in such a way that the resultant intensity
is greater than the sum of the intensities due to separate waves (constructive interference) while at some
other points intensity is less than the sum of the separate intensities (destructive interference).

YOUNG’ DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIEMENT :

Let the two waves each of angular frequency  from sources S1 and S2 reach the point P. Equations are

given by y1  A1 sin  t  kx  and, y2  A2 sin  t  k  x  x  

So the resultant wave at P by principle of superposition will be

y  y1  y2  A1 sin  t  kx   A2 sin  t  kx    ; where  is initail phase difference

y  A sin  t  kx    where, A2  A12  A22  2 A1 A2 cos 

and,   tan1  A2 sin  /  A1  A2 cos   

Superposition of two waves of equal frequencies propagating almost in the same direction, results in harmonic
wave of same frequency  and wavelength    2 / k  but amplitude A. The intensity of resultant wave

I  K  A12  A22  2 A1 A2 cos  

 

I  I1  I 2  2  
I1I 2 cos 
The resultant intensity at P is not just the sum of intensities due to separate waves (I1 + I2) but different and
depends on phase difference  and the position of the point P.
[14]

CONDITION FOR INTERFERENCE

(a) Intensity will be maximum when :

cos   max .  1
or   2n with n = 0, 1, 2

2
 x   2n

x  n


I max  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 
2 2
I max   I1  I 2    A1  A2 

Intensity will be maximum at those points where path difference is an integral multiple of wavelength  and
maximum intensity is greater than the sum of two intensities (I1 + I2). These points are called points of
constructive interference or interference maxima.
(b) Intensity will be minimum when :

2
cos   min .  1 ;   , 3, 5 ;     2n  1  ;  x     2n  1  ; x    2n  1  / 2

2
 
I min  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2  I min   I1  I 2    A1  A2 
2

Intensity will be minimum at those points where path difference is an odd integral multiple of   / 2  and
minimum intensity is less than the sum of two intensities (I1 + I2). These points are called points of destructive
interference or interference minima.
2 2
I max   I1  I2  I min   I1 ~ I 2 
2 2
I max  I1  I 2   A1  A2 
I1 A12
  
I min 2 2 ;
 I1  I2   A1  A2  I 2 A22

 All maxima are equally spaced (as path difference between two consecutive maxima is  ) and equally
bright the two waves from S1 and S2 have same frequency and start in the same phase at P they have
a constant phase difference    2 /   x, developed due to different paths traversed by them.
Such waves are said to be ‘Coherent’ and produce sustained interference effects.
If d is the separation between the slits and D (>>d) is the distance of screen from the plane of slits as

x  d sin  sin    x / d 
for small , sin   tan      y / D 
y x D
  x  y
D d d
 If the point P is nth bright fringe, x  n and hence
 [15]

D
 yn Bright   n  n = 0, 1, 2, etc.
d
 If the point P is nth minima
D 
 yn Dark   2n  1 n = 1, 2, .... etc.
d 2
 Fringe-width  is defined as the distance between two consecutive maxima (or minima) on the screen
  y x  
D
 
d
 As linear position y is related to the angular position  by    y / D  , i.e.,    y / D  , the so
called angular fringe-width
 
0   Fringe-width is independent of n.
D d
 If the transparent sheet of refractive index  and thickness t is introduced in one of the paths of
interfering waves, optical path will become t instead of t for the portion in which glass is inserted so
the optical path will increase by    1 t. Due to this, a given fringe from its present position y will shift
to a new position y', the lateral shift of the fringe is
D 
y0  y  y     1 t     1 t
d 
entire fringe-pattern is displaced by y0 towards the side in which the thin sheet is introduced without
any change in fringe width.

DIFFRACTION :
The flaring out or encroachment of light in the shadow zone as it passes around obstacles or through small
apertures is called diffraction.
As a result of diffraction, the edges of the shadow do not remain well defined and sharp but become blurred
and fringed. If the width of the aperture is comparable to the wavelength of light, most of the incident
wavefront will be obstructed and in accordance with Huygens’ wave theory a cylindrical (or spherical)
wavefront depending on the aperture (slit or hole) will originate from it as the direction of wave motion is
normal to the wavefront, after passing through the aperture light will flare out. This flaring out or spreading
of light is the so called diffraction.
In case of diffraction at single slit theory shows that intensity at a point on the screen is given by:
2
 sin    
I    I m   ;     d sin  
   2 
From this it is clear that I will be minimum when for   0,

sin   0,   n n = 1, 2, ...
 Angular position of minima in case of diffraction at single slit is given by:

 d sin    n d sin   n

And as central maximum extends between first minima on either side, for small , the angular width of
[16]

central maximum will be: 0  21   2 / d 

 At centre as   0 and hence  sin  /    1. This in turn means that intensity at centre is always
maximum and equal to Im. This maximum of intensity is called central maximum.
 At the position of a minima, wavelets from the two ends of the slit reach in phase differeing by an integral
multiple of 2 as in this situation path difference  d sin   condition of minima is n.

 Subsidiary maxima are approximately midway between two consecutive minima and of decreasing inteisty.
The position of nth subsidiary maxima will therefore be given by:
n   n  1   1
 d sin max   n  
2  2

 The angular width of subsidiary maximum s   n  n 1     / d  is half that of central maximum

 0  2   / d   .

 Due to diffraction at a circular aperture, a converging lens can never form a point image of an object but it
produces a bright disc called Airy disc surrounded by dark and bright concentric rings. The minimum radius
of the image disc is given by

r  1.22 f
d
 Diffraction limits the ability of optical instruments to form distinct images of objects when they are close to
each other. According to Rayleigh (called rayleigh’s criterion), two objects of equal intensity will be just
resolved (i.e., distinctly visible) by an optical instrument if the central diffraction maximum of one lies at the
first minimum of the other. So the angular limit of resolution will be equal to the angular separation between
the centre of central maximum and first minimum, which for a single slit will be
 
R   0, R 
d d
for circular aperture such as lens,  R is found to be 1.22   / d  ; so two objects at a distance D with
separation y will be distinctly visible only if

  R ,  y / D   1.22  y / d 
 A diffraction-grating consists of large number of equally spaced parallel slits. If light is incident normally
on a transmission grating, the direction of principal maxima (PM) is given by
d sin   n
where d is the distance between two consecutive slits and is called grating element and n order of principle
maxima.
 The dispersive and resolving power of a grating are given by
d n 
DP   RP   nN
d  d cos  d
closely spaced lines on a grating give greater dispersion while greater number of lines increase its resolving
power.

POLARISATION :
An ordinary beam of light consists of a large number of waves emitted by the atoms or molecules of the light
 [17]
r
source. Each atom produces a wave with its own orientation of electric vector E Because all directions of
r
vibrations of E are equally probable the resultant electromagnetic wave is a superposition of waves
produced by the individual atomic sources. This resultant wave is called unpolarised light and is symmetrical
about the direction of wave propagation. If somehow (say using polaroids or Nicol-prism) we confine the
vibrations of electric vector in one direction perpendicular to the direction of wave motion the light is said to
be plane polarised or linearly-polarised and the phenomenon of confining the vibrations of a wave in a
specific direction perpendicular to the direction of wave motion is called polarisation. The plane containing
the direction of vibration and wave motion is called plane of polarisation.
All the vibrations of an unpolarised light at a given instant can be resolved in two mutually perpendicular
directions and hence, an unpolarised light is equivalent to the superposition of two mutually perpendicular
identical plane polarised lights.
 If in case of unpolarised light, electric vector in some plane is either more or less, than in its perpendicular
plane, the light is said to be ‘partially polarised’
 If an unpolarised light is converted into plane polarised light, its intensity reduces to half.
 A part from partially polarised and plane (i.e., linearly) polarised, light can also be circularly or elliptically
polarised, that too left-handed or right handed. Elliptically and circularly polarised lights result due to
superposition of two mutually perpendicular plane polarised lights differing in phase by   / 2  with.

METHODS OF OBTAINING PLANE POLARISED LIGHT :

By Reflection :
Brewster discovered that when light is incident at a particular angle on a transparent substance, the reflected
light is completely plane polarised with vibrations in a plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence. This
specific angle of incidence is called polarising angle p and is related to the refractive index  of the

material through the relation: tan p   . This is known as Brewster’s law..

By Scattering :
When light is incident on atoms and molecules, the electrons absorb the incident light and re-radiate it in all
directions. This process is called scattering. it is found that scattered light in directions perpendicular to the
direction of incident light is completely plane polarised while transmitted light is unpolarised. Light in all other
directions is partially polarised.

  2

If plane polarised light of intensity I 0  KA is incident on a polaroid and its vibrations of amplitude

A make an angle  with the transmission axis, then the component of vibrations parallel to transmission
axis will be A cos  while perpendicular to it A sin  . Now, as polaroid will pass only those vibrations
which are parallel to its transmission axis, i.e., A cos  , so the intensity of emergent light will be
2
I  K  A cos    KA2 cos2 

I  I 0 cos 2 
This law is called Malus law.
 If an unpolarised light is converted into plane polarised light (say by passing it through a polaroid or a
Nicol-prism), its intensity becomes half.
 If light of intensity I1 emerging from one polaroid called polariser is incident on a second polaroid
(usually called analyser) the intensity of the light emerging from the second polaroid in accordance
[18]

with Malus law will be given by I 2  I1 cos 2 

where  is the angle between the transmission axis of the two polaroids.
 Optically activity of a substance is measured with the help of polarimeter in terms of ‘specific
rotation’ which is defined as the rotation produced by a solution of length 10 cm (1 dm) and of unit
concentration (i.e., 1 g/cc) for a given wavelength of light at a given temperature,

  tC 
LC
where  is the rotation in length L at concentration C.
 Optics
(Ray Optics)
REFLECTION :
Light is a form of energy which is propagated as electromagnetic waves. It does not require a medium for
its propagation. Its speed in free space (i.e., vacuum) is 3 × 108 m/s.
As in visible region the possible number of different wavelengths (or frequencies) between 4000 Å and 7000
Å are infinite and different frequencies produce the sensation of different colours, the number of colours in
visible region is infinite. However, our eye can distinguish only following six colours.
Eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light, light of wavelength 5550 Å.
Persistence of eye is 1/10 s, i.e., if time interval between two successive light pulses is lesser than 0.1 s,
eye cannot distinguish them separately. Also the resolving limit of the eye is one minute, two objects
separated by distance d will not be distinctly visible to the eye if the angle,  subtended by them at the eye,

d 
0  01 i.e., 
D 180  60 
When light passes from one medium to the other, velocity and wavelength m change, amplitude may
decrease or remain constant, but frequency and colour of light do not change, i.e., colour of light is determined
by its frequency (a not wavelength), e.g., if red light passes from air to water (or glass) its velocity and
wavelength in water (or glass) will be different from that in air frequency and colour remain the same.
If the velocity of light in a medium (such as water or glass) is same in all directions, the medium is called
isotropic. However, if the velocity of light is different in different directions (e.g., in calcite or quartz, etc.),
the medium is said to be anisotropic for that light.

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY OF LIGHT:

If a light ray is reversed, it always retraces its path. Object and image positions are interchangeable. The
points corresponding to object and image are called conjugate points.

OPTICAL PATH :
It is defined as distance travelled by light in vacuum in the same time in which it travels a given path length
in a medium. If light travels a path length d in a medium at speed v, the time taken by it will be (d/v). So
optical path length.

d   c 
L  c     d ; as v   
v  
As for all media   1, optical path length is always greater than actual path length.

REFLECTION:

LAWS OF REFLECTION :
The incident-ray, reflected-ray and normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, i.e., i   r.

[1]
[2]

REFLECTION FROM PLANE-SURFACES

The image is always erect, virtual and of same size as the object. It is at the same distance behind the mirror
as the object is in front of it.
 Some points regarding plane reflecting surface.
 If the rays after refraction or reflection actually converge at a point, the image’s said to be real and it is not
only to be seen but also obtained on a suitably placed screen. However, if the rays do not actually converge
but appear to do so and actually diverge, the image is said to be virtual. A virtual image can only be seen and
cannot be obtained on a screen at the position of the image.
 If an object moves towards a plane mirror at speed v, the image will also approach (or recede) at same
speed v, the speed of image relative to object will be v – (–v) = 2v. Similarly if the mirror is moved towards
or (away from) the object with speed v the image will move towards (or away from) the object with speed
2v.
 Deviation  is defined as the angle between directions of incident ray and emergent ray. So if light is
incident at an angle of incidence i,   180   i  r   180  2i 

If keeping the incident ray fixed, the mirror is rotated by an angle , about an axis in the plane of mirror, the
reflected ray is rotated through an angle 2.
 The image formed by a plane mirror suffers lateral-inversion in the image formed by a plane mirror left is
turned into right and vice-versa with respect to object as.
 To see his full image in a plane mirror a person requires a mirror of at least half of his height.
 To see a complete wall behind himself a person requires a mirror of at least (1/3) the height of wall and he
must be in the middle of wall and mirror.
 If there are two plane mirrors inclined to each other at an angle , the number of images of a point object
formed are determined as follows:

 If  360 /   is even integer (say m) number of images formed

n = (m – 1), for all positions of object

 If  360 /   is odd integer (say m) number of images formed

n = m, if the object is not on the bisector of mirrors
n = (m – 1), if the object is on the bisector of mirrors

 If  360 /   is a fraction, the number of images formed will be equal to its integral part.

REFLECTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE

 The focal length of a spherical mirror of radius R is given by f = (R/2)

1 100
The power of a mirror is defined as P 
 f  in m  f  in cm 

 If a thin object of linear size O is situated vertically on the axis of a mirror at a distance u from the pole and
its image of size I is formed at a distance v (from the pole), magnification (transverse) is defined as :

I  v
m      
O  u 
–ve magnification implies that image is inverted with respect to object* +ve magnification means that image
is erect with respect to object.
 [3]

 If an object is placed at a distance u from the pole of a mirror and its image is formed at a distance v
1 1 1
 
v u f
 If the 1-D object is placed with its length along the principle axis, the so called longitudinal magnification
becomes
2
I
mL   
 v2  v1 

dv  v 
  m2
O  u2  u1  du  u 
NEWTON’S FORMULA:
 In case of spherical mirrors if object distance (x1) and image distance (x2) are measured from focus instead
of pole u (f + x1) and v = (f + x2), the mirror formula

1 1 1 1 1 1
  reduces to  
v u f  f  x2   f  x1  f
which on simplification gives x1x2  f 2
In case of spherical mirrors if we plot a graph between.
1 1 1
(1/u) and (1/v), it will be a straight line with intercept (1/f) with each axis as   becomes y + x =
v u f
1
c with c  .
f
Graph between u and v will be a hyperbola, as for u  f , v   and for u  , v  f . A line u = v will
cut this hyperbola at (2f, 2f).
Concave mirror behaves as convex lens (both convergent) while convex mirror behaves as concave lens
(both divergent).

USASGE OF CONVEX / CONCAVE MIRRORS:

As convex mirror gives erect, virtual and diminished image. In convex mirror, the field of view is increased
as compared to plane mirror. This is why it is used as rear-view mirror in vehicles. Concave mirrors give
enlarged, erect and virtual image (if object is between F and P), so these are used by dentists for examining
teeth. Further due to their converging property concave mirrors are also used as reflectors in automobile
head lights and search lights and by ENT surgeons in ophthalmoscope.

REFRACTION :

Law of Refraction:
1. Incident ray, Refracted ray and normal at a point lie in same plane.
2. Product of refractive index and the sine of angle made by light ray with the normal remains constant
when light travels from one medium to another.
i.e.   sin i  constant
1  sin i   2 sin r

If light passes from rarer to denser medium 1   R and  2   D so that in passing from rarer to denser
[4]

medium, the ray bends towards the normal.

sin i  R
If light passes from denser to rarer medium  1
sin r  D
in passing from denser to rarer medium, the ray bends away from the normal.

APPARENT DEPTH AND NORMAL SHIFT

d Ac 1

d Ap  2
Object in a denser medium is seen from a rerer medium.
The distance between object and its image, called normal shift and with dAc = t, will be

x  d Ac  d Ap  t   t /    t 1  1/   
Object in a rarer medium is seen from a denser medium

x  d Ap  d Ac     1  t

Further in passing through a medium of thickness t and refractive index , a ray incident at a small angle 
is displaced parallel to itself by ‘y’ called lateral displacement.

  1
y t
  
If there are number of liquids of different depths, one over the other
d d d
d Ac  d1  d 2  d3... and d Ap  1  2  3  ...
1 2 3

d d1  d 2  ... di
  Ac  
d Ap  d1 / 1    d 2 /  2   ...   di / i 

 2  
   1 2  = Harmonic mean.
 1   2 

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION :

If light is passing from denser to rarer medium through a plane boundary, then 1   D and  2   R ; so

with     D /  R  ,

 sin r
sin i  R sin r i.e., sin i 
D 

sin i  sin r with  i    r 

So as angle of incidence i increases angle of refraction r will also increase and for certain value of i (<90°)
r will become 90°. The value of angle of incidence for which r = 90° is called critical angle and is denoted
by C and in the light will be given by
 [5]

sin 90 1
sin C  i.e., sin C 
 
the total light incident on the boundary will be reflected back into the same medium from the boundary. This
phenomenon is called total internal reflection. Here it is worthy to note that :
For total internal reflection to take place light must be propagating from denser to rarer medium.
In case of total internal reflection, as all (i.e., 100%) incident light is reflected back into the same medium
there is no loss of intensity while in case of reflection from mirrors or refraction from lenses there is some
loss of intensity as all light can never be reflected or refracted.

From Snell’s law, C  sin 1 1/  

PRISM-T HEORY:
Prism is a transparent medium bounded by any number of surfaces in such a way that the surface on which
light is incident and the surface from which light emerges are plane and non-parallel.
Angle of prism or refracting angle of prism means the angle between the faces on which light is incident and
from which it emerges.
Angle of deviation means the angle between emergent and incident rays.
The angle of deviation  will be
A

P R
i1 i2
r1 r2
Q

B C
   i1  r1    i2  r2   r1  r2    180o  A  90o    90o  360  A    180o 
 
   i1  i2    r1  r2   r1  r2    A    r1  r2  A 

  i1  i2  A  r1  r2   A
This is the required result and holds good if emergent ray exists.
If angle of prism A is small, r1 and r2 (as r1 + r2 = A) and hence i1 and i2 will also be small. Since for small
angles sin   . Snell’s law at first and second surfaces of prism gives respectively:

i1  r1 and r2  i2

 i1  i2     r1  r2   A
So for small angle of prism.
Deviation will be maximum when angle of incidence i1 is maximum
max  90  i2  A

MINIMUM DEVIATION :
sin  A  m  / 2 
Minimum deviation of a ray through the prism is given by:  
sin  A / 2 
[6]

REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES

+
i
r

O 1 2
R
u v

Refraction at single spherical surface is shown in the figure above.

Here light rays starting form an object O, placed in a medium of R.I. 1, move into another medium of R.I.
2 after being refracted at a curved surface of radius R. Object distances (u) and image distance (v) as
shown in the figure, are measured from pole. Radius of curvature (R) is also measured from the pole, as
shown. Then
2 1 2  1
 
v u R
For refraction at single surface and for real objects,
 is always –ve
v is +ve if image forms on otherside, ie in next medium.
v is –ve if image forms on same side, ie in first medium
R is +ve if surface is convex as seen from the object
The image is real if formed inside the second medium, because such image is due to actual meeting of rays
after refraction. If formed on the same side, there is no actual meeting of rays, hence the image is virtual.
Image size 1v
Lateral magnification, m  
Object size  2 v

REFRACTION THROUGH LENS

Lens maker’s formula for thin lens

Let R1 and R2 be radii of curvature of the first and second spherical surface. Let f be the focal length of the
lens and  be the refractive index of lens material w.r.t. the medium in which the lens is placed. Then

1  1 1   1 1 
    1    or P     1    where P is power of the lens
f  R1 R2   R1 R2 

Linear Magnification for a lens

v
Magnification m 
u
1 1 1 v v v v v v f v f v
We know that   or    1    m
v u f v u f u f u f f
We can also express m in terms of u and f.
 [7]

1 1 1 u u u u u f f
  or      m
v u f v u f v f f u

POWER OF A LENS
1
P
f
Since focal length of a convex lens or a converging lens is positive, therefore its power is positive. Similarly,
the power of a concave lens or a diverging lens is negative.
Opticians express the power of a lens in terms of a unit called the DIPOTRE. It is regarded as the SI unit
of optical power. The power of a lens is said to be one dioptre if the focal length of the lens is 1 metre.
100
When focal length is in cm, P  dioptre.
f

LENS FORMULA

1 1 1
 
v u f
This equation holds good for both convex and concave lenses, whether the image formed is real or virtual.
For real image, v is +ve because real image always forms or other side of the lens. For virtual image v is –
ve.
Focal length f is +ve for convex lens and –ve for concave lens. Object distance u is always -ve for a real
object and u is always +ve for a virtual object.

Convex Lens
Position of Position of Real/Virtual Inverted/erect Magnification
object image and size of
image
at infinity at focus real inverted m < 1 greatly
diminished
beyond 2f between f and 2f real inverted m = 1 same size
at 2f at 2f real inverted m = 1 same size
between f and 2f beyond 2f real inverted m > 1 magnified
at f at inifinity real inverted m =
magnified
between optical at a distance virtual erect m> 1 magnified
centre and focus greater than the
object distance
and on the same
side object
Concave Lens
at inifinity at focus (v = f) virtual erect m < 1 diminished
between infinity between optical virtual erect m < 1 diminished
and optical centre and focus
centre
[8]

FOCAL LENGTH OF COMBINATION OF TWO THIN LENSES IN CONTACT

Let two lenses be in contact, as shown in the figure. Focal length of the combination is given by

L1

O L2 l1 l2
u v
v1

1 1 1
 
F f1 f 2
If P is the power of the combination, then P = P1 + P2 where P1 and P2 are the powers of the individual
lenses. If two lenses are separated by distance d then focal length of system of two lenses is given by
1 1 1 d
  
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2

DISPLACEMENT METHOD FOR FINDING THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS

In this method, the distance between the object and the screen must be greater than 4f, where f is the focal
length of the convex lens. The image on the screen can be formed corresponding to two different positions
of the lens. Figure (i) shows the magnified image of size I1 for the position L1 of the lens.
I v
m1  1 
O u
u v
u v

O
O
I2
I1
v u
L1 L2
L1 d
D
Figure (ii) shows the diminished image of size I2 for the position L2 of the lens.
I v
m2  2 
O u
From (1) and (2),
I1I 2 v u
  1
2 u v
O

or O  I1I 2  object size = 1st image size    2nd image size 

 [1]

SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors : Electrical properties of which lie between conductor and insulators.
Semiconductors are materials that have a small energy gap of the order of 1eV. At 0K (absolute zero), the
semiconductors behave like insulators.
Intrinsic Semiconductors (pure) : Semiconductor which are free from inpurity.
Intrinsic Semiconductors have an equal number of electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band
ne = nh
where ne = number of electrons per unit volume
nh = number of holes per unit volume
ne × nh = ni2
ni = intrinsic charge carrier density or intrinsic charge carrier concentration
Doped or Extrinsic Semiconductors : Semi conductors doped or added with certian impurity to increase its
conductivity.
N-Type : In N type of semiconductor electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge
carriers.
P Type : In P type semiconductors holes are majority charge carriers whereas electrons are minority charge
carriers.
Semiconductor Devices
The P-N junction Diode :
P side of P-N junction has holes as a majority charge carriers and electrons as a minority charge carriers whereas
N side has electrons as a majority charge carriers and holes as a minority charge carriers. holes diffuse from P
side to N side whereas electrons diffuse from N side to P side.
Ei Potential barrier
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
P-type N-type

Depletion layer
Forward bias
current

(reverse
Zener
i(mA)
breakdown i saturation
s current)
region
Forward bias voltage
reverse bias
current

P-N Junction Characteristics

[2]

Dynamic Resistance :
V
R
i
Where V denotes a small change in the applied potential difference and i denotes corresponding small
change in current.
Dynamic Resistance is equal to the reciprocal of the slope of the i-V characteristic.
Photodiode : When a light of proper wavelength falls on the junction, new electron-hole pairs are created. The
number of charge carriers increases and hence the conductivity of the junction increases. If the junction is
connected in some circuit, the current in the circuit is controlled by the intensity of the incident light.
Light-emitting Diode (LED) : When a conduction electron makes a transition to the valence band to fill up a
hole in P-N junction, the extra energy is emitted as a photon. If the wavelength of this photon is in the visible range
one can see the emitted light. Such a P-N junction is known as light emitting diode (LED).
Zener diode : A diode operated in Zener break down mode is called Zener diode. In this type of mode of
operation current increases rapidly but voltage remains almost constant. Thus it is used to obtain constant voltage
output.

P-N Junction as a Rectifier : PN Junction can be used to convert A.C into unidirectional current. (DC)
(a) Half wave rectifier

~ R Output

V
V

t t

Input wave form Output wave form

Io
Average out put current =

where Io = amplitude of the input current
Io
R.M.S. Value of output current =
2
 [3]

(b) Full Wave rectifier

D1
A

C
R
D2
B
If VA > VC > VB D1 Conducts
If VB > VC > VA D2 Conducts

V t V
t

Input wave form Output wave form

2Io
Average output current =

Io
R.M.S. Value of output current =
2
Junction transistor
It has three terminals
(a) Emitter (b) Base (c) Collector
Emitter is heavily doped, collector is moderately doped and base is thin and lightly doped.
Symbol
Collector Collector

Base

Emitter Emitter
N-P-N N-P-N
A transistor can be operated in three different modes. Common-emitter, common collector and common base.
[4]

C
E C
B

Output
Output
E B

+ –

Common Base
Common Emitter
E
B

Output
C

+ –

Common Collector
Transistor as an Amplifier

1. Common base :
In this type amplifier, base to emitter junction is forward biased whereas base to collector is reverse biased
Transistor parameter
I I c
Current again  0 ; AC current gain 
IE I e

v0 I0 Rout R
Voltage gain  Av   = Current gain × Resistance gain    0
vi I E Rin Ri
Where Ro = Resistance of the output circuit
Ri = Resistance of the input circuit
Power gain =  2 × Resistance gain
2. Common emitter amplifier
I c
Current gain 
I b
Voltage gain (Av) = Current gain × Resistance gain =  × Av

Power gain = 2 × Resistance gain

Ro
Resistance gain =
Ri
Transistor used as an oscillator converts D.C. into A.C.
Amplifier section is just a transistor used in common-emitter mode.
 [5]

Amplifier

1 1
f0 
2 LC

LC Network
Part of output energy is sent back in phase to input circuit. This is also called positive feed back.
 Gravitation
 Newton’s law of gravitation : Newton in 1665 formulated that the force of attraction between two masses m1
and m2 as
m1 m2
Gm1m2
F
r2 r
–11 –2
where G = 6.67 × 10 . Nm and is called universal gravitational constant.
 Gravitational field Intensity : Gravitational force per unit mass placed at a point is called gravitational field
intensity at that point. Gravitational field intensity of earth is ‘g’
r
r F
I where test mass m is very very small.
m
 Gravitational potential (Vg) : Gravitational potential at a point is the amount of work done to bring a unit mass
GM
from infinity to that point under the influence of gravitational field of a given mass M, Vg  
r
 Gravitational potential and field due to system of discrete mass distribution.
N

V = V1+V2+V3+...... i.e. V   Vi
i 1

r r r r r N r
I  I1  I2  I3  ... i.e. I   Ii
i 1

 Gravitational potential and field due to system of continuous mass distribution.

V   dV where dV is potential due to elementary mass dM.

r r r
I   dI where dI is field intensity due to elementary mass dM.

 Gravitational potential energy of two mass system is the amount of work done to bring a mass m from infinity
GMm
to the point P under the influence of gravitational field of a given mass M. Ug  
r
where, Ug is G.P.E. of two mass system. Note that U g  mVg
M
m
r P
 In general, gravitational potential energy of a system is work done against gravitational force in assembling
the system from its reference configuration. Infinite mutual separation is reference configuration for
mass-system.
 Gravitational field intensity due to a ring of radius R, mass M at any point on the axial line at a distance x from the
centre of the ring is

R
GM.x P
Eg  x
(R  x 2 )3/ 2
2

The field is directed towards the centre. At the centre of the ring Eg is minimum (= 0) and Eg is maximum at
R
x
2

[1]
[2] Gravitation

dV V V V r
 Relation between Field and potential : I  dr  I  x ˆi  y ˆj  z kˆ
uur r
dV   I.dr
 Work done against gravitational force in changing the configuration of a system
= P.E. in final configuration – P.E. in initial configuration.
i.e. Work done  U 2  U1  WAgainst gravitational force   Wby gravitational force
 Variation of g with height

g R
g  2 if h 
 h 10
1  
 R
 2h  R
g  g 1   if h 
 R  10

Note g never becomes zero with height, that is, g  0 if h  

 Variation of g with depth (d)

 d
g   g 1   ; where g is acceleration due to gravity at earth surface.
 R
 Variation of g with rotation of earth / latitude
 R2 
g  g 1  cos 2  
 g 
that is, g is maximum at the poles and minimum at the equator

2GM
 Escape velocity  e  ;
R
Escape velocity is the minimum velocity required to escape a mass from the surface of the earth/ planet from its
gravitational. If velocity provided is greater than or equal to escape velocity, the mass will never come back to
the earth/planet.

 Planetry motion
GM GMm mV 2
Oribit velocity  o  from the fact   Re quired Centripetalforce
r r2 r
where  o is speed with which a planet or a satellite moves in its orbit and r is the radius of the orbit.

2r 4 2 r 3 GM
Time period T T2 
 o or GM
; where v0 = orbital velocity =
r

1 GMm GMm
Kinetic Energy KE  m 2o  , Potential Energy PE  
2 2r r

Net energy
GMm
E  KE  PE  
2r
 Kepler’s Laws
First Law : The planets revolve around the sun in the elliptical orbits with sun at one of the focus.
Gravitation [3]

P
S

Second Law : The radial line sweeps out equal area in equal interval of time. This law may be derived from law
of conservation of angular momentum.

dA L
Areal velocity  =  = constant
dt 2m
S
Q Torque about axis of rotation is zero so angular P1

moment is constant i.e. I11  I 22

v1 r2
 (mr1 )  v1   (mr2 )(v 2 )  
v 2 r1
1 r2  perihelion raphelion
Thus   r or  
2 1 aphelion rperihelion that is, when the planet is closer to the sun it moves fast.
Third Law: The square of the time period of a planet is proportional to he cube of a semimajor axis

T 2  a 3 or T 2  r 3
raphelion r a  ae 1  e
If eccentricity of the orbit is e then r  max  
perihelion r min . a  ae 1  e
 Weightlessness in a satellite :
2
 GMm  V
Net force towards centre = FC  ma c   2  N   m where N is contact force by the surface
 r  r
GMm  GM 
 2
 N  m  2  or N = 0 that is, the surface of satellite does not exert any force on the body and
r  r 
hence its apparent weight is zero.
 Gravitational potenial due to a ring at any point on its axis, assuming mass of the ring is uniformly or
nonuniformly distributed is
GM GM
V ; potential at the centre is
2 2
R x R
V
 Graviational potential due do a shell
O R x
GM GM
Vin  Vsur  ; Vout 
R x
GM
 Gravitational potential due to a solid sphere of radius R R
GM
Vin 
2R 3
3R 2  x 2  for 0  x  R
V
R x
GM GM
Vsur   for x = R; Vout  for x > R
R x -GM
R
-3GM
2R
[4] Gravitation

 Gravitational field intensity due to a disc

R Ig
P
x

2GM  x  2GM
E 2 
1  1  cos 
R  2 2
x R  R2

 Gravitational field intensity due to a solid sphere

GMx E
Ein  for x < R
R3
GM GM
Esur  2 ,
E out  2 x  R
R x
x
O R

 Gravitational field intensity due to a hollow sphere

Ein = 0 ; x < R
E
GM
Esurface = 2 ; x = R
R
GM
Eout = ; x>R
x2
x
O R
 Electrostatics
(Electric Field & Potenial)
ELECTROSTATICS / FIELD
Electrostatics is a branch of physics which deals with charge at rest charge is the origin of electromagnetic
force. When charge is at rest then region around it called electric field while the region around the moving
charge called magnetic field.

PROPERTIES OF CHARGE :
1. For a given closed system the total charge remains conserved.
2. Charge is always quantised i.e. Q = ±nc ; n  I
Charge on any body is always in the integral multiple of one electronic charge (e = 1.6 × 10–19 coul).
3. Charge is relativistically invariant.

TYPES MATERIAL
There are three kinds of material on the basis of conductivity.
(a) Conductor : Having large number of mobile electrons. It is approximately 1021 electrons/c.c.
(b) Bad conductor : Having very small number of free electrons, it is approximately 107 electrons c.c
(c) Semi conductor : Conductivity lies between conductor and insulator. Number of free electrons is
approximately 104 electron/c.c.

COULOMB’S LAW :
When two point charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r then force of mutual intraction F is given by
F  q1q 2 when r = constant.

1
and F when q1q2 = constant
r2

q1q 2 qq
Hence F 2
or F  k. 1 2 2 ; K is proportionality constant
r r

1 q1q 2 1 9
In SI units, F . 0  8.85  1012 Fm and 4   9  10 nt m coul
2 –2
4 0 r 2 ; 0

q1q 2
In cgs units, F ; 0 is per mittivity of the vacuum.
r2
When there is a medium in the intervining region of two charges then
1 qq
F . 1 2 2 ( Îr is the relative permitivity of medium)
4 0 r r
Îr is the relative permitivity which is the dimensionless qunatity that gives the factor by which force is
reduced compared to vaccum.

[1]
[2] Electrostatics

F0
r 
Fm , F0 is the force in vacuum and Fm is force in medium.

0 r  Absolute permittivity of the medium. q1

uuur A
r 1 q1q 2 BA
FAB  .  . uuur r1 q2
4 0 | BA |2 | BA | B
r2
r uuur O
q1q 2
FAB  uuur 3 . BA
4 0 | BA |
uuur uuur uuur ur ur
where BA  OA  OB  r1  r2
r q1q 2 ur ur
FAB  ur ur 3 . (r1  r2 )
4 0 | r1  r2 |
when q1q2 > 0, Force is attractive
and q1q2 < 0, Force is repulsive

PROCESS OF CHARGING :
(1) By rubbing or friction - when two bodies are rubbed together there is transfer of electrons from
body, which is surplus in electron to another body which is surplus in electrons and get positive charge
of equal amount to negative charge.
(2) By conduction - when a charged body is in contact with another uncharged one threre is redistribution
of charges on entire are is of both bodies followed by mechanical separation. The amount of charge
redistribution on body depends on surface area.
(3) By induction - when an uncharged body is brought near charged on the charge opposite nature
induced over the uncharged one.
The induced charge is always less than or equal to inducing charge. Induction is always followed by
attraction, but attraction is not the surest test of induction.
If q be inducing charge, then charge induced on a body having dielectric constant K is given by

 1
q '  q 1   , if charge is induced on the surface of a conductor then induced charge is
 K
q '  q (As k is infinity for a conductor)

DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES :
(a) Linear charge distribution : - If charge gets appeared on a body of linear dimension.
Linear charge density ( )  charge per unit length.
(b) Surface charge distrbution :- If charge gets appeared on a body having two dimensions.
Surface charge density ( ) = charge per unit area
(c) Volume charge density : If charge is enclosed in a volume;
Volume charge density=charge per unit volume
Electric field : The site around the charge at rest called electric field.
Electric field strength or Electric intensity is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge.
r F
E  lim where q0 is the positive test charge.
q0 0 q
0
Electrostatics [3]

r 3 1
Unit of E is newton coulmob and dimension is  MLT A  . The resultant electric field at any point is
r r r r
equal to vector sum of electric field at that point due to various charges i.e. E  E1  E 2  E3  .....
Resultant of two electric fields which are at an angle θ is given by
E 2 sin 
E  E12  E 22  2E1E 2 cos and tan  
E1  E 2 cos 
r r
 is the angle of E with E1
r
Electric field intensity (E) for some body having uniformly continuous charge distribution.
1. Electric field strength due to a point charge at a distance r is given by
r 1 q
E1  . rˆ
4 0 r 2
2. Electric field strength due to a uniformly charged ring at a distance x from centre of the axis of ring..
+ q
+ +
+ +
r 1 qx + R +
E + +
4 0 (x 2  R 2 )3/ 2 + O x P
+
+ + +

R ur
E becomes max at x  : Direction of E is away from centre along axis.
2
3. Electric field strength due to uniformally charged rod of length l at a distance r along perpendicular line
from centre and linear charge density is  .
q
E
l2
4 0 r  r2
4
where  = charge per unit length when l  

E
2 0 r
4. Electric field strength due to uniformally charged spherical shell of radius R at a distance r from,
centre of shell
E = 0, if r<R
Q 
E 2
 ; if r  R where Q is charged on shell or  is surface charge density..
4 0 R 0
5. Electric field strength due to uniformally charged solid sphere of radius R at a distance r from centre
of sphere.
Q 
E r r
4 0 R 3
3 0 ; r < R; where Q is charged in solid sphere enclosed ;

Q
 is volume charge density and E  where r  R
4  r 2

ELECTRIC DIPOLE :
A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance called dipole. The dipole moment
of dipole is defined as the product of charge and distance of separation and direction of dipole moment is
[4] Electrostatics

from –ve charge to positive charge.

r
p  q l; Direction of dipole moment (p) is from the charge to positive charge.
r
r 2P
r E
E due to dipole at a distance r from centre of dipole along axis of dipole, 4 0 r 3
.

r
E (Electric field strength) due to dipole at a distance r from centre of dipole along perpendicular bisector of
line (Along equational line)
P
r
r P r
E
4 0 r 3
q +q
r
E (Electric field strength) at a point (r, ) from centre of dipole.
P
E 1  3cos 2 
4 0 r 3

sin
E1 =
4 0 r3 2 sin
E E2 =
4 0 r3

r r 1  1  P
and   angle made by E with r  tan  tan   r
 2 
-q +q

DIPOLE IN AN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD :

r r
When dipole of dipole moment P is placed in an external electric field of field strength E then torque and
r r r r
potential energy at orientation  are given by r  P  E and U   P.E respectively. when dipole is placed
in non uniform electric field then there no translational equilibrium and no rational equilibrium while for
uniform field there is always translational equilibrium but no rational.

ELECTRIC FLUX :
In the region around the charge at rest there exists hypothetical electric lines, which measures the electric
field strength at a point around charge at rest.

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY :

It is the number of electric lines cross through unit area held normally to the electric lines.
r r
E   E.ds   E cos  ds  Electric flux through the area ds
r
 is the angle between E and area vector..
1
Gauss’ law : The total electric flux through a closed loop is always equal to  lines the total charge enclosed.
0

r r 1
  Ñ E ds  (charge enclosed)
0
Electrostatics [5]

APPLICATION OF GAUS’S LAW :

(a) The charge given to the conductor always get apeared on outside of the conductor.
(b) The electric field strength at a perpendicular bisector on uniformally charged rod of infinite length at a
distance r from centre of rod

E
2 0 r .
1
(c) The electrostatic potential energy per unit volume (Energy density) = 0 E 2 in air or vacuum.
2
1
= 0 r E 2 in medium of relative
2
permitivity or dielectric constant is r or k .
r
(d) The electric field strength E near the surface of uniformly conducting sheet of surface charge density

E
0
(e) The electric field strength E near the surface of infinite long plane thin non-conducting sheet of charge of

surface charge density  is E  2 
0

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC LINES :

1. Electric lines are continuous curves that emanate from positive charge and terminate to negative
charge.
2. Number of electric lines per unit area at a point gives the magnitudeof electric field strength while
direction of electric field strength is given by the tangent drawn at the point along the direction of
electric lines.
r
3. Direction and magnitude E at a point are unique.
4. No two electriclines intersect at a point.

DIPOLE INTERACTION
When two dipoles are placed along axial line having same direction of dipole moments then force of mutual
1 6 P1P2
attraction is where P1 and P2 are respective dipole moments while mutual potential energy is
4 r 4
1 2 P1P2
; r = distance between centre S of dipole S when two dipoles are held parallel at a distance r
4 r 3
where direction of dipole moments are same then mutual force (repulsion) and potential energy are given by
1 3P1P2 1 P1P2
4 and respectively..
4 r 4 r 3

ELECTRIC LINES
The region around charge at rest in which there hypothetically exists continuous lines called electric lines
Electric line is an imaginary line along which a positive charge will move if left free.
[6] Electrostatics

+q –q

Radially outward Radially inward

+q –q +q N +q

Electric lines never formed closed loop and meet the equipotential surface or conducting surface
perpendicularly.
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY :
When there is a system of charges (assembing by two or more charges) there exists potential energy in the
system. Electrostatic potential energy is the work done against electrostatic force to create a system of
charges. When two charges q1, q 2 are separated by a distance r then mutual potential energy
1 q1q2
U
4 o r Electric potential at a point.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL :
Electric potential at a point defined as the work required by an external agent to displace a unit positive
charge from infinity to the point or also defined as work done by electrostatic force to displace from point to
infinity.
r r uur
V  r     E  dr


ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH :

Negative rate of change of electric potential is the electric field strength along the line there is change in
potential
dv r
  E or E  E x iˆ  Ey ˆj  E z kˆ
dr
v v v
where Ex   ; Ey   ; Ez  
x y z
r
Negative sign gives the direction of E along the line in which increase in distance causes the decrease in
potential.

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE :
Every point on a surface in at same potential called equipotential surface. Electric lines always join the
equipotential surface perpendicularly.
Electrostatics [7]

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO SOME CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS :

1. Electric Potential at a distance r due to a point charge q

1 q
V
4o r
2. Electric potential due to uniformally charged circular ring at a distance x from centre of ring along axis
of ring
+ Q
+
+ +
1 Q + R
V  +x
4 o x2  R2 +
+
+
3. Electric potential due to uniformally charged hollow sphere or shell at a distance r
1 Q
V ;rR
4o R
1 Q
V ;rR
4o r 2
R = Radius of the hollow sphere R r
4. Electric potential due to uniformally charged sphere of radius R and volume charge density   
 
1 Q R3  Q 
V  ; 
4o r 3o r  4 3  ; rR
 R 
 3 

V
Q  2
 3R 2  r 2   3R  r
 
2

4o 3  6o
;r<R
 2 R 
at centre of informally charged solid sphere,
3 1 Q 3Q
V  
2 4o R 8o R
5. Electrical potential at a distance x from uniformally charged disc
+ + Q
+ +
+
+ +
  2 R P
x  R2  x 
+ 0 +x
V +
2o  
+ +
++ +
+
 = surface charge density..

6. Electric Potential due to dipole

At axial point
1 P
V ;
4o r 2 P = Dipole moment,
[8] Electrostatics

At equatorial point
V=0
At general point (r,  )
1 P cos 
V
4o r 2